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TRANSCRIPT
Specimens and Stone Tools: Aboriginalism and Depictions of Indigenous
Australians in Archaeological Textbooks
Submitted by
BELINDA G. LIEBELT
Bachelor of Archaeology (Honours)
Department of Archaeology
School of Humanities
Flinders University
Adelaide, South Australia
Australia
April 2005
Cover Illustration:
Walbiri man from Yuendumu using a tula adze mounted on a wooden handle.
Photograph appears in all three volumes of Mulvaney’s Prehistory of Australia
(1969:plate 25; 1975:79; 1999:247)
2
Contents Page
List of Tables and Figures 5
Statement of Authorship 7
Acknowledgements 8
Abstract 9
Chapter
One. Introduction 10 1.1 Thesis questions
1.2 Relevance to archaeology
1.3 Choosing Mulvaney
1.4 Terminology
11
13
18
19
Two. Historical background 21 2.1 Progress and evolution
2.2 Early archaeology and history in Australia
2.3 Background to Mulvaney
21
22
27
Three. Theory 30 3.1 Theory for the text 31
3.1.1 Michel Foucault
3.1.2 Edward Said
31
37
3.2 Theory for the images 39
3
Four. Methods 42 4.1 Choice of text
4.2 Counterpoint texts
4.3 Extracting the data
4.4 Databases
4.5 Imagery
42
44
44
45
48
Five. Analysis 49 5.1 The first edition 50
5.1.1 Identity and discourse in 1969 54
5.2 The second edition
5.3 The third edition
66
69
5.3.1 Identity and discourse in 1999 71
Six Conclusion 86 6.1 A genealogy of Mulvaney
6.2 Limitations and future research
6.3 Use of study
89
90
92
References 95
Appendix A 107
4
List of Tables and Figures Page Table 1 Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16
List of themes and questions to extract preliminary data from the text of Mulvaney’s three editions of Prehistory of Australia Warlpiri men displaying wooden implements View of Malay Bay from Pobassoo’s Island, Oil Painting Walbiri tribesman from Yuendumu, Central Australia, removing bark from a ghost gum to make a container George French Angas, water colour ‘Miami, Portland Bay’, 1845 Aboriginal group, Coranderrk Aboriginal Station, Healesville, Victoria Aboriginal ceremony, photographed near Bairnsdale, eastern Victoria Eucalypt bark canoe, Coranderrk Aboriginal Station A Walbiri tribesman at work grinding an axe-head in a diorite quarry near Yuendumu, Central Australia In Central Australia, elaborate ground drawings were an integral part of many ceremonies Bone points from Glen Aire ‘Scrapers’ from Green Gully, Victoria The Gallus site, Koonalda cave, Nullarbor Plain, South Australia Skeletal remains, Green Gully, Keilor, Victoria The site of the Keilor cranium, Keilor, Victoria Kintore limestone cave, Northern Territory. General view of the 1963 excavations Two trident fish spears; x-ray of quadruple-pronged fish
47 58 59 59 59 59 59 59 60 60 62 62 63 63 63 63 63
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Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31
spear; perforated baler-shell pendant; perforated and incised pearl oyster shell ornament; Kodj granite axe; x-ray of the same specimen These figures are a sample of the decorative rock art that Mulvaney and Kamminga use in the borders and above the titles of their textbook. Wilgie Mia red ochre quarry in the Murchison region of Western Australia Extinct species of marsupial megafauna Life at Lake Mungo about 30,000 years BP Awabakal people exploiting the sea coast in about 1820, probably at Red Head, near Newcastle Tasmanian float canoe Australian watercraft Flaking spearheads at Ngilipitji quarry, eastern Arnhem Land, 1935 Arnhem Land woman preparing waterlily-seed cakes Walpiri man from Yuenduma using a tula adze mounted on a wooden handle, with characteristic two-handed grip Kimberly Wandjina art being renewed by a traditional artist in 1966 Tasmanian Aboriginal residents at Oyster Cove. Members of the northern Queensland Djungan community visiting the Ngarrabullgan excavation in 1993 Aborigines at Coranderrk, Victoria, c. 1879, wearing possum-skin cloaks Canoe of a sheet of eucalypt bark, typical of watercraft on still, inland waterways in southeastern Australia
70 79 79 79 80 80 80 80 80 81 81 81 81 82 82
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Statement of Authorship
Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no
material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis
presented by me for another degree or diploma.
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the
main text of the thesis.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma
in any other tertiary institution.
Belinda G. Liebelt March 21st 2004
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Acknowledgements
A number of people have contributed in various ways to the production of this
thesis. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisors, Heather Burke
and Tim Denham, for their advice, contributions and motivation in writing this
thesis. Their invaluable encouragement and guidance have been integral to the
quality of this study, and without such strong support (and patience) it is likely I
would not have made it to the end! Thank you so much!
Secondly I would like to thank the staff and students within the Department of
Archaeology, Flinders University, who offered many valuable comments and
ideas to me during writing. Thanks especially to Naomi Anderson, for helping me
to devise my thesis question, and also Deborah Arthur, Natasha Paling, Andrea
Williams, Dianne James, Tim Ormsby, Andrea Ward, Bob Stone and Curtis
McKay for offering valuable advice and support, and being close by whenever I
needed to discuss the details of writing a thesis.
Thank you also to Jane Lydon and James Knight for early comments on my
thesis idea during the 2004 NASC conference at Flinders University. Thank you
to Richard Thomas for his help with obtaining information from Innes National
Park, even though this was not used in the final draft of this thesis. Thank you to
Vincent Copley and Vincent Branson for their assistance during the initial stages
of my original honours idea in Burra.
Finally, a big thank you to my Mum and Dad, friends, my flat mate Alice and
partner Marc, for putting up with me during the ‘challenging times’ associated
with writing a thesis and helping with the editing process. Without their patience
and support, the writing of this thesis would have been a much more audacious
task. This thesis is dedicated to my Dad, who has always been exceptionally
proud of me no matter how big or how small my achievements.
8
Abstract
This thesis explores the ways in which academic archaeological research has
contributed to knowledge about past Aboriginal life ways. In particular, it
examines the specific construction of Indigenous Australian history in three
archaeological volumes written by one of Australia’s most well known
‘prehistorians’: John Mulvaney. These three texts are Mulvaney’s Prehistory of
Australia published in 1969, 1975 and 1999, the last co-authored with Johan
Kamminga.
The study is an attempt to consider specific ways in which an acknowledged
academic archaeologist has taken an active and dynamic role in shaping
Australian perceptions, politics, legislation and social opinions about Indigenous
Australians’ past, through the production of knowledge. It uses key concepts of
knowledge/power formulated by Michel Foucault, and Edward Said’s notion of
Orientalism, to extract and analyse meaningful information from the text and the
images.
This study maintains that mainstream contemporary ‘prehistoric’ archaeology
has largely remained unchallenged as a colonial Aboriginalist discourse on the
Indigenous Australian past. Post-processual and post-colonial archaeological
practices have become extremely popular in Australian archaeology, but have
done little to dislodge the conventional notions of Aboriginality as expressed in
textual discourse. This thesis explores the particular ways in which textual
discourse continues to perpetuate colonial attitudes and depictions within our
archaeological discipline.
9
Chapter One
Introduction
This thesis explores the ways in which academic archaeological research has
contributed to knowledge about past Aboriginal life ways. In particular, it
examines the construction of Indigenous Australian history through
archaeological textbooks. While the topic of the depiction of Aboriginal history
has been in contention for at least fifteen years (Attwood 1989a; 1996a; Attwood
& Arnold 1992; Becket 1988; Byrne 1996; Griffiths 1996; Harrison 2000; Murray
1992; 2000; Russell 2001), I consider this construction in more specific terms
using three archaeological volumes written by one of Australia’s most well
known ‘prehistorians’: John Mulvaney. The three texts I will focus on are
Mulvaney’s Prehistory of Australia published in 1969, 1975 and 1999, the last is
co-authored with J. Kamminga.
This study is an attempt to consider some of the specific ways in which an
acknowledged academic archaeologist has taken a dynamic role in shaping
Australian perceptions, politics, legislation and social opinions about Indigenous
Australians’ past, through the production of knowledge. In particular this study
also considers the contemporary depiction of the 'Other’ in one of its most
institutionalized, systemized forms: the scientific discipline of Australian ‘pre-
contact’ archaeology. While it is clear that there are many different
archaeologies in Australia today (for example Harrison & Williamson 2002), I
explicitly examine depictions of ‘prehistory’ from Mulvaney and, latterly,
10
Kamminga’s viewpoints. Just how does the interpretation, presentation and
packaging of an Indigenous past in a Western archaeological textual form,
construct and effect the present?
1.1 Thesis questions
I have devised three open-ended questions to extract key information from the
chosen archaeological textbooks, as well as to take into account the social and
political climates that have helped contribute to those representations and
presentations of Aboriginal peoples and their pasts. These questions are as
follows:
1. How are Indigenous Australians, and their pasts, depicted in the
archaeological textbooks under study?
2. What are the politics of the creation of ‘prehistory’ and the depiction of
Indigenous Australians and their pasts in those texts?
3. What could be the repercussions of these modes of representation for
Indigenous Australians, and Australian society in general?
The first question is my main research objective. To answer this question, I will
look at encoded information within the three volumes to try and elicit significant
meanings about the depiction of Indigenous Australians, through the text and
the images. While I could have chosen many different archaeology books, I
chose Mulvaney's for several reasons. Mulvaney has been considered as one of
Australia’s foremost public intellectuals for quite some time, and his work within
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the discipline of Australian archaeology spans over four decades (Bonyhady &
Griffiths 1996). His three editions of Prehistory of Australia, and his interesting
and significant attitudes towards the discipline of archaeology, outstandingly
illustrate the development of academic professionalism towards the study of
Australia’s deep human past.
The second and third questions reflect on the political and social issues involved
in creating an Indigenous past within archaeology and, more generally, Western
society. Both the second and third questions require consideration of the
interplay between the past and present in archaeological representations of an
‘Indigenous past’. The conceptual method I adopt derives from readings of the
works of Michel Foucault (1969; 1973; 1974; 1976; 1979) and Edward Said
(1978). While my theoretical chapter (Chapter 3) will consider some of the
theories and ideas these academics employ in more detail, my analyses
(Chapter 5) apply their theoretical insights to my own investigations of
Mulvaney’s texts. In order to include the images, I have considered Jane
Lydon’s (2000; 2002a; 2002b) work at Coranderrk Aboriginal Station and
concepts of ‘authenticity’ from Lynette Russel’s Savage Imaginings (2001).
Lydon looks at historical photography taken in the 1860s, originally designed to
document the ‘civilising’ process of Indigenous Australians. Lydon’s work
considers depiction from an archaeological and post-colonial viewpoint. I
address similar issues of visual representation, including photographs, drawings
and other images within the pages of Mulvaney’s volumes. Russell’s research
into depiction and representation of the ‘Other’ through visual formats, such as
12
popular media and through the museum, is also useful in examining the images
from Mulvaney.
1.2 Relevance to archaeology
My study in no way stands alone as a first attempt at the deconstruction of
Australian archaeological practice. In the 1980s archaeological approaches
moved from processual, to post-processual, as they were influenced by a wave
of contemporary theory including post-structuralism, feminism and post-colonial
studies. This move drastically changed Australian archaeological research
objectives to become more inclusive towards Indigenous Australians, to be more
respectful of their requests and cultural needs, and to reflect on the nature of
conventional archaeological practice. At the same time, Aboriginal rights
movements have meant that Indigenous people have became more influential in
asserting their rights and opinions within the discipline of archaeology.
A well-established body of post-processual theory and practice exists within
archaeology that reflects on the subjective nature of archaeological practice
(Gero & Conkey 1991; Hodder 1982; 1989; Shanks & Tilley 1987; Tilley 1990;
1993; Spector 1993). Researchers have argued that knowledge derived from
scientific experience cannot be considered or understood as a privileged source
of information about the past, as it is experienced within an individual’s
subjective cultural coding and is historically situated (Hodder 1992; Tilley 1990).
Such arguments maintain that the primary duty of archaeology is to deconstruct
and neutralise traditional archaeologists’ claims that a purely scientific, objective
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understanding of the past can be reached (Shanks and Tilley 1987:195; Tilley
1989:338). Therefore, in this context, it is important to consider the ways in
which archaeology has constructed itself and its subject matter in order to help
unpack the authoritative role that archaeology takes in providing decisive and
influential ‘truths’ about the Indigenous past. As Denis Byrne has appropriately
mentioned in his research into archaeology’s acquisition of an Indigenous past:
Archaeology in Australia can only be post-colonial to the extent that its practitioners deconstruct its colonial underpinnings. Archaeology in Australia must decolonise itself before it can claim to be post-colonial (Byrne 1996:82).
Critical archaeologies assert that the relationship between the present and
interpretations of the past is political and economic (Leone 1998:61). They
emphasise that a past can be discovered or interpreted archaeologically, so that
one can comment on the origins and impact of that tie, so that the ideological
and class-centered nature of history is illuminated.
The act of writing always presupposes a politics of the present, and such writing is a form of power. It can not escape power. Any kind of writing about the past is inevitably simultaneously a domestication of the difference of the past, an imposition of order. Writing the past is not an innocent and disinterested reading of an autonomous past produced as image. Writing the past is drawing it into the present, re-inscribing it into the face of the present (Tilley 1989:193).
Archaeologists such as Tilley have maintained that writing about the past is a
highly political endeavour that draws the past into the present, for the interest of
the drawers. Therefore it is important to consider the many agendas that
archaeologists have in considering an Indigenous past. The choices that
Australian archaeologists make in what they examine, what they challenge, what
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they exclude and include, and what they proclaim as ‘knowledge’ and ‘truth’, all
have direct and powerful implications on contemporary society and each one of
its interest groups, especially Indigenous Australians.
Australian archaeology of the 1990s can be considered, in part, to be a time of
reflection and self-analysis (Burke, Lovell-Jones & Smith 1994). As Mulvaney
and Kamminga’s most recent edition of Prehistory of Australia was published in
1999, it can be assumed that their book is a reflection of Australian
archaeological contemporary practice. However, examinations of the text reveal
that in many ways, the text is not reflexive; it fails to acknowledge many
disclosures that are widely debated in archaeology today (See Chapter 5).
Several researchers have offered critiques of the discourse on Aboriginal
identity within archaeology. Denis Byrne (1996) argues that Australian
archaeology has played a leading role in Australia’s acquisition of an Indigenous
past and the creation of the concept of ‘national heritage’. Bain Attwood (1989a;
1992; 1996a) has considered the political, social and historical circumstances
prevalent in Australia that have created the identity of ‘the Aborigines’. Tim
Murray (1992, 2000) has written on the discourse of Australian ‘prehistoric’
archaeology and has argued that it has undergone radical changes over the last
thirty years and is still in the process of changing. These researchers all argue
for Australian archaeology’s recognition of the ways that it constructs and
defines its ‘Other’ and the political and social implications of these practices.
