NANOSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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NANOSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Series Editors: P. Avoris K. von Klitzing H. Sakaki R. Wiesendanger

The series NanoScience and Technology is focused on the fascinating nano-world, meso­scopic physics, analysis with atomic resolution, nano and quantum-effect devices, nano­mechanics and atomic-scale processes. All the basic aspects and technology-oriented de­velopments in this emerging discipline are covered by comprehensive and timely books. The series constitutes a survey of the relevant special topics, which are presented by lea­ding experts in the field. These books will appeal to researchers, engineers, and advanced students.

Mesoscopic Physics and Electronics Editor: T. Ando, Y. Arakawa, K. Furuya, S. Komiyama, H. Nakashima 1997

Scanning Probe Microscopy Analytical Methods Editor: R. Wiesendanger 1998

Sliding Friction Physical Principles and Applications By B.N.}. Persson 2nd ed., 2000

Biological Micro- and Nanotribology Nature's Solutions By M. Scherge, S. Gorb 2001

Semiconductor Spintronics and Quantum Computation Editors: D.D. Awschalom, D. Loss, N.Samarth 2002

Semiconductor Quantum Dots Physics, Spectroscopy and Applications Editors: Y. Masumoto, T. Takagahara 2002

Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy Editors: S. Morita, R. Wiesendanger, E.Meyer 2002

Nano-Optoelectronics Concepts, Physics and Devices Editor: M. Grundmann 2002

Single Organic Nanopartides Editors: H. Masuhara, H. Nakanishi, K. Sasaki 2003

Nanoelectrodynamics Electrons and Electromagnetic Fields in Nanometer-Scale Structures Editor: H. Nejo 2003

Epitaxy of Nanostructures By v'A. Shchukin, N.N. Ledentsov, D.Bimberg 2004

new publication

Nanoscale Characterisation of Ferroelectric Materials Scanning Probe Microscopy Approach Editors: M. Alexe, A. Gruverman 2004

Applied Scanning Probe Methods Editors: B. Bhushan, H. Fuchs, S. Hosaka 2004

Nanostructures Theory and Modelling Editors: Ch. Delerue, M. Lannoo 2004

Bharat Bhushan Harald Fuchs Sumio Hosaka

Applied Scanning Probe Methods

With 338 Figures

Including 6 Color Figures

Springer

Professor Bharat Bhushan The Ohio State University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 206 W. 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210-1107 e-mail: bhushan.2@osu.edu

Professor Dr. Harald Fuchs Universitat Miinster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10,48149 Miinster, Germany e-mail: Juchsh@uni-muenster.de

Professor Dr. Sumio Hosaka Gunma University, Dept. Electronic Engineering, 1-5-1 Tenjin-cho, 376-8515 Kiryu-City e-mail: hosaka@el.gunma-u.acJp

Series Editors: Professor Dr. Phaedon Avouris IBM Research Division, Nanometer Scale Science & Technology Thomas J. Watson Research Center, P.O. Box 218 Yorktown Heights, NY 10598, USA

Professor Dr., Dres. h. c. Klaus von Klitzing Max-Planck-Institut fiir Festkorperforschung, Heisenbergstrasse 1 70569 Stuttgart, Germany

Professor Hiroyuki Sakaki Universitiy of Tokyo, Institute of Industrial Science,4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku Tokyo 153-8505, Japan

Professor Dr. Roland Wiesen danger Insitut fiir Angewandte Physik, Universitat Hamburg, Jungiusstrasse 1 20355 Hamburg, Germany

ISSN 1434-4904 ISBN 978-3-540-00527-8 Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied scanning probe methods I Bharat Bhushan, Harald Fuchs, Sumio Hosaka [eds.l.

p. cm. - (Nanoscience and technology) Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Materials-Microscopy. 2. Scanning probe microscopy. I. Bhushan, Bharat, 1949- II. Fuchs, H. (Harald) III. Hosaka, Sumio. IV. Series.

