SPORT PSYCHOLOGYSPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Sport & the IndividualSport & the Individual

AGGRESSION IN SPORTAGGRESSION IN SPORT

Aggressive BehaviourAggressive BehaviourZinedine Zidane Zinedine Zidane headbutts Marco headbutts Marco Materazzi (2006)Materazzi (2006)Mike Tyson bites Mike Tyson bites off Evander off Evander Holyfield’s ear Holyfield’s ear (1997)(1997)John McEnroe John McEnroe swears at the swears at the umpire (1981) umpire (1981)

Defining AggressionDefining Aggression

Hostile aggressionHostile aggression

Intent is to harmIntent is to harm

Normally an emotion Normally an emotion (anger)(anger)

Instrumental Instrumental aggressionaggression

Means to an endMeans to an end

AssertivenessAssertivenessJohn Silva (1980)John Silva (1980)goal directed – it aims for a goal directed – it aims for a particular purposeparticular purposenot intended to harmnot intended to harmusing only legitimate force using only legitimate force (within the rules of the (within the rules of the game)game)not breaking the agreed not breaking the agreed rules of the sport (eg. rules of the sport (eg. Marquis of Queensbury)Marquis of Queensbury)

Studying BehaviourStudying BehaviourIvan Pavlov (1849-Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)1936)

Studied saliva in dogsStudied saliva in dogs

FOOD + BELL FOOD + BELL dog dog salivatessalivates

BELL only BELL only salivation salivation

CLASSICAL CLASSICAL CONDITIONINGCONDITIONING

Power of associationPower of association

BehaviourismBehaviourism

Pavlov’s ideas inspired Pavlov’s ideas inspired BEHAVIOURISMBEHAVIOURISM

Theory that behaviour can be Theory that behaviour can be understood without recourse to mindunderstood without recourse to mind

Focus on observed behaviour, not Focus on observed behaviour, not invisible cognitionsinvisible cognitions

Very influential in middle of 20Very influential in middle of 20thth centurycentury

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningB F Skinner (1904-90) B F Skinner (1904-90) developed Pavlov’s ideasdeveloped Pavlov’s ideas

The Skinner BoxThe Skinner Box

Positive Reinforcement – Positive Reinforcement – introduce foodintroduce food

Negative Reinforcement – Negative Reinforcement – remove electric shockremove electric shock

Conditioned response – Conditioned response – press leverpress lever

Conditioning & AggressionConditioning & AggressionPAVLOV – aggressive PAVLOV – aggressive behaviour is associated behaviour is associated with a cuewith a cueAlcohol? Punk music? Alcohol? Punk music? Crystal Palace fans?Crystal Palace fans?SKINNER – aggressive SKINNER – aggressive behaviour has been behaviour has been reinforced in the pastreinforced in the pastBy success? excitement? By success? excitement? attention?attention?

Social LearningSocial LearningIn the 1970s, Albert Bandura In the 1970s, Albert Bandura developed these ideas further developed these ideas further with Social Learning Theory with Social Learning Theory (S.L.T.)(S.L.T.)

Vicarious LearningVicarious Learning

We can learn complex behaviour We can learn complex behaviour from role modelsfrom role models

Especially aggressionEspecially aggression

1961 “bashing Bobo” experiment1961 “bashing Bobo” experiment

Social Learning through TVSocial Learning through TVIn 1965 Bandura replicated his In 1965 Bandura replicated his 1961 study1961 studyThe role model was a boy The role model was a boy (Rocky) who attacked Bobo on (Rocky) who attacked Bobo on TVTV3 conditions – different 3 conditions – different endingsendings(1) Rocky is rewarded(1) Rocky is rewarded(2) Rocky is punished(2) Rocky is punished(3) No reaction to Rocky(3) No reaction to Rocky

Social Learning through TV 2Social Learning through TV 2Children imitated Rocky in condition 1 Children imitated Rocky in condition 1 and 3and 3Less imitation in condition 2Less imitation in condition 2Bandura then rewarded children for Bandura then rewarded children for imitatingimitating

Everyone imitatedEveryone imitated children learn children learn from TV even when from TV even when they don’t imitate!they don’t imitate!

CriticismsCriticismsNot all aggressive behaviour is Not all aggressive behaviour is cued or reinforcedcued or reinforcedIn fact, a lot of it is frowned onIn fact, a lot of it is frowned onParents, teachers & coaches all Parents, teachers & coaches all punish aggressionpunish aggressionMost role models are NON-Most role models are NON-aggressiveaggressiveA more sophisticated explanation A more sophisticated explanation is neededis needed

FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 1FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 1The Frustration-Aggression The Frustration-Aggression HypothesisHypothesisDeveloped by John Dollard Developed by John Dollard (1939)(1939)Aggression is normal Aggression is normal response to frustrationresponse to frustrationFrustration occurs when a Frustration occurs when a conditioned response is conditioned response is withheldwithheldEG your serve goes into the EG your serve goes into the netnet

FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 2FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 2Neal Miller (1941) was one of Dollard’s Neal Miller (1941) was one of Dollard’s associatesassociatesFound Dollard’s theory too extremeFound Dollard’s theory too extremeDoes frustration ALWAYS produce Does frustration ALWAYS produce aggression?aggression?What about cognitions?What about cognitions?Close to achieving goalClose to achieving goal (eg falling in (eg falling in the final lap)the final lap)Frustration is caused Frustration is caused deliberatelydeliberately (eg (eg being tripped)being tripped)Frustration seems Frustration seems arbitrary arbitrary or or unfair unfair (eg a bad line-call)(eg a bad line-call)

FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 3FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 3

How can we MEASURE aggression to How can we MEASURE aggression to test these theories out?test these theories out?Donnerstein & Wilson (1976)Donnerstein & Wilson (1976)P’s can give electric shocks to “test P’s can give electric shocks to “test subjects” who make mistakes subjects” who make mistakes (actually confederates, faking (actually confederates, faking shocks)shocks)In one condition, test subjects are In one condition, test subjects are rude/abusiverude/abusiveAngry P’s give more shocks!Angry P’s give more shocks!