15
Most useful to my own study is a special edition of the Journal of Australian
Studies in 1992 (eds. Attwood & Arnold). These papers discuss European
Australians’ ways of knowing Aboriginal Australians, using concepts from the
works of both Foucault and Said. The collection examined the power/knowledge
relations working in Australia in Aboriginal studies (including archaeology and
anthropology) since European invasion that has produced a discourse of
Aboriginalism comparable, in part, to Said’s notion of Orientalism (1978). Such a
discourse has been characterised by three things:
1. ‘Aboriginal Studies’ as the teaching, research and display of scholarly
knowledge about Indigenous people by European scholars who claim that
Indigenous people cannot represent themselves and therefore must be
represented by experts who know most about Aboriginal people.
2. A style of thought based upon an epistemological and ontological
distinction between ‘Us’ and ‘Them’. In this distinction Europeans imagine
themselves as radically different from Aboriginal people and characterize
them as the ‘Other’.
3. The construction of a corporate institution for exercising authority over
Aboriginal people by making statements about them, authorising views of
them, and ruling over them (Attwood 1992 adapted from Said 1978:2-3).
While Attwood and others argue for Aboriginalism as existing during the
nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries in the practices of
anthropology and later archaeology, they also mention that subtle changes have
occurred since the 1950s and 60s, which have effectively challenged this
16
Aboriginalist discourse. The authors argue that today Aboriginal people are
represented and viewed by researchers as socially constructed subjects with
identities that are relational and dynamic rather than oppositional (in the binary
sense) and given (Attwood 1992:xv). This collection of papers laid down a
challenge that involved historicising the processes that have constructed
Aboriginal people, therefore revealing how colonial power/knowledge relations
have operated to construct Aboriginalism and Aboriginalist discourse (Attwood
1992:xv). The journal maintained that by choosing to step away from colonial
methods of establishing an identity for Aboriginal people, Aboriginalism can be
abandoned and cultural interchange created; neither patronising nor exploitative,
between Aboriginal and European Australians.
It is my contention that mainstream contemporary ‘prehistoric’ archaeology has
done little in the endeavour to overcome the creation of Aboriginalism, and that it
largely remains as a discourse that embodies elements of colonial attitudes in its
writings. I will demonstrate this assertion by examining Mulvaney’s three texts. I
acknowledge that most archaeologists today practice an ethical, well-meaning
and well-informed archaeology. I am arguing that the over-arching aims of
Australian archaeological discourse have remained unchanged. By focusing on
a contemporary ‘artefact’, I consider the ways that Mulvaney and Kamminga’s
1999 text emerges from a political and social context that largely opposes
Aboriginalism and Aboriginalist discourse (Attwood & Arnold 1992).
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1.3 Choosing Mulvaney
People may assert that the analysis of a text does not reflect anything of value
that can be commented on; it is simply one book, written by one person, at one
period in time. However, we may say the same of an archaeological site; it can
only tell us limited information and does not reflect a collective set of data. This
does not mean that we do not investigate the site as an integral and interesting
source of information in itself. In addition to this, it is possible to recognise
Mulvaney as an individual within archaeology who has had a great influence on
the discipline. Through his understanding of power and the individual, Foucault
has recognised the significant roles that individual’s play within the generation of
knowledge and the exercise of power:
Power is employed and exercised through a net-like organisation. And not only do individuals circulate between its threads; they are always in position of simultaneously undergoing and exercising this power. They are not only its inert or consenting target; they are always also the elements of its articulation. In other words, individuals are the vehicles of power, not its points of application (Foucault 1976:98).
If we consider Mulvaney as a vehicle for the exercise of power, it is therefore
relevant to adopt a Foucauldian perspective to consider the key role of
Mulvaney in the production of a discourse of the Aboriginal past. Mulvaney has
been integral to the development of Australian archaeology in the field, within
the university and within cultural heritage management (see Chapter 2).
I am not critical of Mulvaney’s personal opinions, but rather wish to offer
constructive critiques of his contribution to the discipline. I believe Mulvaney to
have made an outstanding contribution to archaeology. His campaigning against
18
many outdated and racist ideas about Indigenous Australians over many years
must be commended, irrespective of differing approaches to archaeological
study today. He has also been instrumental in achieving protection for
Indigenous heritage sites of significance, and for helping to create worldwide
acknowledgment and respect for Indigenous cultures. Any academic can only
ever hope to achieve a certain amount within their working life and Mulvaney
has gone above and beyond in so many achievements. In all his endeavors, his
ultimate goals were reconciliation and mutual understanding between all
Australians. Any criticisms I make are respectful and reflect contemporary
critiques of the contemporary development of Australian archaeology, of which
Mulvaney’s texts and ideas are emblematic.
1.4 Terminology
I have tried to translate complex terminology into everyday language and to
avoid excessive jargon. However, as much of my thesis is theoretical and is
concerned with representation, this has not always been possible. In reference
to ‘prehistory’, I have chosen to write the word using quotations (as in
‘prehistory’, ‘prehistoric’ or ‘prehistorian’). Like others (David and Denham in
press), I do not accept the term ‘prehistory’ as an appropriate title for the
investigation of Indigenous history before European invasion. Throughout my
thesis I have referred to the past before and after invasion as either the
Indigenous Australian past, Indigenous Australian history, or simply the
Aboriginal past and Aboriginal history. Thereby, I make little distinction between
‘post’ and ‘pre’ European invasion. This is deliberate as I believe there is no line
19
to draw for Aboriginal history. If specifically needed, I make the distinction using
the terms ‘pre European invasion/contact’ and ‘post European invasion/contact’.
In my work, I have found that while a number of Indigenous people have asked
to be called ‘Aboriginal’ or ‘Aboriginal people’, just as many prefer the term
‘Indigenous Australian’ or ‘Indigenous Australian peoples’. Both titles hold their
own assumptions in greater society and I make no attempt at reconciling them,
instead opting to use both titles interchangeably. In any case, most Indigenous
Australians with whom I have discussed this would prefer that cultural/language
group names, or affiliated nation titles are employed, i.e. those that designate
the particular country or region that a person is from, rather than homogeneous
titles that are used too frequently today. Unfortunately though, the textbooks I
examine have adopted a homogenous approach, which thereby constrains my
choice of language for critique.
20
Chapter Two
Historical Background
This chapter is important in examining the historical, social and cultural contexts
for successive editions of the Prehistory of Australia. It includes a brief revision
of the historical concepts associated with European invasion that led to the
subsequent scrutiny of Indigenous Australians as objects, and their study as
examples of ‘primitive human specimens’. It considers the early development of
archaeological practice, and the cultural context in which Mulvaney was trained
and matured as a young archaeologist in Australia. The chapter ends by
contemplating Mulvaney’s contributions to archaeology in more recent years.
2.1 Progress and Evolution
It can be argued that the two dominant concepts of Australian history in the
nineteenth century were the ideas of progress and evolution (Griffiths 1996:10).
However, it must be noted that these two ideas did not solely mature out of the
1800s, but rather developed over an extended period of time. On a general
level, the concept of progress can be traced to ideas from the Enlightenment
(Trigger 1989:55). Many scholars argue about the period in which the
Enlightenment occurred, but there is a general consensus for around the end of
the seventeenth, to the eighteenth centuries (Sim & Loon 2001:96; Trigger
1989:55; Thomas 2004:28). The Enlightenment greatly influenced European
concepts of human nature and rationality, and proposed that reason could
deduce scientific truths. Through the exercise of reason, Enlightenment
21
philosophers determined that European society had matured through various
stages and had reached virtuous levels of ‘civilisation’ (Trigger 1989:57-8,
Thomas 2004:28-9). Enlightenment philosophers created comparative studies of
the living peoples they encountered overseas, whose cultures were judged to be
at different levels of complexity, and arranged these cultures to form unilinear
sequences from simple to complex (Trigger 1989:59). Indigenous Australians
were invariably placed towards the bottom of such evolutionary ladders (Golson
1977). Many Europeans held ‘noble savage’ ideas about the nature of ‘primitive’
humans as being in the early stages of maturity, in the childhood of their
humanity. The writings of Rousseau in the later half of the eighteenth century
characterise the nature of this understanding:
The sweet voice of nature is no longer an infallible guide for us, nor is the independence we have received from her a desirable state. Peace and innocence escaped us forever, even before we tasted their delights. Beyond the range of thought and feeling of the brutish men of the earliest times, and no longer within the grasp of the ‘enlightened’ men of later periods, the happy life of the Golden Age could never really have existed for the human race. When men could have enjoyed it they were unaware of it and when they have understood it they had already lost it (Rousseau 1762 in Peters-Little 2003:16).
It is possible that the concept of the ‘noble savage’ gained popularity among
Europeans at a time when they felt they had lost the ability to make use of
nature’s gifts, and instead were trapped in a world of letters, magistrates,
commerce and politics (Cranston 1991).
When Darwin’s The Origin of Species was published (1859), scientific potency
could be added to the European assertion of Indigenous societies as inferior.
22
Attitudes that classified Indigenous societies as having a lack of cultural and
technological progress, now asserted that Indigenous Australians were also in a
less evolved biological state (Griffiths 1996:10). The culmination of the ideas of
biological evolution and progress are well illustrated in Darwin’s Descent of Man
(1871:521) when he wrote, ‘at some future period, not very distant as measured
by centuries, the civilised races of man will almost certainly exterminate, replace
the savage races throughout the world’. The implications of such research were
felt far and wide in Australia as these ‘social Darwinist’ views took a popular
hold. The extent of social Darwinist influence is demonstrated in 1878 by the
opinion of a clergyman in a Melbourne newspaper:
If (aborigines) [sic] are related to us by unity of descent, from some common animal progenitor, they at least are surely far less distinctly human than animal, they had not, in fact, had time to be evolved from their animal beginning to that level where humanity becomes distinct, and begins its independent progress; and no more powerful argument, apart from the facts of geology and paleontology, can be urged in favour of Mr. Darwin’s theory of the Descent of Man, than the existence, the physique, the habits, and the fate of the Australian Aborigines (Macallister 1878:160, in Mulvaney 1964:39).
As examples of the ‘lowest evolutionary savages’, by the mid 1800s, Indigenous
Australians had become examples for biological anthropology, and were studied
accordingly (Murray & White 1981:256). Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen’s The
Native Tribes of Central Australia (1899) placed Aboriginal ethnography on an
internationally respected basis (Trigger 1989:141). Like many European
researchers, Spencer described Aboriginal people as a ‘relic of the early
childhood of mankind left stranded…in a low condition of savagery’ (Spencer
1901:12).
23
Research during these early times was often devoted to geologically
establishing Aboriginal antiquity by clear association with extinct fauna, as could
be demonstrated in Europe. Such attempts failed. Scientists concluded that
buried stone artefacts were no more ‘primitive’ than those in recent use and that
the harsh environment and violently changing surface deposits made ‘normal’
(read ‘European’) interpretations of deeply buried materials improbable. A final
difficulty was that Australian artefacts did not fit European typologies, as
Aborigines used ‘Palaeolithic’ and ‘Neolithic’ technologies simultaneously.
(Murray & White 1981:256).
From the 1890s onwards, a number of amateurs and non-professional
enthusiasts became interested in the most visible features of archaeological
sites, most often stone tools, and went about collecting thousands of Aboriginal
‘relics’ for personal collections and also to donate to museums (Du Cros
2002:18). The collection and display of natural and cultural oddities had been
seen as an esteemed social and educational activity within Western civilisation
for several centuries (Russell 2001:7). Such collections have their origins in the
age of European discovery and exploration of the private gentleman’s ‘cabinet of
curiosities’ as a show case for the exotica of the New World. However, by the
mid-nineteenth century these ‘cabinets’ gave way to the scientific museum
whose role was to explain nature and culture through scientific classification and
categorisation (Griffiths 1996:21).
24
In the early twentieth century, anthropologists became extremely interested in
‘race’ as a scientific research area. Edward C. Stirling, Dean of the Adelaide
Medical School and Director of the South Australian Museum, nurtured an
interest in physical anthropology after absorbing evolutionary theory from
Cambridge. Stirling traveled with Baldwin Spencer and Francis Gillen on the
Horn Expedition, and later encouraged a rising generation of medical doctors
and scientists to study the physical anthropology of Aboriginal people. These
associates included John Burton Cleland, Robert Pulleine, Frederic Wood Jones
and Thomas Draper Campbell. These scientists committed themselves to an
investigation of the racial origins of Aboriginal people, believing the race to be of
a homogeneous stock. Later generations, including N. B. Tindale and F. J.
Fenner, reworked such theories into a hybrid constitution, which was later
developed and refined by J. Birdsell. (Anderson 2002:196).
2.2 Early archaeology and history in Australia
In archaeological terms, ‘modern’ archaeology is considered to have begun in
1930:
For the historian of Australian Aboriginal studies, 1930 represents a watershed…. Publications appeared in that year, which typified a new systematic attempt, in Australia, to apply stratigraphic, rather than conjectural principles, to the uncovering of Aboriginal prehistory. Hale and Tindale’s archaeological techniques at Devon Downs in 1929 were outstanding in their generation; the subsequent publication of their results achieved objectivity of description and illustration within the limits of contemporary practice. In the same year Oceania commenced publication; for the first time Australia maintained an academic journal devoted to the record of native peoples. …[1930 is] the year in which objective studies of Aboriginal past and present reached maturity within Australia (Mulvaney 1958:44).
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However, it is clear that research within Australia had not reached this maturity
in all regions. In 1928 R. W. Pulleine, speaking about the Tasmanian Indigenous
population at a presidential address to an anthropological congress, stated that:
…there is a uniformity of culture only modified by the availability of different materials for manufacture…It is to be feared that excavation would be in vain, as everything points to the conclusion that they were an unchanging people, living in an unchanging environment (Pulleine 1928:305). This summed up well the overall positioning of many public and academic views
of, not just Tasmanian Aboriginal people, but also views of Indigenous
Australians’ history in general. Aboriginal cultures, as well as the Australian
landscape, were viewed as completely static. At this point, Indigenous peoples
were deemed to have made no impact on the land in which they lived, created
no structures, and modified nothing. While archaeology had ‘matured’, the
general public held beliefs, that in many cases, still resonate today (Du Cros
2002:20-1).