TA417.23.A6552003 620.1'1299-dc22

2003059049

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Preface

Since introduction ofthe Scanning Tunnelling Microscope (STM) by inventors G. Binnig and H. Rohrer in 1981 at the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, Ruschlikon, Switzerland., many variations of tip probe based microscopies, referred to as Scan­ning Probe Microscopies (SPM) have been developed. Nanoscale Science and Technology are strongly driven by SPMs which allow investigation and manipu­lation of surfaces down to the atomic scale. While the pure imaging capabilities of SPM techniques dominated the application of these methods at their early devel­opment stages, the physics of probe-sample interactions and the quantitative analy­ses of elastic/plastic, tribological, electronic, magnetic, biological, and chemical surfaces have now become of increasing interest. With growing understanding of the underlying interaction mechanisms, SPMs have found applications in many fields outside basic research fields. In addition, a variety of derivatives of all these methods has been developed for special applications, some of them targeting far beyond microscopy.

For industrial applications, the large SPM-subfamily of Scanning Force Mi­croscopy (SFM) exhibiting atomic resolution capability is of special interest. Orig­inally denoted as Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), the basic instrument was invented by G. Binnig, C. Quate and Ch. Gerber in 1986. The introduction of this technique was a direct consequence of the observation of sizable interaction forces between a near field probe and a sample surface which were already seen in ear­lier experiments done with Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy (STM). STM exper­iments performed, for example, on HOPG-graphite surfaces, indicated a strong in­fluence of elastic surface properties on the measured surface corrugation which could not be traced back to electronic surface properties. Based on these types of results it appeared quite natural to introduce a method that is solely based on tip­sample force interactions rather than transport phenomena such as electron tun­nelling as used in the STM. The AFM was the first purely force sensitive micro­scope. Its applicability on electrically insulating surfaces opened a wide range of applications. In addition, this method can also be applied under various environ­mental conditions, such as vacuum, air and liquids. Thus, a wide variety of appli­cations including industrial quality control and the investigation ofliving biolog­ical materials became feasible with high resolution, and without any conductive coatings. Since for many practical applications atomic resolution is not the ultimate and only goal, the family of commercial instruments which measure forces is more generally referred to as Scanning Force Microscopes (SFMs). While in the begin­ning of SFMs, high resolution measurement of surface topography was the major

VI Preface

application, it became clear very soon, that by applying more complex strategies, i.e. dynamic and lateral force techniques the quantitative measurement oflocal ma­terial properties also became possible. Beyond that, the local measurement of the distribution oflocally varying electrical surface potentials and magnetic stray fields became accessible - altogether properties of great practical interest. Therefore, is appears quite natural that SFM related techniques playa major role in industrial ap­plications today including topographic and dynamical surface studies such as of semiconductors, polymers, paper, ceramics, magnetic and biological materials.

Commercial production of SPMs started with STM in 1988 and has grown to several hundred million dollars industry. The number of these instruments is equally divided among the U.S., Japan and Europe with the following industry, uni­versity and government laboratories split: 50150, 70/30, and 30/70, respectively.

This book selects some representative recent applications of SPM with a focus on practical applications. While not necessarily limited to SFM, the general ap­plicability and variability of this method in industrial research and quality control led to a natural focus as reflected in the large number of chapters dealing with SFM related techniques. Selected articles on the application of near field optical and ca­pacitance techniques for novel storage applications put a special focus on indus­trial R&D based on these techniques. The organization of the book is straightfor­ward. The book is divided into three parts. Part I contains chapters dealing with the theoretical background of static and dynamic force microscopies including sensor technology and methods for tip characterization. Part II contains chapters on ap­plications of scanning force microscopy such as micro- and nanotribology, poly­mer surfaces, stray field measurements and roughness investigations. The last Part III contains a selection of articles mainly written by industrial researchers. Exam­ples for special application ofSFM such as atomic manipulation and surface mod­ification are presented. Furthermore, novel concepts for high resolution optical storage techniques as well as for the production of single electron devices based on SFM are presented.

The purpose of this book is to give both, a systematic physical and technical background for the academic researcher on recent progress of applied scanning probe microscopy and an overview of the current state ofSPM applications for the industrial researcher and engineer. We hope that readers find this book stimulat­ing and productive.