The “Instinct” TheoryThe “Instinct” TheoryA different approachA different approachAggression is innateAggression is innateFreud said aggression was Freud said aggression was “inborn drive, similar to “inborn drive, similar to sex or hunger”sex or hunger”Acting out aggression Acting out aggression cleanses us – removes cleanses us – removes stress and tensionstress and tensionCatharsisCatharsis

The “Instinct” Theory 2The “Instinct” Theory 2Difficult to measure instinctual Difficult to measure instinctual aggressionaggression(it’s unconscious)(it’s unconscious)Inkblot tests?Inkblot tests?Observations?Observations?Leonard Berkowitz (1972) Leonard Berkowitz (1972) questions this ideaquestions this ideaSurely watching violence makes Surely watching violence makes us MORE violent, not less?us MORE violent, not less?

Testing CatharsisTesting CatharsisRobert Arms et al (1979)Robert Arms et al (1979)Some participants watch Some participants watch ice hockey & wrestlingice hockey & wrestlingControl group watches Control group watches swimmingswimmingCompare self-reports of Compare self-reports of hostility at the endhostility at the endAudience of violent sport Audience of violent sport is more aggressiveis more aggressive(aggressive emotions (aggressive emotions not behaviour!)not behaviour!)

Summing Up 1Summing Up 1

Aggression may be a learned Aggression may be a learned responseresponse

Pavlov… Skinner… BanduraPavlov… Skinner… Bandura

Or a learned response to frustrationOr a learned response to frustration

Dollard… MillerDollard… Miller

Alternatively, it may be an instinct Alternatively, it may be an instinct that needs to be expressedthat needs to be expressed

FreudFreud

Summing Up 2Summing Up 2

Learning theory of aggression – very Learning theory of aggression – very usefuluseful

Suggests strategies for controlling Suggests strategies for controlling aggressionaggression

But ignores personality, dispositionBut ignores personality, disposition

Ignores motivation (hostile vs Ignores motivation (hostile vs instrumental aggression)instrumental aggression)

DeterministDeterminist

Summing Up 3Summing Up 3Instinct theory of aggression – less Instinct theory of aggression – less usefulusefulNo clear strategies for controlling No clear strategies for controlling aggression (psychoanalysis?)aggression (psychoanalysis?)Personality screening?Personality screening?Focus on motivation (hostile vs Focus on motivation (hostile vs instrumental aggression)instrumental aggression)Less determinist (willpower, self-Less determinist (willpower, self-restraint)restraint)

Managing Aggression 1Managing Aggression 1Raymond Novaco (1975) argues (like Raymond Novaco (1975) argues (like Freud) that aggression is useful, but often Freud) that aggression is useful, but often inappropriateinappropriateNovaco Anger Inventory – psychometric Novaco Anger Inventory – psychometric test to measure appropriate aggressiontest to measure appropriate aggressionLikert scale (SA, A, NAND, D, SD)Likert scale (SA, A, NAND, D, SD)

You are talking to someone and they don’t You are talking to someone and they don’t answer youanswer you

You are trying to concentrate, but You are trying to concentrate, but someone is tapping their footsomeone is tapping their foot

Managing Aggression 2Managing Aggression 2Raymond Novaco (1975) developed Anger Raymond Novaco (1975) developed Anger ManagementManagementBased on Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Based on Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)(CBT)Changing thinking Changing thinking changed behaviour changed behaviourTheory:Theory: aggression is over compensation aggression is over compensation for problems in relationships for problems in relationships displaced displaced onto wrong targetsonto wrong targetsSolution:Solution: identify problems, teach new identify problems, teach new ways of handling themways of handling them

Managing Aggression 3Managing Aggression 3SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL TRAININGSELF-INSTRUCTIONAL TRAINING

Come up with self-statements Come up with self-statements make make them less negativethem less negative

Relaxation techniquesRelaxation techniques

Assertiveness trainingAssertiveness training

ROLE PLAYINGROLE PLAYING

Taking the role of the victimTaking the role of the victim

Practising different ways of handling Practising different ways of handling conflictconflict

Does it work?Does it work?John Brunelle John Brunelle et alet al (1999) (1999)57 male footballers (age 18-28)57 male footballers (age 18-28)3 conditions for anger 3 conditions for anger management during weekly management during weekly practice session:practice session:

1.1. role-play (live demonstration, act role-play (live demonstration, act out responses)out responses)

2.2. anger awareness (discussion, anger awareness (discussion, journals)journals)

3.3. Control (no intervention)Control (no intervention)Observation & self reports over Observation & self reports over 15 matches15 matchesrole-play had least aggression, role-play had least aggression, followed by anger awarenessfollowed by anger awareness