During this time, if Aboriginal people did have a past in Australia, it was not
considered to be ‘history’ in a European sense. Those compiling a history of
Australia rarely bothered to include Indigenous Australians. A school primer
published in the wake of Australia’s birth of a nation expresses the ‘logic’ of why
this was so:
When people talk about ‘the history of Australia’ they mean the history of the white people who have lived in Australia. There is a good reason why we should not stretch the term to make it include the history of the dark-skinned wandering tribes who hurled boomerangs and ate snakes in their native land for long ages before the arrival of the first intruders from Europe… for they have nothing that can be called a history. They have dim legends, and queer fairy tales, and deep-rooted customs which have
26
come down from long, long ago; but they have no history, as we use the word (Murdoch 1917, in Attwood 1996b:102).
The excavations by Hale and Tindale at Devon Downs in 1929 and later by
McCarthy who dug at Lapstone Creek and published in 1948 helped to question
Aboriginal antiquity and speculated on cultural changes in the past. However,
these investigations were not extremely successful in altering the opinions of
Aboriginal people as ‘unchanging’ (Du Cros 2002:20-1).
2.3 Background to Mulvaney
Mulvaney was educated in the late 1940s at Melbourne University and then at
Cambridge, studying under Grahame Clark and Glyn Daniel (Griffiths 1996:89).
He returned to Melbourne University in 1949 to become a tutor and became a
senior lecturer by 1959. By 1971 he had moved to the Australian National
University to become a professor of ‘prehistory’, a position he held until his
retirement in 1985 (Horton 1991:186). Mulvaney did his undergraduate degree
in history, and only later developed his interest in Aboriginal ‘prehistory’ during
his studies at Cambridge. Along with Mulvaney, between 1960 and 1964 more
than a dozen staff and graduates were appointed at three universities (Sydney,
New England and Australian National University). Nearly all of these graduates
were trained at Cambridge, most were not Australians, and only one (Jack
Golson) came with any Australian experience. In addition to John Mulvaney,
there was Vincent Megaw, Isobel McBryde, Judy Birmingham, Richard Wright
and Rhys Jones (Du Cros 2002:22).
27
In 1961, the formation of a well-financed semi-government body, the Australian
Institute of Aboriginal Studies1, began providing funds for research (Du Cros
2002:23). Following in Tindale and McCarthy’s footsteps, a young Mulvaney dug
at a rock shelter at Fromms Landing on the Murray River in South Australia
between 1956 and 1958. Mulvaney’s dig marked the first excavation in which
radiocarbon dating was applied, pushed human antiquity in Australia back to at
least 4 800 BP (Mulvaney 1960), and represented a watershed in archaeological
‘discoveries’. In 1961, the oldest date for human occupation in Australia was 9
000 yrs, by 1968 there were four sites older than 20 000 years, and by the early
1970s at least two sites older than 30 000 years were known (Murray & White
1981:256-7).
Mulvaney’s work in archaeology introduced standards of excellence to
archaeological fieldwork. He was actively involved in the Australian Heritage
Commission, the Museum of Australia, and he was instrumental in the
establishment of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies (Horton 1991:186).
As Acting Principal of the Institute, in 1971 he organized a conference that
considered the professional obligations of archaeologists and anthropologists to
Aboriginal informants and communities. When the Institute was established in
1961 there were no Aboriginal members, and no Aboriginal representatives
attended the 1971 conference (Bonyhady & Griffiths 1996:15).
1 Now known as the Australian Institute for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders Studies, or AIATSIS.
28
Mulvaney began meetings with Aboriginal people in 1974 at the Biennial
Meeting of the Aboriginal Institute, and in 1975 Aboriginal rights was the first
topic discussed at the first meeting of the new Australian Archaeological
Association, organized by Mulvaney and Isabel McBryde (Bonyhady & Griffiths
1996:15-6). Mulvaney was alarmed at the lack of Aboriginal contribution to
Australian archaeology and in archaeological and historical meetings and
conferences. In an interview in 1989 he tells that it was not for want of trying:
Back in 1979 … we had the biennial meeting of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies and there were Aboriginal people present and we put the case. My view was that here was a marvelous opportunity for Aborigines to write Australian History. It was a thing we ought to do. I don’t need to tell you that there wasn’t much interest in this sort of thing in earlier days … We were trying to portray, if you like, an ideal world before the Europeans arrived (Mulvaney 1988, in Attwood 1989b:6).
In later years, Mulvaney has moved from being at the forefront in the research
and protection of Aboriginal heritage, to being in the spotlight as acting against
Indigenous Australian’s wishes. As Indigenous rights movements succeeded in
obtaining ownership of their heritage, his views on repatriation have been
intensely debated within the archaeological arena. In particular, the conflict over
the return of the Kow Swamp burials placed him in direct opposition to many
Indigenous Australians and other archaeologists (see for example Bowdler
1992; Langford 1983; Mulvaney 1991; Pardoe 1992). Despite these oppositions,
Mulvaney has courageously upheld his views on these issues. Today Mulvaney
is colloquially known among archaeologists and others as ‘the Father of
Australian Archaeology’ and has been celebrated for his outstanding
contributions towards the development of a professional and distinctive branch
of learning in Australia.
29
Chapter Three
Theory
The term ‘theory’ can encompass an enormous range of ideas. Within
archaeology, theory may be considered the reasons 'why we do archaeology'
(Johnson 1999:2). In my own terms, theory provides us with a range of methods
and perspectives to analyse the historical, political, social and cultural contexts
in which we live. In archaeology, theory provides an influential basis to explain
why and how we practice, and helps us to better question suppositions, identify
inherent prejudices, and aid in challenging the boundaries of an ever-changing
discipline. In short, theory is a very powerful tool.
This chapter will clarify the theoretical concepts used to analyse the data from
Prehistory of Australia. As this data appears in two different forms – text and
images – I will need to use diverse theoretical applications in order to investigate
it. I will begin by examining some key ideas of Michel Foucault (1969; 1973;
1974; 1976; 1979) and Edward Said (1978). Both these social theorists were
greatly involved in the counter-modernity movements of post-structuralism and
post-colonialism and I have used their concepts to analyse the text of the three
editions of Prehistory of Australia. While Foucault provides a basis from which to
analyse the relationship between knowledge and power in Mulvaney’s texts,
Said’s Orientalism provides a way of conceptualising the ‘Other’ that can be also
applied to Aboriginal studies in Australia (Attwood & Arnold 1992). In order to
analyse the images from Prehistory of Australia, I consider the methods of Jane
30
Lydon (2000; 2002a; 2002b) in her studies of Corankderrk Aboriginal Station,
and concepts of ‘authenticity’ from Russell (1994; 2001).
3.1 Theory for the text
My thesis can be considered as a ‘deconstruction’ of an archaeological text. The
term ‘deconstruction’ was coined by Jacques Derrida and is best understood as
a textual strategy for exploring and excavating specific tensions and instabilities
within a text, in order to destabilise hierarchical oppositions and self-evident
‘truths’ (Hedges 2004). However, my study does not follow deconstructivist
patterns in identifying binary oppositions and exposing their instabilities from
within the text, rather it considers the process of building of a Foucauldian
discourse through the vehicle of a textbook, and therefore can only be labeled
‘deconstructivist’ in a superficial sense. It is more deeply concerned with
constructions of knowledge and the exercise of power in order to perpetuate an
Aboriginalist (Attwood & Arnold 1992) discourse in the manner of Edward Said’s
Orientalism.
3.1.1 Michel Foucault
Foucault’s theories have been adopted and applied with great popularity
throughout the arts, humanities and social sciences ever since their conception
in the late 1960s. His broad-ranging research into the ways that power/
knowledge relations operate in Western society have become important works in
discharging influential and authoritive discourses on the human sciences.
31
Foucault is most concerned with tracing the ways that, since the classical era,
our society has sought to understand human nature, through the scientific
classification and systemisation of knowledge (Rabinow 1985:4-6). Foucault
believes:
…that the real political task in a society such as ours is to criticise the working of institutions which appear to be both neutral and independent; to criticise them in such a manner that the political violence which has always exercised itself obscurely through them will be unmasked, so that one can fight them (Foucault 1974:171).
In other words, Foucault’s discussions of the formation of discourses seek to
historicise grand narratives and scientific practices that claim to uncover ‘truths’,
in order to show their subjective, irrational, and changing natures.
Foucault’s earliest work focused on writing historical studies of repression. In
Madness and Civilisation (1969), he discusses a history of insanity from the end
of the sixteenth, to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the text he
traces the specific ways that madness was defined and contained over time.
Foucault describes the defining and classifying of the insane as ‘dividing
practices’, and argues that these practices are characteristic of the different
fashions and diverse procedures in which the subject is objectified by a process
of division, either within himself or from others (Rabinow 1985:8-9). Foucault
also describes these practices later in The Birth of the Clinic (1963) and
Discipline and Punish (1975).
In The Order of Things (1970) and Archaeology of Knowledge (1972), Foucault
takes a slightly different approach. In The Order of Things (1970) he analyses
32
the changing historical discourses of the human sciences, to show that diverse
sets of discursive practices are ordered accordingly to underlying codes and
rules which change radically over time, and are culturally specific (Tilley
1990:290). In Archaeology of Knowledge (1972) he attacks Western society’s
dominant intellectual tradition in both the social sciences and philosophy. In both
texts, he considers a particular way of writing intellectual history, and how these
conceptual structures have become accepted and/or subsequently rejected
(Tilley 1990:292). In these texts Foucault discusses what can be called ‘scientific
classification’, and the latent grid of knowledge which organizes every ‘scientific’
discourse and defines what can or cannot be thought scientifically (Horrocks &
Jevtec 2004:63). Effectively, what Foucault does by tracing this ‘scientific
classification’ and ‘dividing practices’ practiced in history and experienced by
those classed as ‘insane’ (or medical patients, or delinquents) is to record a
‘genealogy’ (Foucault 1976:82-84). Genealogy describes Foucault’s attempt to
reveal discourse at the moment it appears in history as a masked system of
repression (Horrocks & Jevtic 1997:97).
Foucault notes that Western culture is distinctive in giving utmost importance to
the problem of the subject in social, political, economic, legal, philosophical and
scientific traditions (Rabinow 1985:7) and that his most general aim is to:
…discover the point at which these practices became coherent reflective techniques with definite goals, the point at which a particular discourse emerged from these techniques and came to be seen as true, the point at which they are linked with the obligation of searching for the truth and telling the truth (Foucault 1980 in Rabinow 1985:7).
33
For my own study, the 1969 edition of Prehistory of Australia can be seen as the
exact point in time Foucault is looking for. In Australian archaeology, Mulvaney’s
text emerged as a practice with a definite goal, within a particular discourse,
intent on the telling and searching of the ‘truth’ about Indigenous Australians.
For Foucault there can be no distinction between knowledge and power, as they
act within each other. Knowledge in Foucault’s terms can be divided to different
types: scholarly, intellectual, scientific knowledge and local or popular
knowledge. Collectively, he designates local or popular knowledge as
‘subjugated knowledges’. By subjugated knowledges Foucault means two
things. He is referring firstly to the:
Historical contents that have been buried and disguised in a functionalist coherence or formal systemisation…. The blocks of historical knowledge, which were present, but disguised within the body of functionalist and systematising theory and which criticism…has been able to reveal (Foucault 1976:81).
Secondly he refers to:
A whole set of knowledges that have been disqualified as inadequate to their task or insufficiently elaborated: naïve knowledges, located low down on the hierarchy, beneath the required level of cognition or scientificity (Foucault 1976:82).
Here Foucault identifies and isolates the knowledges and experience of people
such as the delinquent, or the psychiatric patient, or in my case, the Indigenous
person, whose ‘low ranking’ knowledge has been deemed historically to be
unqualified against scientific discourses, and has been shoved aside or
suppressed within the formal system of knowledge in our society. It is the
suppression of these types of knowledges through time that Foucault likes to
34
trace. Foucault argues that it is through local knowledge’s reappearance that
criticism, a challenge to traditional scientific histories, performs its work.
A useful question to ask at this point would be, ‘what is Foucault’s dislike of
scientific knowledge’? In writing genealogies of the historical knowledge of
struggle (or writing about subjugated knowledges) Foucault would say he is
concerned:
…with the insurrection of knowledges that are opposed primarily not to the contents, methods or concepts of a science, but to the effects of the centralising powers which are linked to the institution and functioning of an organised scientific discourse within a society such as ours (Foucault 1976:84).
Foucault is making it clear that he is not opposed to science or scientific
knowledge, but rather to the power science is given, how scientific knowledge is
chosen and institutionalised over other knowledges, and how it creates truth and
right. For example, Foucault asks, ‘Is Marxism a science?’. This is a question
that has been debated for a very long time. For Foucault, the problem is not the
answer but the asking of the question:
What types of knowledge do you want to disqualify in the very instant of your demand: ‘Is it a science’? Which speaking, discoursing subjects – which subjects of experience and knowledge – do you want to diminish when you say: ‘I who conduct this discourse am conducting a scientific discourse, and I am a scientist’? Which theoretical-political avant-garde do you want to enthrone in order to isolate it from all the discontinuous forms of knowledge that circulate about it? (Foucault 1976:85).
Foucault makes it clear that in the asking of the question we are already
predetermining what types of knowledge to empower. Foucault says that in
35
contrast to the projects that try to inscribe knowledges in the hierarchical order
of power associated with science, a genealogy should be seen as an attempt to
release local or historical knowledges from that subjection and render them
possible of opposition.
In relation to subjugated knowledges, Foucault discusses ‘normalising
discourses’. Foucault believes discourses (or practices) to be ‘extraordinary
inventive participants in the order of knowledge producing apparatuses’
(Foucault 1976:106-108). All disciplines carry a discourse that speaks of a rule -
not a juridical rule but a natural rule, or a norm. By ‘norm’ it is understood as a
fundamental truth. Natural rules or norms can be identified in academic scientific
discourses today. An example would be the oft-quoted pseudo-biological
understanding of difference in women and men; women are naturally nurturing,
men are instinctively more aggressive. Discourses have the power to create
truth or right within their private realms of practice, which subsequently becomes
normalised within each discipline and flows through society (Foucault 1976:106).
Normalising discourses are thus endowed with very powerful effects.
A component of this thesis is to unpack how successive editions of the
Prehistory of Australia contributed to the development of a normalising
discourse. To consider Mulvaney as a part of the constitution of a normalising
discourse in archaeology, we begin to see how ‘truths’ are formed about
Indigenous Australians today. In addition, we can further address the problems
36
of academic discourse to silence and over-rule the subjugated knowledges of
Indigenous Australians.
3.1.2 Edward Said
In 1978, Edward Said identified the creation and persistence of a normalised
discourse of Orientalism. Said explains Orientalism as:
… a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between ‘The Orient’ and (most of the time) ‘The Occident’ (Said 1978:2).
Said saw Orientalism as a Euro-centric perspective to consider and examine
difference between the East and West. Said defines the ‘East’ as the Middle
East and Asia, although he concentrates mostly on the Middle East (Said 1978).