We would like to thank the authors for their excellent contributions in a timely manner. We would also like to thank Dr. Marion Hertel, Senior Editor Chemistry, and Mrs. Beate Siek of Springer-Verlag for their continued support and patience during the preparation of this book.

December 2002 Prof. Dr. Bharat Bhushan, USA Prof. Dr. Harald Fuchs, Germany Prof. Dr. Sumio Hosaka, Japan

Contents

Part I

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2

1.5

1.6

1.7

2

2.1

2.2

2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3

2.4

Scanning Probe Microscopy

Dynamic Force Microscopy Andre Schirmeisen, Boris Anczykowski, Harald Fuchs

Introduction

Motivation: Measurement of a Single Atomic Bond

Harmonic Oscillator: A Model System for Dynamic AFM .

Dynamic AFM Operational Modes . . . . . Amplitude-modulationltapping-mode AFM Self-Excitation Modes

Q-Control ................. .

Dissipation Processes Measured with Dynamic AFM

Conclusion

References

Interfacial Force Microscopy: Selected Applications Jack E. Houston

Introduction

The IFM Sensor

Selected Applications Adhesion ...... Nanomechanical Properties Molecular-Level Friction Studies

Conclusions

References

1

3

3

3

9

12 13 22

26

31

36

37

41

41

42

46 46 52 60

70

71

VIII

3

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3

3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6

3.7 3.7.1 3.7.2

3.8 3.8.1 3.8.2

4

4.1

4.2 4.2.1

4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2

4.4 4.4.1

Atomic Force Microscopy with Lateral Modulation Volker Scherer, Michael Reinstiidtler, Walter Arnold

Introduction

Lateral Forces

Contact Mechanics

Conventional Friction Force Microscopy

Lateral Modulation Below Resonance (Visco-)Elastic Properties by Lateral Modulation Friction Properties by Lateral Modulation . . . . Lateral Modulation by Piezoelectric Transducers

Resonance Techniques .......... . Free Resonances ............. . Contact Resonances (Visco-)Elastic Contact Contact Resonances Sliding Contact "Buckling" Resonances Self Excitation ...... . Imaging Torsional Vibration

Sonolubrication . . . . . . . Theory of Out-Of-Plane Sonolubrication . Theory ofIn-Plane Sonolubrication

Related Methods .... Surface Force Apparatus Quartz Crystal Balance

Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3

References

Sensor Technology for Scanning Probe Microscopy Egbert Oesterschulze, Rainer Kassing

Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . .

Material Aspect of Probe Fabrication Mechanical Properties of Cantilever Probes

Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy Principle of Near-Field Optics ...... . Probes for Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM)

Probes for Ultrafast Scanning Probe Microscopy Improved Sampling Technique

References

Contents

75

75

76

78

79

82 83 84 85

88 88 91 96 98 98 99

101 103 104

106 106 107

108 109 110

114

117

117

118 119

127 127 128

136 137

139

Contents

5

5.1

5.2

5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4

5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5

Tip Characterization for Dimensional Nanometrology John S. Villarrubia

Introduction . . . .

Tip Characterization Overview

Measuring Tip Shape with a Known Tip Characterizer Dilation and Erosion ........ . Reconstructing the Tip ...... . Interpreting and Checking the Result . Summary of the Method ...... .

Measuring Tip Shape without a Known Characterizer Why Does it Work? . . . . Reconstructing the Tip .. Other Modes of Operation Summary of the Method Experimental Test of Blind Reconstruction

References

IX

147

147

148

151 151 152 154 155

155 156 157 164 165 165

168

Part II Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

6

6.1

6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.2.6

6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3

6.4 6.4.1

6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3

6.6

Micro/Nanotribology Studies Using Scanning Probe Microscopy Bharat Bhushan

Introduction . .

Friction and Adhesion Atomic-Scale Friction Microscale Friction . . Directionality Effect on Microfriction Velocity Dependence on Microfriction Effect of Tip Radii and Humidity on Adhesion and Friction Scale Dependence on Friction ..... .

Scratching, Wear, and Local Deformation Microscale Scratching ......... . Microscale Wear ............ . In Situ Characterization of Local Deformation

Indentation ..... . Nanoscale Indentation

Boundary Lubrication Perfluoropolyether Lubricants Self-Assembled Monolayers . Lubricant Film Thickness Measurements

Conclusions

References

171

171

173 173 173 178 181 182 183

185 185 187 190

191 191

193 193 199

.200

.202

.203

x

7

7.1

Visualization of Polymer Structures with Atomic Force Microscopy Sergei Magonov

Introduction . .

Contents

.207

.207

7.2 Basic Aspects of AFM Imaging of Polymers . 212 7.2.l Instrumentation and Operational Modes . 212 7.2.2 Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 7.2.3 Imaging in Tapping Mode ......... . 216 7.2.4 Studies at Elevated Temperatures and in Different Environments 221

7.3 Observations of Single Macromolecules and Their Self-Assemblies 222 7.3.l Chain Molecules on Substrates . . . . . . . . . 222 7.3.2 Self-Assembly ofIndividual Macromolecules . 226 7.3.3 Thermal Motion, Adhesion, and Manipulation . 229

7.4 Studies of Semicrystalline Polymers ..... . 232 7.4.l Single Crystals of Normal Alkanes and Polyethylene . 232 7.4.2 Morphology of Semi crystalline Polymers on Surfaces and in Bulk 235 7.4.3 Lamellar Structure of Melt-Crystallized Polymers . . . . .. . 238

7.5 7.5.l 7.5.2

7.6

8

8.l

8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4

8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2

8.4

8.4.1

8.4.2 8.4.3

Compositional Imaging of Heterogeneous Polymer Systems Morphology of Block Copolymers Studies of Polymer Blends

Future Outlook

References

Displacement and Strain Field Measurements from SPM Images Jiirgen Keller, Dietmar Vogel, Andreas Schubert, Bernd Michel

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Basics of Digital Image Correlation ........ . Cross-Correlation Algorithms on Gray Scale Images Subpixel Analysis for Enhanced Resolution Results of Digital Image Correlation . . . . . . . . . Accuracy ...................... .

Displacement and Strain Measurements on SFM images Digital Image Correlation under SPM Conditions . . . . Technical Requirements for the Application of the Correlation Technique ........................... .

Deformation Analysis on Thermally and Mechanically Loaded Objects under the SFM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reliability Aspects of Sensors and Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermally Loaded Gas Sensor under SFM Crack Detection and Evaluation by SFM .

· 241 · 241 .244

.249

· 250

· 253

· 253

.254 · 255 · 257 · 259 .260

.260

.260

.262

· 263

· 263 .264 .266

Contents

8.5

8.6

9

9.1

9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2.6 9.2.7 9.2.8

9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3

9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3

9.5

9.6 9.6.1

10

Determination of Kinematical Properties from SFM Images

Conclusion and Outlook

Abbreviations

References

AFM Characterization of Semiconductor Line Edge Roughness Ndubuisi G. Orji, Martha I. Sanchez, Jay Raja, Theodore V. Vorburger

Introduction . . . . . .

Procedures and Algorithms Observation 1 - A Recommendation Observation 2 Observation 3 Observation 4 Observation 5 Observation 6 - A Recommendation Observation 7 - A Recommendation Observation 8 . . . . . . . . . . . .

AFM Measurement Methods . . . . Atomic Force Characterization ofPattemed Lines AFM Characterization of Line Edge Roughness New Directions .

Analysis Methods . . . RMS Roughness Linewidth Uniformity Spatial Wavelength Determination

Comparison with SEM Measurements

Future Outlook .. Physical Standards

Abbreviations

References

Mechanical Properties of Self-Assembled Organic Monolayers: Experimental Techniques and Modeling Approaches Redhouane Henda

XI

.273

.274

.274

.275

.277

.277

.279

.279

.279

.280

.280

.280

. 281

.282

.282

.282

.282

.285

.290

. 291

.292

.293

.294

.296

.298

.298

.299

.299

.303

10.1 Introduction.... . 303 10.1.1 Self-Assembled Systems . 303 10.1.2 Origin ofStiction and Mechanical Properties in Small Dimensions 305 10.1.3 Goals and Motivation ........................ 307