Said argues that the West – concentrating mainly on Britain and France - has
developed a very strong imperialist tradition of ‘understanding’ the Orient, based
on a Western experience of it (Said 1978:1). This distinction (East and West) is
made both geographically and culturally, as the East has been seen as the
contrasting image of the West, in its culture, personality, and ideas. Said points
out that this is not only an ideological distinction, as it is ingrained within the
West in institutions, vocabulary, scholarship, imagery, doctrines, and even
colonial bureaucracies and styles (Said 1978:1). Most importantly, Said
identified that a normalised discourse of Orientalism could be tracked in texts:
… texts can create not only knowledge but also the very reality they appear to describe. In time such knowledge and reality produce a tradition, or what Foucault calls a discourse, whose material presence or weight, not the originality of a given author, is really responsible for the texts produced out of it (Said 1978:94).
37
In Said’s analysis, he examines material evidence, such as paintings and
textbooks, to conclude that the West’s creation of the Orient is a degrading
representation. Said argues that the Orient is constructed by the West as
feminine, weak, with a lack of history and culture, and in every way opposed to
the ideals and values of the masculine, colonial West. For Said, the Orient has
been invented since antiquity as a place of romance, exotic beings, haunting
memories and landscapes, and remarkable experiences (Said 1978:1). The
Oriental is irrational, depraved, childlike, “different”. In contrast, the European is
rational, virtuous, mature, and “normal” (Said 1978:40). For Said, Orientalism (or
the study of the East) becomes more of an indicator of the power the West holds
over the Orient, than about the Orient itself. This power is enforced through
scholarship: the West ‘understands’ the Orient better than it could possibly know
itself, and represents and dominates it for this reason. Said states:
… everyone who writes about the Orient must locate themselves in relation to the Orient; translated into their text, this location includes the kinds of images, themes, motifs that circulate in the text – all of which add up to deliberate ways of addressing the reader, containing the Orient, and finally, representing it or speaking in its behalf (Said:1978:20).
Here Said explains that anyone who writes about the East is effectively in a
relationship with it, and consequently will have encoded information in the text
about the way the ‘Other’ is represented and spoken for. Said reads between
the lines, so to speak, to extract meaningful information about this depiction.
I adopt the method Said uses to examine narrative to determine depictions of
the Orient to explicate Indigenous Australian representations. While Said’s work
38
has previously been used to identify Aboriginalism in Australia (Attwood &
Arnold 1992), I use his work mainly for his methodological approach.
3.2 Theory for the Images
While Edward Said considers imagery to be evidence towards the depictions of
the Orient, much of his data was text-based. In order to consider the images in
Mulvaney, it is important to consider the ways in which they can be usefully
analysed. Jane Lydon’s work provides an example within the discipline of
archaeology to draw on.
Lydon’s work at Coranderrk Aboriginal Station (2000; 2002a; 2002b) examines
historical photographs taken in the 1860s that were originally intended to
document the process of ‘civilising’ Indigenous Australians. These include
photographs taken by European contractors for newspapers, magazines, and
the government, which were destined for circulation within the general European
Australian public to show how well Indigenous Australians were becoming
assimilated into European society (Lydon 2002:60-74).
Lydon derives a double cultural meaning from the images she studies. For
Indigenous Australians, she believes the photographs contain information about
important historical events, such as the physical movement of Aboriginal people
off their ancestral land to live at Corankderrk, and can strengthen Indigenous
claims to land. For ‘White’ Australian society, she argues these photographs
39
demonstrate how people in the past thought about race and difference. So, for
example, the photos of people taken in traditional Aboriginal attire define themes
of ‘savage’, or ‘authentic’ and photos of Indigenous Australians wearing
European clothing and living in houses represents ‘changed’, or ‘civilized’ people
(Lydon 2002:60-74). These photographss helped shape European Australia’s
notion of Aboriginal peoples as the ‘Other’.
In her studies, Lydon effectively looks at the development of how we think about
‘us’ vs. ‘them’, and considers the boundaries we put around ourselves and
others to determine difference (Lydon 2002:60-74). The analysis of photographs
as receptacles for meaning is a comparatively new concept in Australia, and
Lydon’s work demonstrates that significant information can be drawn from these
sources. Lydon reads the albums of photographs from Coranderrk Aboriginal
Station as ‘artefacts’ of the colonial project, excavating from this photographic
record a history of ways of ‘seeing’ Aboriginal people (Williamson & Harrison
2002:7).
Within the broader field of Indigenous studies, Lynette Russell has explored
European textual and visual representations of Aboriginal Australians to find that
they have characteristically involved images and imaginings of primitivism, great
antiquity and sameness (Russell 2001:24). In particular, she has examined
iconographic images from the magazine Walkabout, a popular Australian travel
and geographic magazine produced for nearly forty years from 1935. Russell’s
research (1995) deliberately attempts to examine both images and their captions
40
to determine whether they supported or contradicted each other. Russell
established that many of the images and their captions presented a common
theme of Aboriginal people as being exotic, idealised and naturalised. She
identified this representation as a function of the discourse between ‘White’
Australia and the ‘Other’; a discourse which has engaged in refining and
developing pre-existing and popular notions of Aboriginal Australia (Russell
2001:36-7). Russell’s identifications of concepts of the ‘traditional’ or ‘authentic’
Aboriginal person are integral to my study in identifying a well-established
convention of imaging and representing the ‘Other’ through imagery.
41
Chapter Four
Methods
Given the theoretical nature of my work, the methods chapter is not the same as
those describing a practical study in which a hypothesis is stated, raw data is
collected, examined and then analysed and deductions are drawn about some
particular element of a cultural group, or collection of artefacts. However, I have
still collected data, and analysed it to illuminate something meaningful about
Australian archaeology. I have still considered the outcomes of my study, and I
have followed a methodological process.
4.1 Choice of text
I had considered other archaeological texts for possible analysis before
choosing Mulvaney’s (and Kamminga’s) three editions of Prehistory of Australia.
These were also designed to give an authoritative, inclusive and scientific view
of human culture. Fagan’s many editions of People of the Earth (1980; 1995;
2001) would have been an extremely interesting, albeit highly general, text to
unpack. Josephine Flood’s Archaeology of the Dreamtime (1999; 2004) could
have provided a similar study as Mulvaney’s, however, it is clear that Flood does
not have the same legacy within the development of Australian archaeology as
Mulvaney. White and O’Connell’s A prehistory of Australia, New Guinea and
Sahul (1982) could have demonstrated a similar study to my own, but is not as
contemporary as Mulvaney’s and Kamminga’s most recent text.
42
Against these other texts, Mulvaney’s three editions stand out for many reasons.
They are extremely useful in looking at the development of an authoritative voice
on ‘prehistory’. Before the publication of his first book, Mulvaney himself had
designated Australia as ‘the dark continent of prehistory’ (Mulvaney 1961 in
Mulvaney 1975:15). In 1969, when the first edition of Prehistory of Australia
came out, very little was known about the Indigenous Australian past from a
scientific, evolutionary Western point of view. Not only can Prehistory of
Australia (1969) be read as some of the ‘first knowledge’ on the ‘discovery’ of
Australian ‘prehistory’, it can also be seen to reflect current values in
archaeology at the time, current theoretical formations, and illustrate the
direction that Australian archaeology was heading. The 1975 edition did not vary
greatly from Mulvaney’s first, but contains valuable information about the way
that archaeology was changing during this exciting time of ‘discovery’. A
comparative study of the two editions could prove to be interesting in terms of
identifying what Mulvaney thought was worthwhile updating, in such a short
space of time. If the 1969 edition of Prehistory of Australia was concerned with
setting a definitive method for examining ‘prehistory’, then by the time of the
1975 edition the agenda was set.
Politically and socially, a great deal has happened in Australia since 1975, and
hence Mulvaney released a third edition of Prehistory of Australia (1999), co-
written with Johan Kamminga. This latest edition is bursting with a wealth of
information for an audience looking to learn about Indigenous Australian
‘prehistory’; or an audience looking to learn exactly how we construct that
43
history, like myself. While Mulvaney’s first two editions can be examined as
containers for data about the early years of Australian archaeological
development, the 1999 edition reflects mature, contemporary archaeological
practice.
4.2 Counterpoint texts
Initially, I had intended to explore at least three other archaeological texts as
counterpoints to Mulvaney editions. These counterpoint texts would have served
to highlight different theoretical viewpoints in the construction of an Indigenous
Australian past. The counterpoint texts were:
• Bruno David, Landscapes Rock Art and the Dreaming: An Archaeology of
Preunderstanding, 2002
• Josephine Flood, Archaeology of the Dreamtime, 1999; 2004
• Harry Lourandos, Continent of Hunter-gatherers, 1997
However, there proved to be insufficient time and text space to incorporate them
into this study.
4.3 Extracting the data
The process of deconstructing Mulvaney’s texts and reorganising the data in an
assessable form ready for evaluation is not self-evident. It requires a complex
process of reading and re-reading the text in order to dig down and unpack
concealed layers of meaning that have been encoded into the words and
images, via historical principles and standards. Edward Said’s approach to
44
identifying Orientalist discourse in the texts that he examines is based on his
belief that anyone who writes about the Orient automatically locates themselves
in a relationship to it. This relationship is translated into the text in deliberate
ways of addressing the reader, containing the Orient and speaking on its behalf
(Said 1978:20; see Chapter 3). In examining Mulvaney’s texts I have
endeavoured in much the same way to identify the ways that Mulvaney has
located himself in relation to Aboriginal people within his texts. In saying this, I
must also acknowledge the relationship that I am in with Mulvaney (and
Aboriginal people), and that we both exist within the realms of pre-understanding
(David 2002) that culturally and historically have shaped our attitudes and
outlooks.
The containment of Mulvaney’s texts into quantifiable, categorised databases is
a multifaceted and extremely subjective task, much like that Mulvaney takes on
himself in trying to contain Aboriginality. The result is necessarily an artificial
representation that cannot truly capture the depth and complexity of whatever
existed in the first place. It is this process I am critiquing, hence the paradoxical,
hermeneutic nature of my work. Nonetheless, archaeological practice calls for
the classification of our data, and so to undertake this task, databases were
formed to record information from the three texts.
4.4 Databases
Three databases were created to record the 1969, 1975 and 1999 editions of
Prehistory of Australia. Later this information was collated into one single
45
database, which can be found in Appendix A of this thesis. As the data takes the
form of textual representation, themes and questions had to be devised to ask of
the text, in order to help tease out any evidence on the depiction of Aboriginal
history and people. Table 1 represents the broad-ranging themes and questions
that I devised in order to extract the information from the texts. These themes
and questions were formulated after reading the theoretical works of Foucault
and Said (see Chapter 3), and reflect the nature of my thinking during the
developmental processes of my thesis. These themes and questions do not
reflect the final approach to the analysis of my results.
During discussions and final analysis of the textual data, these themes had to be
collapsed. It was simply too complicated to examine all of these themes in detail,
and a considerable task for the time and word-space of an honours thesis.
Instead, the data was used - not to illustrate themes - but to best demonstrate
the production of a Foucauldian discourse on the ‘Other’ as it has been identified
in Australian archaeology (see Chapter 5).
46
Table 1. List of themes and questions to extract preliminary data from the text of Mulvaney’s three editions of Prehistory of Australia.
THEMES QUESTIONS Language
• What words are used to describe people/places/objects? • What historical importance/baggage do these words hold? • How does Mulvaney create authority with language?
Ownership
• Who owns the past for Mulvaney? • Ownership of control/objects/cultural knowledge?
Gender • How is gender represented? Difference
• How is difference constructed/perceived between Indigenous and non-Indigenous? • What aspects of the past/cultures are excluded/included?
Measuring
• How does Mulvaney ‘measure’ cultures/behaviors? • What are cultures ‘measured’ against? • How does ‘classification’ work?
Distance
• How is distance created between: - Aboriginal people and their cultures? - The authors and Aboriginal people? - The reader from Aboriginal people and the authors?
Time • How is time measured? Knowledge • How are knowledges sorted/graded? (in a Foucauldian sense) Imagery
• How does the chosen imagery of the book add to our ‘understanding’? • What about the choice of layout/colours/pictures?
Environment • What is the positioning of the environment in relation to ourselves? Truth
• How is something proven as ‘true’ for Mulvaney? • What ‘truths’ are questionable? • How is the idea of ‘authentic’ constructed?
Power • How is power generated by Mulvaney (authoritative voice)? Complexity • How is complexity measured?
• What does ‘complex’ mean? History • To what extent do our conceptions of the past play in Mulvaney’s analysis of
‘prehistory’? • How does history affect the present?
- Mulvaney’s opinion - In my opinion
Culture • How do we define culture/s? Evolution • How does the conception of evolution shape Mulvaney’s ideas? Influence • When is it clear Mulvaney is influenced by his own cultural bias?
• When might this not be clear? Race • When does Mulvaney illustrate differences between race?
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4.5 Imagery
A separate method was used to analyse the images, plates and illustrations
from the three Prehistory of Australia editions. To begin with, I chose to collate
the images from each edition as certain ‘types’ and calculate them on graphs
and tables for comparison. This was done by separating images that portrayed
different representations. For example, images that were drawn or painted and
depicted Aboriginal people hunting and gathering would form a ‘type’. Similarly,
photographs that presented Aboriginal people within the landscape making or
using implements could form another ‘type’. This method became complex when
I began to categorise ‘types’ of images that were drawn or photographed
artefacts, maps, sketches, diagrams etc. The categorisations were then
converted into data, which could be represented on line and bar graphs.
However, the results of the graphs were complicated and failed to show any
substantial differences or similarities in my ‘types’ of images, or any temporal
changes over the three editions. Instead, a ‘case-by-case’ methodology was
adopted. Using this approach, all the images that showed Aboriginal people in
them were chosen from the 1969 and 1999 edition. These images were then
included within the discussion of my thesis as part of Mulvaney’s visual
representation of Aboriginality. To assess the images chosen, broad ‘types’
were identified within my discussion chapter. For example, images that placed
Indigenous people within the landscape were grouped, compared to those that
showed Aboriginal people wearing European style clothing, compared to images
that may depict ‘noble savage’ themes (see Chapter 5 for discussion).
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Chapter Five
Analysis
In this chapter, I examine the three editions of Prehistory of Australia as
exemplary texts in the ongoing construction of a particular normalised discourse,
namely, Australian archaeology. I will initially examine the 1969 volume to
consider the ways that Mulvaney represents Aboriginal people through both text
and images. Here I will show the ways that Mulvaney uses precise forms of
scientific categorisation, while at the same time including contradictory idealistic
and romantic notions of Aboriginality. I will show his formation of a discourse
that simultaneously champions scientific knowledge of the ‘Other’, while
reinforcing conventional colonialist concepts of Aboriginal people as only
existing in the past as ‘traditional’ people that lived close to nature and practiced
‘hunter-gatherer’ techniques. I will also unmask meanings in the texts that
subjugate and oppress Indigenous people’s knowledges2 of themselves and
their pasts, as inadequate and unscientific.
The second edition of Prehistory of Australia, published in 1975, is in many ways
a continuation of the first. Mulvaney makes few changes to the text or images,
except for additional research carried out between 1969 and 1975. For this
reason I have included only a modest discussion of this text. Mainly, I will
2 In the pluralising of the word ‘knowledges’, I am referring firstly to Indigenous Australians’ diverse and differing experiences within their own cultures and social backgrounds within Australia and the Torres Strait. I am also referring to ‘knowledges’ in a Foucauldian sense (1976:82), in identifying different types of ‘knowing’ by different cultural and social groups within Australia.
49
discuss the ways that the 1975 edition can be perceived to have strengthened
Mulvaney’s discourse from his first text; the huge influx of scientific study in the
1970s effectively concreting a particular way of conceptualising the Aboriginal
past in archaeology.
In the 1999 edition, I will demonstrate several examples in which Mulvaney and
Kamminga once again coagulate their study as a discourse on the Indigenous
Australian past, in the face of Indigenous Australians’ and post-colonial
archaeologists’ challenge of traditional colonial discourses about the past. I will
consider the ways that Mulvaney and Kamminga defend their scientifically-
based arguments, by using power/knowledge relationships to assert similar
representations of Aboriginal people as Mulvaney had done in his previous
texts. At this point I will examine the ways that the ‘Other’ has arrived in the
twenty-first century through Mulvaney’s (and Kamminga’s) text in an attempt to
determine if recent scholarly research on Aboriginalism (Attwood and Arnold
1992), has had a great effect on Mulvaney’s discourse.
5.1 The First Edition
In 1961, Mulvaney had designated Australia as ‘the dark continent of prehistory’
and had offered the opinion that many years would elapse before an
‘archaeology of Australia’ could be written (1969:12). Therefore, by publishing
Prehistory of Australia, he must have reached some fundamental conclusions
about the Aboriginal past in order to provide a basic summary of current
archaeological practice. While Mulvaney himself believed that his first book was
50
neither an exhaustive nor definitive text (1969:13-4), the book was to become
very influential. Within the archaeological arena, Mulvaney’s 1969 edition of
Prehistory of Australia stood as a seminal work serving to interest and educate a
generation of Australian archaeologists throughout the 1970s (Horton
1991:186). As a primary synthesis, it included an overview of separate
compartments that could be used to analyse the Aboriginal past. These can be
easily distinguished by examining Mulvaney’s contents page:
• Protohistory3 • Landscape and People • Ethnohistory • Prehistory • Aboriginal Origins • Field Archaeology
These chapters can be considered as fairly self-explanatory categories - in
archaeological terms - in which to order and understand the Aboriginal past in
the 1960s and 70s. However, the very fact that we can consider them as self-
explanatory today is evidence that they have become ‘normalised’ within our
discipline. The ‘Protohistory’ chapter is dedicated to examining the more recent
past and the exterior influences on Aboriginal society from incoming cultures.
Mulvaney’s ‘Landscape and People’ chapter links cultural adaptation to the
environment. The ‘Prehistory’ chapter considers contemporary archaeological
research into the distant past and establishes a basic knowledge of ‘prehistoric
times’. Ethnographic (‘Ethnohistory’) and biological anthropological methods and
research (‘Aboriginal Origins’) are examined in these chapters. Finally, a ‘Field
3 The term ‘protohistory’ is used by Mulvaney to designate the ‘period between first alien contacts and the effective European occupation of a region’ (1969:14).
51
Archaeology’ chapter is dedicated to descriptions of surviving archaeological
sites within the landscape. Pictures and diagrams appear at the end of the book
in this edition, while artefact tracings appear throughout the text. There is a
chronology of radiocarbon dates at the end of this volume as well. Mulvaney
does not include Aboriginal history of the present, nor any changes to Aboriginal
society that have happened in the post-European contact period.
In this edition, Mulvaney uses a mixture of culture history and processual
approaches; however it would be incorrect to label Mulvaney a true
processualist as he would always assert that Aboriginal man4 was more than
‘only what he ate and where he camped’ (Mulvaney 1975:126). Within this first
text Mulvaney often uses typologies, diffusion and culture history approaches to
define groups of people (1969:106-7), but also considers vegetation, climate,
rainfall, water dispersal, geographic factors and glacial periods as crucial factors
in cultural adaptation (1969:40-64). In doing so, Mulvaney reflects current and
past research practices, as he includes traditional researchers’ work such as
Tindale’s and McCarthy’s, while at the same time employing his own, more
scientifically rigorous approaches.
While Mulvaney’s 1969 text was by no means the first of its kind to implement a
discourse of the Aboriginal past, it can be considered a good starting point to
consider such a discourse in ‘modern’ terms, as his involvement marked the
4 The use of the term ‘man’ is not a reflection of my own writing, but a historical convention employed by Mulvaney in his texts.
52
beginnings of the specific way that we conduct archaeology today. In 1969
Mulvaney had crystallised a distinctive method for categorising and
‘understanding’ the Indigenous Australian past and by implication, Indigenous
Australians themselves. We can consider Mulvaney’s first text as a starting point
to a normalised discourse for two reasons.
Firstly, Mulvaney was one of the first ‘prehistorians’ to offer a synthesis of
Aboriginal culture that tried hard not to embody the racist presumptions of
Aboriginal people as ‘savage’ or ‘primitive’ exemplars (1969:177). Rather,
Mulvaney often championed Indigenous Australians for their ability to survive in
the face of adversity (1969:12) and has written repeatedly about the
disagreeable procedures and representations created by anthropologists prior to
more ‘contemporary’ practice (Mulvaney 1958; 1964; 1989; 1998; 1990).
Mulvaney has also argued that the concept of the ‘unchanging savage’ inhibited
the development of ‘prehistoric’ archaeology in Australia throughout this early
period (1958). As the first archaeologist to apply the skills and knowledge of
British archaeology to an Australian context, he also discarded the notions of
Tindale and McCarthy, as being based on insufficient evidence. It seems his
main aim was to establish a platform on which to found modern Australian
archaeology (Moser 1995).
Secondly, as Mulvaney’s excavation results and interpretations were backed
with new procedures of radiocarbon dating, he was the first in a line of
researchers to bring a new scientific power and authority to the discipline
53
through absolute dating. This is likely to have given Mulvaney a confident
scientific edge in which to confirm his research validity, further enhancing his
ability to break free from the research biases of the past. Until this point
researchers could only speculate on the antiquity and chronology of the
Aboriginal past. To date, radiocarbon dating started by Mulvaney remains the
scientific method to procure ‘truths’ about the past, and challenging these
paradigms of ‘truth’ are extremely difficult.
For the above two reasons Mulvaney’s text can be seen as an early example in
a strong tradition of authoritive writings on the nature of Aboriginal people and
their pasts in the second half of the twentieth century. Using the validity and
power of science, and dis-association from the practices of past researchers,
Mulvaney’s construction of knowledge has created a powerfully normalised way
of understanding that continues today. I would now like to deliberate on some of
the more specific ways that Mulvaney has created an ‘objective’ Aboriginal
identity in his first edition of Prehistory of Australia, as well as considering the
ways in which he romanticises and paternalises the past.
5.1.1 Identity and Discourse in 1969.
In his 1969 volume, Mulvaney was largely preoccupied with refuting many of the
pre-existing representations of Indigenous Australians. He was extremely vocal
in maintaining the position that it was nonsense to consider that ‘Aboriginal
Australians’ physiology, social system and material culture were unchanged
relics of the primeval human stock … that their brains were childlike and their
54
society mirrored ‘primitive’ humanity before agricultural people ‘progressed’’
(Mulvaney 1999:147). Mulvaney preferred to present Aboriginal people as
dynamic, changing and innovative:
Aboriginal society, despite its latter-day critics, was never static. There was scope for the innovator as well as for the dreamer, and the Aborigines were not captives of an unchanging and hostile environment. That is the essence of Aboriginal prehistory, which endows it with the creativity of the human spirit (1969:177). The discoverers, explorers and colonists of the three million square miles which are Australia, were its Aborigines … The dispersal of the Aborigines throughout this vast land, their responses and adjustments to the challenges of its harsh environment, and their economical utilisation of its niggardly resources are stimulating testimony to the achievements of the human spirit in the face of adversity (1969:12).
As a campaigner for such a view during the 1960s, Mulvaney would have
seemed quite radical. Considering that Indigenous Australians were only given
the right to vote in the 1967 referendum and only recognised as having presiding
rights over land since the Mabo ruling of 1992 (Mabo v Queensland , no. 2),
Mulvaney’s opinions have to be taken in their historical context. As illustrated
above, Mulvaney marveled at Aboriginal people’s ability to survive and achieve
success against the harsh Australian elements, and much of the text is
dedicated to understanding this achievement. Ultimately, it seems in Mulvaney’s
eyes this success is testimony to the human spirit, a quality that Mulvaney
mentions many times. Such a quality, for Mulvaney, is a universal characteristic
that all human beings possess, and it is this quality that Mulvaney must see in
himself as well as the people he studies. However, despite this common
humanity that renders Mulvaney on the same level as the people he studies, he
55
simultaneously distances himself from them by taking an active role in
categorising them, defining them and speaking on their behalf.
In 1969, Aboriginal identity for Mulvaney rests in a scientific understanding,
based on an economic categorisation:
The exploitative techniques of the Aborigines were limited to combinations of hunting, fishing, gathering or foraging activities. They practiced neither agriculture nor simpler horticulture and never domesticated any indigenous animals; even the dingoes which they introduced but apparently never fully domesticated ate more of their masters’ food than they retrieved for them. Aboriginal life was nomadic, while the number, frequency and distance of the shifts depended upon local conditions (1969:66-7).
Within his text, over and over again Mulvaney describes Aboriginal groups who
were nomadic to particular degrees, hunted and gathered through various
means for survival, did not domesticate animals, and did not employ agriculture.
For Mulvaney, Aboriginal people were largely parasitic (1969:75) on the
environment, they had adapted to their local conditions, and they moved
nomadically based on environmental changes and circumstances. Mulvaney
attributes the metaphysical elements of Aboriginal people’s lives as being
consumed with ‘mythological significance’ and ‘religious sanction’; they have no
political cohesion or tribal council between groups of people. Ownership to land
and social groups are determined by religion and hunting rights:
Ideally, a tribe is a social group which claims hunting rights and religious sanction for its occupation of an area; its boundaries are loosely defined usually by reference to natural features which have mythological significance; its members assume that they are in some manner distinctive, though actual or implied genealogical relationship, obedience to common behavioral rules and the use of a common language or dialect. But it is not a ‘nation’ or ‘confederation’, for there is no political
56
cohesion between its constituent groups and there is no paramount or tribal chief or tribal council (1969:53).
These descriptions can be considered as rudimentary ‘hunter gatherer’
categorisations derived from a more general understanding of ‘prehistoric hunter
gatherer’ societies (for example see Lee & DeVore 1968). His discussions of
‘hunter gatherer’ life ways are thorough, and include an analysis on the nature of
the technology employed to assist this type of economic practice, including
wooden implements, stone tools, bone tools and fishing implements, with
particular emphasis on stone tools (1969:68-94). For Mulvaney, Aboriginal
technology is the embodiment of simplicity, portability, and adaptability
(1969:78). Artefacts are assigned with meaning according to their utilitarian
function; there is little inference to suggest that they may also retain
metaphysical or spiritual meanings.
Complementary to these particular ‘objective’ discussions, are particular images.
Three images illustrate the manufacture and use of wooden implements (1969:
plates 24-5). The first illustration depicts suspended wooden artefacts as
examples of Aboriginal culture. These artefacts have been x-rayed revealing the
explicit ways that the stone blades have been hafted to the handles. The other
two images provide these artefacts with a ‘context’. More specifically, this
‘context’ includes a picture of two Walbiri Aboriginal men near Yuendumu with
their weapons. A kangaroo is slung over the second man’s shoulder, and they
stand within an arid landscape. The second image is of a Walbiri man making a
wooden and stone implement.
57
Figure 1. (top and bottom right) Warlpiri men displaying wooden implements. Such images can be considered typical 'traditional' representations of Aboriginal people. (left) A closer examination of the men’s possessions, now out of context and self-fulfilling representations of Aboriginal people (Mulvaney 1969: 257-8).
These images can be considered close matching replicas to an archetypical
vision of Aboriginal people. This representation includes variations of the image
of the naked black hunter from Central Australia, often perched on one leg,
bearded, holding a spear or boomerang and looking into the distance within the
landscape (Russell 2001:1-3). However the inclusion of one or two
‘stereotypical’ images such as these could be argued as dispassionate
examples of one form of Aboriginality, among many. In considering all the
Aboriginal images found in Mulvaney, extremely compartmentalised
classifications begin to emerge.
58
Figure 2. Illustration 3: View of Malay Bay from Pobassoo’s Island, Oil Painting. Mulvaney uses this image to demonstrate traditional ‘noble savage’ stereotypes. (1969:253) Figure 3. Walbiri tribesman from Yuendumu, Central Australia, removing bark from a ghost gum to make a container (1969:265).
Figure 4. (top left) George French Angas, water colour ‘Miami, Portland Bay’, 1845. (1969:260) Figure 5. (bottom left) Aboriginal group, Coranderrk Aboriginal Station, Healesville, Victoria, c. 1879 (1969:260) Figure 6. (top left) Aboriginal ceremony, photographed near Bairnsdale, eastern Victoria (1969:260) Figure 7. Eucalypt bark canoe, Coranderrk Aboriginal Station, c. 1879 (1969:260).
59
Figure 8. A Walbiri tribesman at work grinding an axe-head in a diorite quarry near Yuendumu, Central Australia (1969: 267) Figure 9. In Central Australia, elaborate ground drawings were an integral part of many ceremonies (1969:269).
In all these representations, the subject matter is never engaged with the
photographer. The subjects are always producing the ‘specimens’ of cultural
evidence in question, or posing within their ‘natural’ setting. These images
originate from three places; Central Australia, Coranderrk Aboriginal Station in
Healesville, Victoria, and nineteenth century paintings. Each shows particular
representations of Indigenous culture. As mentioned above, the images from
Central Australia convey to the audience the stereotypical Aboriginal image.
These images seem to be the most recognisably ‘Aboriginal’ ones and are likely
to resonate with the viewer. Each image (figures 3, 8 and 9) reproduces
elements of Indigenous culture as only witnessed in ‘traditional’ Northern
Australian contexts outside of settled Australia and in the distant past (Harrison
2000; Russell 2001). Consequently, these images reinforce notions of
Indigenous Australians as only existing in ‘traditional’ ways, divorcing urbanised
or ‘non-traditional’ Indigenous Australians from this identity.