XII

10.2 10.2.1 10.2.2 10.2.3 10.2.4

10.3 10.3.1 10.3.2 10.3.3 10.3.4 10.3.5

10.4

10.5

11

11.1

11.2

11.2.1 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.4 11.2.5 11.2.6 11.2.7 11.2.8

11.3

11.4

11.5 11.5.1 11.5.2 11.5.3

Contents

Experimental Techniques .307 Introduction . . . . . . . . .307 Atomic Force Microscopy .308 Interfacial Force Microscopy .309 Analysis of Load-Displacement Curves · 310

Molecular Modeling ....... · 311 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . · 311 Definition of an Alkanethiol SAM · 314 Energy Minimization · 316 Molecular Dynamics · 317 Monte Carlo Method · 317

Results .. · 318

Conclusions · 323

References ...................... 324

Micro-Nano Scale Thermal Imaging Using Scanning Probe Microscopy Li Shi, Arun Majumdar

Introduction . . . . . .

Micro-Nano Scale Temperature Mapping Using Probes with Built-in Thermal Sensors ...... . STM Probes with a Built-in Thermocouple .... . Wire Thermocouple AFM Probes ......... . Individually Made Thin-Film Thermocouple Probes . Thermocouple Probes Fabricated Using Nanolithography .. Thermally Designed Batch-Fabricated Thermocouple Probes AFM Probes with a Built-in Schottky Diode ..... AFM Probes with a Built-in Resistance Thermometer . Active Thermal Feedback AFM Probes ....... .

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer between a Thermal Probe and a Sample ........ .

Imaging of Thermal Properties ........ .

Other Scanning Thermal Microscopy Methods Scanning Tunneling Thermometry .... . Thermal Expansion Thermometry .... . Near-Field Scanning Optical Thermometry

References

.327

.327

· 328 · 328 .329 .332 · 335 · 336 .340 .340 .342

.342

.346

· 353 · 353 .354 · 357

· 361

Contents

12

12.1

12.2 12.2.1 12.2.2

12.3

12.4 12.4.1 12.4.2

12.5 12.5.1 12.5.2

12.6

12.7

The Science of Beauty on a Small Scale. Nanotechnologies Applied to Cosmetic Science Gustavo Luengo, Frederic Leroy .

Introduction to Cosmetic Science

The Cosmetic Substrate: Hair and Skin and Their Modification Hair .......................... . Skin .......................... .

The SPM as a New Tool. From the Microscopic World to the Cosmetic or Sensory Perception . . . .

Recent Uses of AFM on Cosmetic Substrates Morphological Studies .... . Tribo10gical Approaches ... .

Advanced Applications of AFM Dynamic Methods ...... . Forces at the Hair Surface

The Influence of Hair and Skincare Treatments

Conclusions

References

XIII

· 363

· 363

.364

.364

.367

.369

· 371 · 371 · 373

.377

.377

.379

· 382

.384

· 385

Part III Industrial Applications ...................... 387

13

13.1

13.2 13.2.1 13.2.2 13.2.3

13.3 13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3 13.3.4 13.3.5

13.4 13.4.1 13.4.2

13.5 13.5.1

SPM Manipulation and Modifications and Their Storage Applications Sumio Hosaka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Atomic Manipulation and Surface Modification and their Storage Application . .

Nanometer-Sized Bit Formations . . . . . . . . Field Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nano-Indentation of Probe Tip into a Sample Surface Electron Induced Local Heating and Evanescent Light Heating

Various SPM Storages [31] STM-Based Storage AFM -Based Storage . MFM-Based Storage . SNOM-Based Storage Other SPM-Based Storages

High-Speed Readout [32] Noncontact Recording .. Contact Recording ....

Possibility ofSNOM-Based Storage [4] Expectable Readout Speed ... . . . .