60
Lydon (2000; 2002a; 2000b) has examined photography from Coranderrk
Aboriginal Station and reads similar images as artefacts of the colonial project.
Her studies have emphasised that photography in the nineteenth century at
Coranderrk was used as a way for Europeans to visually determine themselves
as drastically oppositional to Aboriginals; as their ‘Other’ in a structured view of
the world where Europeans existed as ‘civilised’, and Aboriginals as ‘primitive’.
The photographs that Mulvaney has chosen to illustrate Aboriginal culture from
Coranderrk (figures 5-7) would fall into this ‘primitive’ category. These images
have been posed for the camera as representations of an exotic and primitive
‘Other’, as an opposition to the ‘civilised’ photographs of the people living at
Coranderrk wearing European clothing and living in European style housing. In
choosing to value and import these types of images into his discussion, rather
than images that portray European influence and culture change, Mulvaney
makes a conscious decision in the kind of history he portrays. Interestingly,
figure 6 is the exception to the rule in depicting Aboriginal people in European
clothing while conducting a ceremony.
The third type of imagery used by Mulvaney to demonstrate Aboriginality is
European nineteenth century painting (figures 2 and 4). These illustrate an
extremely romanticised version of Aboriginal people. Figure 2 is indicative of
‘noble savage’-type imagery and indeed Mulvaney uses it as an example of
many early explorers’ romanticised concepts of Aboriginal people. The other
image however, is used to demonstrate hunting weapons and is contrasted as
an early example of Aboriginality against the later one from Coranderrk (figure
61
27). All these images depict Indigenous Australians in a close relationship to the
environment, upholding the notion that ‘real’ Aboriginal people have a natural
affinity to land, they live like flora and fauna, with very little need for anything that
may exist in the ‘modern’ world (Peters-Little 2003:22). It is important to also
note that Mulvaney has not named even one of these Aboriginal people, they
are pacified and passive objects within his discourse, immortalised ‘relics’ of a
long gone past. It is a system of representation where the readers’ only
interaction with the subject is to gaze upon them in order to understand them.
Only approximately 11% of the illustrations in Mulvaney’s 1969 edition of
Prehistory of Australia include representations of people. The vast majority of
pictures are of artefact tracings, archaeological sites, excavations, artefacts, and
rock art. These images can be contrasted to the former to display vast
differences from the images of Aboriginal people within the volume. A sample of
such images appears below:
Figure 10. (previous page, left) Bone points from Glen Aire (1969:85). Figure 11. (previous page, right) ‘Scrapers’ from Green Gully, Victoria (1969:141)
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Figure 12. (top left) The Gallus site, Koonalda cave, Nullarbor Plain, South Australia (1969:263) Figure 13. (bottom left) Skeletal remains, Green Gully, Keilor, Victoria. This portrays a rescue operation begun by the author in 1962 (1969:264) Figure 14. (top right) The site of the Keilor cranium, Keilor, Victoria (1969:264) Figure 15. (bottom right) Kintore limestone cave, Northern Territory. General view of the 1963 excavations (1969:264).
Figure 16. (from left to right) two trident fish spears; x-ray of quadruple-pronged fish spear; perforated baler-shell pendant; perforated and incised pearl oyster shell ornament; Kodj granite axe; x-ray of the same specimen (1969:260-1).
63
This systematic categorisation and measurement of artefacts, characteristic of
Mulvaney’s objective archaeology, has varied consequences in the creation of a
normalised discourse. In contrast to the images of Aboriginal people, the images
of ‘archeology’ include excavation, stratigraphy and the imposition of order onto
the photograph. Within the text archaeologists are shown uncovering or
discovering the archaeological past, while Aboriginal people are shown
demonstrating this past. Artefacts are arranged into classifications and are
pictured as ‘floating’ on the page. This divorcing of artefacts and sites from
people (figures 10, 11 and 16) helps Mulvaney to distance these objects from
their context and create them as self-fulfilling indications of Aboriginality. It is
possible to view Mulvaney’s text as having many of the same objectives as a
museum, in the way he demonstrates classification to his audience through
observation. Russell has commented on the nature of Indigenous objects that
are put on display in Western museums:
Common to all forms of exhibition…is the powerless of the items on display. Once removed from their indigenous context, non-Western objects housed in either the artistic or anthropological display are captured by a discourse that disempowers objects and reduces them to being examples of the ‘Other’ (Russell 2001:8).
In much the same way, the objects (including human objects) in Mulvaney’s
pages are unspoken and passive in his archaeological discourse. Byrne argues
that practices of natural history set the stage for the practice of heritage
management by introducing the classificatory habit, and by encouraging the idea
that objects (artefacts, sites, etc) could be used to represent peoples and
cultures (1996:90).
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Towards the end of the 1969 text, and in contradiction to the scientific
categorisations, discussions and portrayal of Aboriginal people and cultural
artefacts already mentioned, Mulvaney conveys to the reader a sense of the
allure for archaeologists experiencing the Aboriginal past ‘in its natural setting’:
It was dusk on a wintry evening in 1960 when I reached The Tombs. The frieze of predominately red stenciled hands seemed almost luminescent, while the curved rock amphi-theatre was dominated by a single figure – the stencil of a man with arms outstretched, standing before the entrance to a low deep cave. It was a memorable occasion, and to me, the brooding stillness and the chill air are an essential element in recalling the aesthetic or intellectual impact of the site, although this cannot be conveyed pictorially; so also, is my later realisation, that fingers of handprints within the recess behind the figure were ‘mutilated’. An uncongenial spot to linger in, presumably it was even more so for an Aboriginal; this was no gallery dedicated to the proposition of ‘art for art’s sake’ (1969:171).
Such a quote illustrates Mulvaney’s passion for the Indigenous past; its ability to
induce mystery and allure ready for the archaeologist to ‘discover’ and interpret.
Interestingly, Mulvaney conveys a sense of how the experience of the rock art
cannot be measured, for the environmental settings are essential in recalling the
impact of the site. Despite this, the majority of Mulvaney’s archaeology is spent
trying to decontextualise, categorise, and systemise much of the ‘evidence’ for
the past.
Here lies the tension in Mulvaney’s work, between a professed dispassionate
scientism and romanticism. While professing his undeniable attraction to
Indigenous sites, Mulvaney simultaneously distances himself from Aboriginal
Australians in the present (and also the politics that are perceived to go hand
65
and hand with this). This is evident through the portrayal of people in his book
who only exist ‘traditionally’. Mulvaney fails to recognise a discord in the
presentation of the past in the present. He believes it is possible to obtain an
independent understanding of past Aboriginal life ways before European
contact, but fails to realise that the only understanding of Indigenous people we
can have is one pre-determined by our presence. It is simply not possible to
understand Indigenous Australians from any other vantage point than through a
cloud of politics in the present (Attwood 1996b). However, in 1969 the reflexive
and subjective nature of research had not been emphasised in archaeological
studies, and so Mulvaney's text must be taken in context.
5.2 The Second Edition
In Mulvaney’s own words, ‘In 1969, so little was known about Aboriginal origins
and cultural development that accounts were necessarily scrappy and focused
on stone tools’ (1999:xv). However, if the 1969 edition of Prehistory of Australia
was responsible for structuring some of the new ways in which the
archaeological community could arrange the Aboriginal past, by the 1975 edition
these ideas had been fixed through an upsurge in research following Mulvaney’s
first volume. The 1975 edition was produced because Mulvaney felt that the
pace of research and discovery was moving so fast that even by the time of his
1969 publication, it was outdated. By 1975, several PhD theses had been
completed on Australian ‘prehistory’ and graduates were publishing their
findings internationally (Mulvaney:1999:xv). By this time the antiquity of
Indigenous Australians had been pushed back at least 30,000 years and
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radiocarbon dating had been developed sufficiently to reach back in time to
provide scientific ‘truths’ about ‘ancient’ history.
The second edition follows much the same structure as the first, and chapter
headings are similar except for an expansion of the ‘Prehistory’ chapter to
include ‘Pleistocene Origins’, ‘The Australian Core Tool and Scraper Tradition’,
‘Pleistocene Beasts and Fossil Man’, ‘The Australian Small Tool Tradition’ and
‘Incipient Agriculturalists?’. Additionally, there is a ‘History and Explanation’
chapter dedicated to a discussion of the development of Australian archaeology.
Mulvaney makes few changes to the existing text and, in most cases, only adds
some new ideas and new research on particular topics. Most of this research is
in relation to colonisation patterns, stone tools, megafauna, and questions of
agriculture. This book has an increasingly ‘processual’ tone, as Mulvaney adds
research informed by ‘new archaeology’.
A considerable difference exists in the formatting between the first and second
editions of Prehistory of Australia. Pictures and illustrations within the 1975
edition now appear in the text rather than at the end, and consequently this book
tends to give the impression of being more accessible, user-friendly, and
‘interpretive’. Rather than an uninterrupted discussion, the images give a visual
consciousness of ideas of ‘Aboriginality’. Artefacts can be gazed upon at the
same time as they are ‘explained’. While this point is valuable to note, it must
also be said that this was possibly an artificial artefact of publication/printing
technology rather than a specific decision on Mulvaney’s part.
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The nature of archaeological research had changed slightly in 1975 as
Indigenous Australians asserted more control over research and heritage.
Consequently Mulvaney made the following statement to justify his practice:
Contrary to the deduction of some reviewers, I do consider that the purpose of prehistory to be the people and not their artefacts. My purpose is to write without the emotion which has blunted the point of much writing concerning Aboriginal history and culture. True understanding of the complexity and depth of the Aboriginal cultural heritage will come to both black and white Australians only through objective knowledge. This survey does not claim to be about modern Aborigines, but about their past (1975:13).
Here again, Mulvaney states his position as an archaeologist pursuing
‘prehistory’, divorced from the politics of the present. Mulvaney makes clear that
he believes that the past is about understanding people (although not modern
people). It is clear that Mulvaney is convinced that the pursuit of truth through
science will bring benefits to Australian society in the form of reconciliation.
Mulvaney also expressed his concern at increasing discontent from Aboriginal
people about the study of human remains:
It is unfortunate that some people react emotionally to the systematic excavation and study of prehistoric burials, because they confuse careful and respectful treatment with the morbid grave robbing of earlier generations…It must be emphasised that the study of human origins and racial differention is essential to man’s self knowledge. Scientists have not singled out the Aborigines for concentrated research: all the races of mankind are involved, but Australian research is late in the field. (1975:198)
What is clear in this quote is Mulvaney’s ability to hide behind a mask of
scientificity and negate the historical conditions under which knowledge is
produced. This is an extremely contradictory view in Mulvaney, as on so many
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occasions he has historicised earlier anthropological practices, revealing their
inconsistencies and racisms in the production of knowledge.
5.3 The Third Edition.
By this time, the 1999 edition of Prehistory of Australia can be considered as
part of an established, academic discipline. It no longer stands alone as a
seminal synthesis; other respected texts offer different readings of Aboriginal
pasts (Flood 1999, 2004; Lourandos 1997). Now Mulvaney, along with Johan
Kamminga, must account for two and a half decades of new research, new
perspectives, changed political and social situations and completely reversed
attitudes towards research about Indigenous Australians:
While we have made substantial changes in content, we decided to maintain the orientation and much of the structure of the earlier books written by Mulvaney as sole author. The hazards of publishing a review of a rapidly expanding subject are manifest. To update descriptive content after two decades is a large but relatively straightforward task, but to give an adequate coverage of the alternative perspectives and debates is far more difficult. Indeed, our book is a personal appraisal of Australian prehistory because there can be no single version (1999:xv).
Mulvaney and Kamminga make clear that many of the issues they attempt to
tackle in this new edition are the same endeavours as those of years ago.
Specifically, they list colonisation patterns of the continent, timing of first human
arrival, megafaunal extinctions and human biology (1999:xv-xvi). Research into
these questions is fully explored within the book in addition to new issues, such
as heritage ownership, and an attempt to cover some of the more metaphysical
elements of the Indigenous past, as they are understood archaeologically, such
as the Dreaming and relationships to land. Mulvaney and Kamminga’s summary
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of ‘prehistory’ takes the focus of much of the text, and is divided into different
regions for occupation; such as the desert or the coast. It is clear that in
comparison with the 1969 edition, where accounts of the past were sketchy and
premature, a great deal can be said about Aboriginal ‘prehistory’ with
confidence.
The book gives an authoritive and documented analysis of a well discovered
and researched past. It is finely presented with colour illustrations, black and
white images, excellent archaeological drawings and small rock art tracings on
each page as ‘decorative elements’ (see figure 17). It is an exceptional
amalgamation of four decades of research, and an excellent ‘specimen’ for
examining the culmination of the development of archaeology discourse on the
Indigenous ‘Other’.
Figure 17. These figures are a sample of the decorative rock art that Mulvaney and Kamminga use in the borders and above the titles of their textbook. These images have no provenance except for a note at the beginning of the book that states: ‘Note: The images that appear in the margins throughout the book represent a small sample of the richness and variety of Aboriginal rock art’ (1999:xx).The use of rock art for aesthetic purposes in his text, can be considered evident of Mulvaney’s further romantisiation and appropriation of the Indigenous past.
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5.3.1 Identity and Discourse in 1999.
While in 1969 Mulvaney was making radical statements about Aboriginal culture
being innovative and dynamic, in 1999 Mulvaney and Kamminga’s synthesis is
considered to be the traditional and the established approach to archaeology.
Mulvaney and Kamminga now have to defend themselves against post-
processual and post-colonial attitudes that claim for subjective knowledge and
relativity; these things threaten the very foundations of Mulvaney’s past claims.
Despite this threat though, it is clear that Mulvaney and Kamminga is a popular
text, and this author would strongly argue that the 1999 edition of Prehistory of
Australia could be found on the majority of Australian archaeologists’
bookshelves today.
Mulvaney and Kamminga do not claim ignorance in hearing Indigenous voices
within the realms of archaeology, nor do they disregard other archaeologists’
approaches. Here Mulvaney and Kamminga reiterate the views from Aboriginal
people in regards to their study:
Aboriginal people assert that both their land and the interpretation of the culture and history have been appropriated by white Australians. They see Australian prehistory as their past, their heritage, and therefore theirs to do with as they wish, and to share with others only on their terms (1999:7).
This is a direct response to Ros Langford’s speech in 1983 on the repatriation
and study of human remains:
You seek to say that as scientists you have a right to obtain and study information of our culture. You seek to say that because you are
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Australians you have a right to study and explore our heritage because it is a heritage to be shared by all Australians, white and black. From our point of view we say you have come as invaders, you have tried to destroy our culture, you have built your fortunes upon the lands and bodies of our people and now, having said sorry, want a share in picking out the bones of what you regard as a dead past. We say that it is our past, our culture and heritage, and forms part of our present life. As such it is ours to control and it is ours to share on our terms’ (Langford 1983:2).
By identifying this Mulvaney and Kamminga are clearly aware of current politics
regarding those Indigenous Australians who demand their heritage back. They
comment on the nature of ‘new-age’ researchers’ work that makes an effort to
incorporate new approaches to the control of the past:
Another perspective within the profession is offered by the palaeoanthropologist Colin Pardoe, who accepts Aboriginal ownership of their ancestors’ remains and whose fieldwork is collaborative and often requested by local Aboriginal communities. Facilitating reburial is now part of Pardoe’s research practice, though he mourns the loss of data, research potential, and the scientific standard of replicability of results by restudy of the original material (1999:9).
While Mulvaney and Kamminga have clearly heard of newer practices on the
creation of a discourse of the Aboriginal past, they maintain many of the same
practices that Mulvaney embodied in his first text. Particularly, Mulvaney asserts
his claims in the text for free scientific inquiry. Mulvaney considers that the claim
of ownership and control is a form of reverse cultural imperialism, it threatens
the preservation of information about Australia before 1788, it places free
intellectual inquiry in jeopardy and it deprives future Aboriginal people of
valuable information about their pasts (1999:9). It is unclear in the text whether
this is Kamminga’s perspective as well. It is not the intention of this analysis to
determine whether Mulvaney’s views on repatriation are acceptable, but it is
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important to consider these views as part of a discourse of Aboriginalism.
Foucault examines power and knowledge relations as they come together at the
margins, for example in the asylum or the prison, where there is a direct
relationship between the oppressor and the subject. He argues to locate power
in its most extreme points of exercise, where it is always less legal in character
(Foucault 1976:96-7). It is here he argues that cracks begin to show. Likewise,
the contested area of repatriation can be seen as a weak spot, where the
hierarchical order of scientists and Aboriginal people come together, and the
more powerful have to demonstrate their strength. The way that Mulvaney does
this is by monopolising ‘the greatest good’, in asserting that human remains are
human heritage and are biologically important for all cultures’ understandings of
their history. It has been argued that the assertion of a human characteristic
which values history and heritage in this particular way is a colonialist and
Eurocentric value that deems European ways of valuing heritage and history as
universal and desirable methods in which to consider the world around us
(Smith 1998:28-35; Byrne 1991:270-6). Such a view disvalues distinctive
Indigenous understandings of their past and demoralises alternative methods of
valuing heritage.
Through language and terminology, Mulvaney and Kamminga reserve powerful
methods to assert particular existences of Aboriginality. As a scientifically
‘neutral’ practice, the terms employed by the authors are powerful yet subliminal
indicators of classification. A number of the terms that have been used in
previous editions, and up to the 1999 edition, have a great deal of cultural
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baggage attached to them, and their appropriateness can be questioned.
Classifications such as ‘prehistory’ and ‘hunter gatherer’ were traditionally
developed in a time where they not only referred to people and the past, but
particular ways of being and existing that were considered to be socially and
politically inferior or superior (David & Denham in press). For example, a ‘hunter
gather’ was considered as inferior; presumed to have a lack of intelligence or
evolutional ability to develop to agriculture. Similarly, ‘Prehistory’ references an
evolutionary period before the ‘superior’ ability of writing was adopted. Clearly
this can be considered offensive. These terminologies have been engineered to
privilege the culture of their designers, according to that culture’s terms (David &
Denham, in press). While Mulvaney may not have outwardly asserted Aboriginal
peoples inferiority in 1969, he did classify them strictly in the above mentioned
categories.
The continuation of the use of the word ‘prehistory’ has been of some
controversy for a substantial amount of time and Mulvaney and Kamminga
comment on their persistence in using such a term:
The title of our book may attract criticism as implying that the Aboriginal past is somehow marginal to ‘real’ history. In 1988 a meeting of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies resolved that it would use the term ‘history’ in referring to the Aboriginal past before written records. Despite this, the term ‘prehistory’ is embedded in archaeological writings in Australia and overseas, though it is being displaced by the more general (and less accurate) terms ‘archaeology’ and, less commonly, ‘pre-contact archaeology’ (1999:xvii).
Here Mulvaney and Kamminga acknowledge that there is a strong conceptual
tension in using these value-laden words. They mention that people may read
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into these terms to consider the Indigenous Australian past as inferior; the
cultural baggage is very apparent. Yet by stating this, they shake the words free
somehow of this tension, neutralise them, and can go on to use and perpetuate
them ‘objectively’. This has tended to be a habitual practice by Mulvaney. In
acknowledging a prejudice it can effectively be divorced from practice. The act
of pursuing long-established and habitual language helps to reinforce traditional
notions of what ‘Aboriginal’ people are; only existing as a prelude to ‘history’,
and shuts down other archaeologists’ and Indigenous Australian’s endeavours
to move away from this particular pigeonhole.
For Mulvaney and Kamminga, time has been one of the greatest gifts to
Aboriginal people: ‘Archaeologists played a leading role in campaigning for
legislation to protect Aboriginal places and material relics. Also, archaeology has
given material and scientific support for Aboriginal claims of deep antiquity
(Mulvaney & Kamminga 1999:6-7). Archaeologists are solely responsible for the
common catchphrase that many Aboriginal people use today to assert land
claims: ‘Aboriginal people have lived in this continent for X thousand years!’ For
Mulvaney and Kamminga this surely demonstrates to Indigenous Australians the
benefits of archaeological investigation into their pasts (1999:10).
Mulvaney and Kamminga also assert that archaeologists have been responsible
for putting to rest many of the preconceptions about Indigenous Australians as
being unchanging and timeless, by demonstrating that throughout time the
Aboriginal past was not static, there are links overseas, and traditions changed
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across time and place (1999:2). However, for Aboriginal people themselves, it
must be considered what ‘the gift of time’ has actually given. Aboriginal concepts
of the Dreaming have always been dismissed as ‘religion’, ‘myths’ or ‘stories’
about the past. Even with archaeologists’ validations that Aboriginal people have
been here an extremely long time, such assertions were never taken seriously
until backed by the ‘truths’ of a scientific, normalised discourse. Mulvaney and
Kamminga assert their opinions on the validity of the Dreaming when
considering megafaunal extinctions and the overkill theory:
These Dreaming accounts are attractive to prehistorians, but it must be cautioned that they are the product of oral transmissions from elders in one generation to younger people in the next. Is it likely, then, that they are factual records of environmental changes that occurred hundreds of generations in the past? Although we suspect not, other prehistorians may give them credibility (1999:121).
Until direct archaeological evidence is at hand, any speculations concerning prehistoric menus belong more appropriately to a nostalgic Dreaming (1999:129).
While Mulvaney & Kamminga are ‘giving a gift’, (argued to be well received by
Indigenous Australians due to its adoption into land claims), they are also taking
something away. The comments above make clear that the Dreaming cannot be
relied on as having legitimacy in asserting time depth, and Indigenous
Australians have no choice but to use Western notions of time to assert their
claims. This valuing and disvaluing of certain types of knowledges is discussed
by Foucault as the repression of subjugated knowledges (1976:81-3). In this
case, we see Mulvaney and Kamminga suppressing Indigenous knowledge as
inadequate and insufficient to explain Aboriginal history in this country. On many
accounts, Mulvaney and Kamminga disvalue knowledge of Indigenous elders
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and knowledge of the Dreaming as religion, myths, stories. The existence of
such a metaphysical, indefinable element to Indigenous culture presents a
problem for Mulvaney and Kamminga, for it cannot be categorised, measured
and contained. For them, it is this quality in the Dreaming that makes it so
inconceivable as a credible constituent to discuss. If Dreaming concepts do not
accept scientific explanations of the past then they are effectively comparable to
a dogmatist religion:
Aboriginal creation beliefs assume a virtual biological stability for people, plants and animals, conflicting with Western biological evolutionary theory and environmental evidence. This surely affects Aboriginal attitudes to archaeological explanation of human origins on this continent. Recent archaeological discoveries also coincide with the vogue for New Age dogmas and Christian fundamentalism, so that such beliefs possibly reinforce community opposition to evolutionary biology and research on human remains (1999:11). Neither author has indigenous Australian ancestry and our approach to Australian prehistory is based on the tenets and practice of Western science and philosophy. There is the potential conflict between the pragmatism of Western science and the timeless concept of the Dreaming, between human evolutionary theory and belief in a multitude of indigenous creations. Traditionally orientated Aboriginal people believe that their founding ancestors did not come to Australia from Southeast Asia, but were created by supernatural being within the land itself, and that existing natural features in the landscape testify to Dreaming creations. Paraphrasing the Gospel of St John, the first Australian may point to such sites as symbolising ‘before the white man was I am’. These different intellectual viewpoints are crucial elements in contemporary life, but they should not prevent the sincere and documented presentation of one of these explanations of the past. (1999:xviii)
In these quotes lurks Mulvaney and Kamminga’s genuine belief in archaeology’s
ability to provide ‘truths’ about the Aboriginal past. Dreaming is considered to be
akin to religion, which while ‘useful’ in today’s society, should not be used to
stop scientific investigation towards the ‘truth’. In placing Aboriginal Dreaming
conceptions in the same category with religion, Mulvaney and Kamminga
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ultimately place them in direct opposition to science. Such a science vs. religion
debate was started in the nineteenth century when Darwin’s biological evolution
concept won popular belief (Trigger 1989:102-3). Hence, Aboriginal people and
their ‘timeless concepts’ are seen as backward - as relying on misinformed
understandings – unchanging in the face of Western ‘pragmatic’ science.
Consequently they become disvalued as meaningful information in which to
understand the past. In correlating Dreaming with religion, we also receive a
false understanding of the depth and complexity of concepts of Aboriginal
spirituality. Many religions today easily fit into a Western understanding of the
way our society operates. They may not agree with evolutionary schemes of the
past, but in general they support many of our society’s ideals and values, and
they co-exist within the larger framework of our social and political system.
Indigenous Dreaming concepts cannot be separated from everyday life and
should not be viewed as ‘religion’. This fails to take into account the complexity,
sophistication and depth of Indigenous Australians’ Dreaming concepts that are
interwoven into every aspect of life. Indigenous Dreaming is closely related to
knowledge, and consequently is disvalued when considered in this case. By
disvaluing Indigenous knowledges and explanations of the past, and
championing scientific explanations, Mulvaney effectively determines the
scientific method as the only ‘legitimate’ way of accessing history prior to 1788.
Therefore Mulvaney and Kamminga’s ‘gift of time’ to Aboriginal people in their
1999 text, is as much (if not more) of a gift to themselves, other archaeologists,
and Australia; all of which have different agendas in its acquisition.
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Having already examined the images from Mulvaneys 1969 edition of Prehistory
of Australia, and considered Mulvaney and Kamminga’s contemporary
arguments against the defense of their discourse, we can now consider
photographs and images taken from Mulvaney and Kamminga’s 1999 text to
identify changes over time. The images below represent all the pictures in
Mulvaney and Kamminga that include portrayals of Aboriginal people, three
images that can also be found in the 1969 edition (see figures 1, 5 and 7).
Despite the test of time, these images can be considered in similar ways to the
ones Mulvaney used in his first text.
Figure 18. Wilgie Mia red ochre Figure 19. Extinct species of marsupial quarry in the Murchison region of megafauna (1999:123). Western Australia (1999:30). Figure 20. Life at Lake Mungo about 30,000 years BP. This reconstruction is based upon archaeological finds and inferences drawn from them, but telescopes data across thousands of years into one day. (1999:198)
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Figure 21. Awabakal people exploiting Figure 22. Tasmanian float canoe the sea coast in about 1820, probably (1999:324) at Red Head, near Newcastle. (1999:plate x)
Figure 23. Australian watercraft Figure 24. Flaking spearheads at (1999:323) Ngilipitji quarry, eastern
Arnhem Land, 1935. (1999:243)
Figure 25. Arnhem Land woman preparing waterlily- seed cakes, an important food in the dry season. (1999:83)
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Figure 26. Walpiri man from Yuenduma Figure 28. Tasmanian Aboriginal using a tula adze mounted on a wooden residents at Oyster Cove. 1858. handle, with characteristic two-handed grip. N. B. Plomley identified the people This arid-zone tool almost certainly in the photo as (back) Tippoo was a regional invention. (1999:247) Sahib and Patty; (centre) Mary Ann;
(sitting, from left) Wafferty, Trugernanner (Truganini), Caroline and Sarah. (1999:341) Figure 27 Kimberly Wandjina art being renewed by a traditional artist in 1966 (1999:plate xvi) Figure 29. Members of the northern Queensland Djungan community visiting the Ngarrabullgan excavation in 1993 during a Ranger training programme coordinated by the Kuku Djungan Aboriginal Corporation: From left, Ross Craig, Malcom Grainer, John B. Grainer Jnr and archaeologist Roger Cribb (1999:7).
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Figure 30. Aborigines at Coranderrk, Victoria, c. 1879, wearing possum-skin cloaks. The cloaks are worn here with the fur on the inside for protection against rain and the skins are scored in a cross-hatched pattern to aid flexibility. Although these cloaks were ubiquitous over southeastern Australia few have survived. (1999:90)
Figure 31. Canoe of a sheet of eucalypt bark, typical of watercraft on still, inland waterways in southeastern Australia. The man standing wears his possum skin cloak with the fur outwards, while the other man has his cloak reversed. (1999:303)
Clearly, particular visions of Aboriginality emerge from the images found in
Mulvaney and Kamminga’s 1999 text. In particular we begin to see a trend in
different types of Aboriginalism depending on spatial and temporal contexts. The
first trend can be illustrated by figures 19 to 23. Each of these images
represents an artificially constructed vision of Aboriginal people, as they are not
actual photographs. These images are what characterise Aboriginal identity in
the ‘prehistory’ of Australia. They are drawn and painted images, as ‘real’ ones
obviously cannot be procured. They are generally photographs of Indigenous
Australians living peacefully within nature and exploiting natural resources.
These images have little temporal significance as they are spaced as far as 30
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000 years apart (figure 20) to just under 150 years ago (figure 21). These
images are symbolic of the ‘timeless’ narrative of Indigenous culture, despite
Mulvaney’s and Kamminga’s best efforts to bring time depth to ‘prehistory’.