. 389

.390

· 390 · 391 · 398 · 401

.408

.408

.409 · 410 .411 · 412

.413

.413 · 414

· 414 · 415

XIV

13.5.2 Rotation-Type SNOM Recording System 13.5.3 Future Issues .......... .

13.6 13.6.1 13.6.2 13.6.3

13.7

14

14.1

14.2

14.3

14.4

Possibility of AFM-Based Storage . . . . Expectable Readout Speed . . . . . . . . Prototyping of Rotation-Type AFM Recording System Summary ........ .

Perspective and Summary

References

Super Density Optical Data Storage by Near-Field Optics Jun Tominaga

Introduction .

The Principle of Super-RENS

The Characteristics of Super-RENS Disks Using Sb Layers

The Proposal of Light-Scattering-Mode Super-RENS ...

Contents

· 415 · 418

· 418 · 418 · 419 .427

.427

.428

.429

.429

.429

· 431

.434

14.5 The Characteristics of Light-Scattering-Mode Super-RENS Disks 434

14.6 Summary. . 437

15

15.1 15.1.1 15.1.2 15.1.3

15.2 15.2.1 15.2.2 15.2.3

15.3

15.4 15.4.1 15.4.2 15.4.3

References

Capacitance Storage Using a Ferroelectric Medium and a Scanning Capacitance Microscope (SCM) Ryoichi Yamamoto ......... .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "Near-Field" Data Storage Technology Scanning Capacitance Microscope Capacitance Storage .....

A Non-Contact-Mode SCM Capacitance Detection Method Spacing Control Method Using Differential Capacitance Non-Contact Mapping of Surface Topography

Data Storage Method Using the F/S Medium ..... .

Static Characteristics of the F/S Medium ........ . Materials and Ferroelectric Properties of the F/S Medium Shift ofC-V Characteristics Using Fixed Electrodes Non-Contact Demonstration ....... .

15.5 Dynamic Characteristics of the F/S Medium 15.5.1 Dynamic Recording Characteristics 15.5.2 Bit Shape Observation .......... .

.437

.439

.439

.439

.439

.441

.442

.442

.443

.443

.444

.445

.445

.447

.448

.449

.449 · 451

Contents

15.6 Numerical Simulation Studies ofF/S Medium 15.6.1 Calculation Method ............. . 15.6.2 Capacitance Modulation of the F/S Medium .

15.7 15.7.1 15.7.2

16

16.1

16.2

16.3

16.4

16.5

Summary and Possibilities of Capacitance Storage Summary ............... . Possibilities of the Capacitance Storage

References

Room-Temperature Single-Electron Devices formed by AFM Nano-Oxidation Process Kazuhiko Matsumoto

Introduction . . . . . . . . .

AFM Nano-Oxidation Process

Single-Electron Transistor

Single-Electron Memory

Summary

References

xv

· 451 .452 .454

· 455 .455 .456

.457

.459

.459

.459

· 461

.463

.467

.467

Subject Index ................................. 469

List of Contributors

Boris Anczykowski nanoAnalytics GmbH, Gievenbecker Weg 11, 48149 Miinster, Germany e-mail: anczykowski@nanoanalytics.com

Walter Arnold Fraunhofer Institute for Nondestructive Testing (IZFP), University, Building 37, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany e-mail: arnold@izfp.fhg.de

Bharat Bhushan The Ohio State University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 206 W 18th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210-1107, USA e-mail: bhushan.2@osu.edu

Harald Fuchs UniversWit Miinster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10,48149 Miinster, Germany e-mail: fuchsh@uni-muenster.de

Redhouane Henda School of Engineering, Laurentian University, Ramsey Lake Road, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada e-mail: rhenda@nickel.1aurentian.ca

Sumio Hosaka Gunma University, Graduate School of Engineering Dept. Nano Material Systems, 1-5-1 Tenjin-cho, 376-8515 Kiryu-City, Japan e-mail: hosaka@e1.gunma-u.ac.jp

Jack E. Houston Surface & Interface Science Dept.-1114, Sandia National Laboratories, PO Box 5800, Albuquerque, NM 87185-1415, USA e-mail: jehoust@sandia.gov

XVIII List of Contributors

Rainer Kassing Center for Interdisciplinary Nanostructure, Science and Technology, Institut fiir Technische Physik, Universitiit Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Str. 40, 34132 Kassel, Gennany e-mail: kassing@physik.uni-kasse1.de

Juergen Keller Fraunhofer Institute for Reliability and Microintegration (IZM), Dept. Mechanical Reliability and Micro Materials, Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, 13355 Berlin, Germany e-mail: juergen.keller@izm.fraunhofer.de

Egbert Oesterschulze Center for Interdisciplinary Nanostructure, Science and Technology, Institut flir Technische Physik, Universitiit Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Str. 40, 34132 Kassel, Germany e-mail: oester@physik.uni-kasse1.de

Frederic Leroy Physics Department, r.;OREAL Recherche, 1, Avenue Eugene Schueller, 93601 Aulnay sous Bois, France e-mail: fleroy@recherche.1orea1.com

Gustavo Luengo Nano-physics Laboratory, r.;OREAL Recherche, 1, Avenue Eugene Schueller, 93601 Aulnay sous Bois, France e-mail: gluengo@recherche.loreal.com

Sergei Magonov Digital InstrumentsNeeco Metrology Group, 112 Robin Hill Rd., Santa Barbara, CA 93117, USA e-mail: sergei.magonov@veeco.com

Arun Majumdar Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA e-mail: majumdar@me.berkeley.edu

Kazuhiko Matsumoto Osaka University, Institute of Scientific & Industrial Research, 8-1, Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka, 567-0047, Japan e-mail: k-matsumoto@sanken.osaka-u.ac.jp

List of Contributors

Bernd Michel Fraunhofer Institute for Reliability and Microintegration (lZM), Dept. Mechanical Reliability and Micro Materials, Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, 13355 Berlin, Germany e-mail: bemd.michel@izm.fraunhofer.de

Ndubuisi G. Orji NIST, 100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8212, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8212, USA e-mail: ngorji@nist.gov

Jay Raja Dept. of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Science, University of North Carolina Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA e-mail: jraja@uncc.edu

Michael Reinstiidtler Fraunhofer Insititute for Nondestructive Testing IZFP, University, Bldg. 37 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany e-mail: reinstaedtler@izfp.fhg.de

Martha /. Sanchez IBM Almaden Research Center, 650 Harry Rd. KI7-D 1, San Jose, CA 95120-6099, USA e-mail: msanchez@almaden.ibm.com

Volker Scherer

XIX

Federal Mogul, Technology Rings and Liners, Biirgermeister-Schmidt Str. 17, 51399 Burscheid, Germany e-mail: volkecscherer@eu.fino.com

Andre Schirmeisen University of Miinster, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10,48149 Miinster, Germany e-mail: schirmeisen@uni-muenster.de

Andreas Schubert Fraunhofer Institute for Reliability and Microintegration (lZM), Dept. Mechanical Reliability and Micro Materials, Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, 13355 Berlin, Germany e-mail: andreas.schubert@izm.fraunhofer.de

Li Shi Department of Mechanical Engineering, ETC 7.136, Mail Code C2200, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA e-mail: lishi@mail.utexas.edu

xx List of Contributors

Junji Tominaga Centre for Applied Near-Field Optics Research, National Institute of Advanced, Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba Central 4 site, 1-1-1 Higashi Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8562, Japan e-mail: j-tominaga@aist.go.jp

John Villarrubia Precision Engineering Division, National Inst. of Standards & Technology, 100 Bureau Dr. Stop 8212, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8212, USA e-mail: john.viIlarrubia@nist.gov

Dietmar Vogel Fraunhofer Institute for Reliability and Microintegration (IZM), Dept. Mechanical Reliability and Micro Materials, Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, 13355 Berlin, Germany e-mail: dietmar.vogel@izm.fraunhofer.de

Theodore V. Vorburger NIST, 100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8212, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8212, USA e-mail: tvtv@nist.gov

Ryoichi Yamamoto Gunma Industrial Technology Center, 884-1, Kamesato-cho, Maebashi-City, Gunma, 379-2147, Japan e-mail: yamamoto@tec-lab.pref.gunma.jp