Spatially these images nearly all correlate (with the exception of figure 19) as
depictions of southeastern Australian Aboriginals; who were often coast, lake or
river dwelling people. Arguably, this is due to the fact that southeastern
Indigenous Australians were the most affected after European invasion, and
there are less ethnographic photographic examples of ‘traditional living’, at least
compared to Western Desert and Arnhem Land people. Such representations
greatly embody romanticised notions of Indigenous Australians; specifically they
can be considered as ‘noble savage’ imagery. In contemplating this, consider
that these images do not display Aboriginal groups fighting or conducting any
kinds of violence, they do not attempt to portray spiritual or metaphysical
elements of the Indigenous past and they refrain from picturing Aboriginal
people in obvious political scenarios (such as negotiating trade). In the same
way that we may look at an African zoological catalogue to see lions in their
natural habitats, Mulvaney has imported images into his texts that focus solely
on human interaction with the environment, and thus naturalise the Indigenous
body within the landscape.
A second set of images identified in the 1999 edition are those from the Western
Desert and Arnhem Land (Figures 18, 24-7, 28). Like in the 1969 edition of
Prehistory of Australia, these images are hallmark portrayals of Aboriginality and
are almost certainly most the recognisable ‘Aboriginal’ images. This is due to
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their resemblance of archetypical imagery of Aboriginal Australia that is included
today in tourism brochures, magazines or on postcards (Marcus 1999). Again
these images include the depiction of nakedness, of ‘blackness’, of simplicity set
in outline against the sky, the desert or undifferentiated distance (Marcus
1999:128) They are imported into the text as specimens to demonstrate the
manufacture of artefacts to ‘showcase’ these implements’ ‘context’. These
images represent the closest thing Mulvaney and Kamminga can get to picturing
‘prehistoric’ Aboriginal people. Each photograph depicts an individual or group
(as in figure 18) that does not look at the camera. None of these people are
named. The subjects do not speak to us themselves; we can not hear their
voices. They can not tell us about their histories, their families, their experiences
as lived individuals existing within a rich cultural system of understanding
(Marcus 1999:143). These passive subjects can only exist in the pages of
Mulvaney and Kamminga’s text, where they are explained in a sterile and
systemised ‘understanding’ of the past.
These images can be contrasted with a third type of image from Mulvaney
(figures 28 and 29). This third type of imagery display elements of European
influence. It is not coincidence that Mulvaney has named both the images that
show the most ‘colonised’ representations of Aboriginal people. Naming these
individuals represents the process of bringing them into the discourse of
Australian archaeology, and endowing them with power. However, it also
represents their division as ‘real’ or ‘traditional’ examples of Aboriginal culture.
Figure 29 is used in Mulvaney and Kamminga’s 1999 text to demonstrate the
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history of colonisation in Tasmania. Hence this vision of Aboriginal people is one
associated with the degradation and decline of ‘traditional’ culture and the
assimilation into European history. Figure 28 can be illustrative of Aboriginal
people becoming the ‘observers’ of their own culture. This is further
demonstrated when Mulvaney and Kamminga discuss the study of human
remains:
… future Aboriginal scientists are themselves likely to investigate these vital aspects of the place of indigenous people and their ancestors in the human family (1999:148).
Clearly Mulvaney and Kamminga speak of a future for Australian archaeology
that assimilates Aboriginal people into archaeology so that they may become
part of the process of writing ‘Australian history’.
Finally, we see a repeat of the images of Corranderrk Aboriginal Station. As
exemplars of Aboriginality that represent ‘authentic’ and ‘traditional’ people (see
section 5.1.1), they slot into the 1999 edition of contemporary archaeological
discourse as easily as they did in the 1969 edition.
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Chapter Six
Conclusion
In 1969 Mulvaney took a radical approach in writing the Aboriginal past.
Breaking away from conventional notions that had deemed Aboriginal people as
‘savage’ and ‘primitive’, he offered a perspective that conceptualised Aboriginal
peoples and their pasts as dynamic and changing. Within his text he asserting
that ‘there was scope for the innovator as well as for the dreamer, and the
Aborigines were not captives of an unchanging and hostile environment’
(1969:177). This dynamism of Aboriginal people, determined by Mulvaney, was
‘testimony to the achievements of the human spirit in the face of adversity’
(1969:12). In light of this assertion, Mulvaney along with his contemporaries,
used the powerful verifying apparatus of science, to confidently ‘discover’ and
map a conceptual history of deep Aboriginal antiquity in this country. These
‘discoveries’ were presented in Mulvaney’s text through typologies that were
designated as ‘prehistory’, ‘protohistory’, ‘Aboriginal Origins’ and the like
bringing a time phrase to a previously ‘timeless’ Aboriginal past.
In his 1969 edition, Mulvaney defined Aboriginal people in his text via an
economic categorisation (1969:66-7). Based on this scientific understanding,
Mulvaney further conceptualised the Aboriginal past in terms of Indigenous
Australians’ various ways of adapting to the environment both spatially and
temporally (1969:68-94). As demonstrated through the images that Mulvaney
includes to support his discussions, Aboriginal people and their ‘artefacts’
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became passive and subjective exemplars of Aboriginality. For Mulvaney, these
demonstrated a ‘traditional’ existence living close to nature. Here exists a
tension in Prehistory of Australia between a professed dispassionate scientism
and romanticism. In portraying Indigenous Australian’s as ‘traditional’,
naturalised and passive subjects, Mulvaney idealises and romanticises them.
This is surely contradictory to the objective, dispassionate intention of
Mulvaney’s work. Mulvaney fails to recognise a discord in the presentation of the
past, in the present. He does not disclose that the only understanding we can
possibly obtain of Aboriginal people, is one through a cloud of politics from the
present. In 1975 Mulvaney solidified this view on the Aboriginal past by
asserting that:
True understanding of the complexity and depth of the Aboriginal cultural heritage will come to both black and white Australians only through objective knowledge (1975:13).
In 1999, Mulvaney, with a new collaborator, Johan Kamminga, updated two and
a half decades of research of archaeological research to condense into
Prehistory of Australia. This contemporary edition can be said to exist at the
core of Australian archaeological practice, as it defines ‘prehistory’ and the
nature of ‘prehistoric’ research for all current archaeology practitioners. In this
edition, Mulvaney and Kamminga must demonstrate that they are aware of the
diverse approaches to the contemporary study of the Indigenous past, as well as
the perceived ‘politics’ that run with this. They do this by including Indigenous
perspectives on repatriation, reiterating Aboriginal peoples’ assertions that ‘both
their land and the interpretation of their culture and history have been
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appropriated by White Australians’ (1999:7). However Mulvaney and Kamminga
assert that different intellectual viewpoints ‘should not prevent the sincere and
documented presentation of one of these explanations of the past’ (1999:xviii).
In the 1999 edition, Mulvaney and Kamminga reserve powerful methods to
assert particular existences of Aboriginality. In particular, they present Aboriginal
knowledge of the Dreaming as an inadequate method for determining
information and understanding of the Indigenous past (1999:xviii, 11, 121, 129).
On many occasions they compare knowledge of the Dreaming to concepts of
religion, which further devalues Indigenous knowledge as unscientific and thus
unable to compete as a successful way of interpreting the past. Mulvaney and
Kamminga also use the word ‘prehistory’, which can be considered historically
as a culturally encoded word to signify ‘inferior’; as a prelude to actual history.
The images that Mulvaney and Kamminga import into the 1999 edition of
Prehistory of Australia can be seen as further perpetuating stereotypical visions
of Aboriginality, that were already functioning in Mulvaney’s 1969 edition. The
portrayal of the naturalised Indigenous body within the landscape can be seen
on numerous occasions in these images (figures 18 to 27). Such imagery
provide evidence to suggest that Mulvaney and Kamminga have tried to
preserve the ‘noble’ while despising and hoping to destroy the image of the
‘savage’ in their texts (Peters-Little 2003:19). His creation of an idealistic notion
of the past of Indigenous Australians’ life as leisured, adapted to the
environment and actively changing in time and space serves to elevate
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Indigenous culture and advocate it. A year before publishing his 1999 edition of
Prehistory of Australia, Mulvaney himself had even noted that a contemporary
understanding of Indigenous culture may prefigure a return to more traditional
concepts of Aboriginal people:
Indeed, some recent enthusiastic accounts of the simple hunting life possibly foreshadow a return to a new concept of the noble savage. At least this time it is based upon a truer understanding of the depth of the spiritual life of technologically unsophisticated peoples, and their close bonds with the land and its intelligent exploitation (Mulvaney 1998:35).
Such an assertion clearly demonstrates a conceptual understanding of
Indigenous culture as highly idealised and romanticised, naturalised within the
landscape. If ever an objective understanding of Indigenous Australian culture
were reached, surely it would not incorporate the erratic, subjective and
irrational discourse that exists in Mulvaney’s and Kamminga’s Prehistory of
Australia.
6.1 A genealogy of Mulvaney
In unpacking Prehistory of Australia though the analysis of text and images, I
have created a kind of Foucauldian genealogy. This genealogy has identified the
moment in Australian history where research and knowledge of Indigenous
Australians has proclaimed itself to be 'true' and 'unbiased' in a radical break
from the past. Such a break was characterised by the wide identification and
acknowledgment of past practices within Australia and their subsequent
rejection. Mulvaney has been integral to this identification and rejection process
in his accounts of early anthropological and archaeological approaches
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(Mulvaney 1958; 1964; 1989; 1998; 1990). However, this thesis has drawn
attention to some of the ways that Mulvaney has failed to identify the more
contemporary practices in archaeological discourse. This study has asserted
that Mulvaney employs discourses of Aboriginalism in his Prehistory of Australia
editions. As a genealogy, it has highlighted a period in the development of
Australian ‘prehistoric’ archaeology that has become commonly known among
archaeologists as a period of ‘professionalism’. This has been characterised by
an authoritarian reliance on scientism, with the aim of achieving a reconciled
Australia released through the power of ‘truth’ (or knowledge). In searching out
the ‘truth’, Mulvaney systematically rejected and discarded constructions of
Aboriginality from the past, to replace them with his own ‘unbiased’ and
‘objective’ visions that would ultimately free Indigenous Australians from
repression and misunderstanding in this country. Mulvaney’s 1969 and 1975
texts emerge out of history as Foucauldian discourses with coherent reflective
techniques and definite goals, with the obligation of searching for and telling the
truth. In this search, Mulvaney has systematically suppressed Indigenous
knowledges of themselves and their pasts as inadequate, and taken on a
powerful paternal role in to ‘tell the story’ of the Aboriginal past.
6.2 Limitations and future research
Obviously, this thesis has had strict limitations of time and space. While it
considers a number of the elements of the creation of a normalised discourse in
Mulvaney’s three volumes in detail, many more themes could be extracted and
expanded out. Of particular interest, would be a feminist perspective of the ways
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that patriarchal discourse is generated in Mulvaney and these patriarchal
systems extended into the past. Another theme that could be powerfully
researched through Prehistory of Australia, is the discussion of race and
genetics, and the ways that the Indigenous body is objectified and scrutinised
through archaeological discourse. If more space and time were allowed here,
such an investigation would have been included in this study. It would also be
relevant to consider to what extent Aboriginal people have helped define the
representations of their pasts within Mulvaney’s text, as it is clear that
relationships and influences between archaeologists and Aboriginal people can
go both ways.
If this were a PhD thesis, it is most likely that an investigation into many other
Australian archaeology texts would prove an extremely interesting, and perhaps
more comprehensive, study on the depiction of the Aboriginal past. For
example, using counterpoint texts (as was my preliminary research aim) such as
Bruno David's Landscapes, Rock-Art and the Dreaming (2002) and Josephine
Flood’s Archaeology of the Dreamtime (2004) may demonstrate substantial
differences and outcomes in methods of contemporary archaeological research.
Future investigations into representation in archaeology hope to offer an
alternative perspective on the unpacking and dismantling of Aboriginalism. This
could help to determine a ‘bigger picture’ in establishing to what extent
Prehistory of Australia is an accurate reflection of contemporary archaeological
practice. This could also include a reading of Mulvaney’s other publications to
contrast against his Prehistory of Australia editions. It is likely that a comparison
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as such, could elucidate vast differences in his approach between his shorter
articles and all-encompassing dictations on the past such as Prehistory of
Australia.
An attractive approach to future research could be to look into some of the
repercussions of archaeological interpretation within general society. This could
include a study into people’s understanding of the Indigenous past, using an
ethnographic approach. Although challenging, a study could be carried out
surveying a number of people from particular communities and from many
different socio-economic classes to determine exactly what individuals in our
society know and think about the Indigenous past. Such studies have already
been carried out in order to better understand what Australians know of
‘archaeology’ on general terms (Du Cros 2000). A study into public
understanding of Indigenous Australian archaeology could prove to be
informative in assisting archaeologists to uncover just how their research
reaches the public, thus investigating some of the applied outcomes a powerful
normalised discourse can have in our society.
6.3 Use of Study
Bruno David has noted how it ‘is easy to forget the basic assumptions that have
given rise to popular notions’ (David 2002:i). This can be said to be especially
true when we consider the creation of Aboriginal history in Mulvaney’s texts. It is
reasonably simple in archaeology today to acknowledge the subjectivity of one’s
own work. Mulvaney and Kamminga themselves state in their opening
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arguments in 1999 that ‘indeed, our book is a personal appraisal of Australian
prehistory because there can be no single version’ (1999:xv). However, despite
being a ‘single’ appraisal, it is clear that their text is characteristic of a universal
‘understanding’ of Indigenous culture based on the tenets of Western society
and scientific practice. It is my contention, that this text is widely accepted and
acknowledged within our archaeological discipline as a popular and well-read
book. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly remind ourselves of the outcomes
that uncritical acceptance of this type of ‘understanding’ brings. It is certainly not
easy to realise that normalising discourses are created, rather than given in our
society. This study itself follows the rules and guidelines to writing a thesis
according to conventional archaeological practice and methods. It consequently
accepts the doctrines of normative discourses that have been created in our
discipline and that regulate the system of the production of textual knowledge.
However, by returning to the fundamental concepts that underpin many of the
post-processual and post-colonial approaches to archaeology (Foucault and
Said) I have tried to show how contemporary archaeological practice is indeed,
historically situated, and that today it is perpetuating truisms, as it did in the past,
and most certainly will do in the future.
We must consider today how much of archaeology rests on the basic
foundations laid in Mulvaney’s texts? Clearly current post-processual practices
in archaeology (David 2002; Harrison & Williamson 2002; Lilley 2000) do plenty
to challenge and help correct the un-ethical nature of past research in Australian
Indigenous archaeology. However, how many of these approaches can be
93
considered as merely building on top of archaeology’s normative discourse,
rather than challenging the underlying discourse itself? This thesis attempts to
dig at the foundations of ‘modern’ archaeology through the medium of textual
and visual representation of the ‘Other’, in order to unpick the ways that we have
constituted archaeology as a coherent and powerful knowledge producing
apparatus.
Over the last twenty years, academic research from within the social sciences
and humanities has been characterised by comprehensive post-colonial and
post-modern studies into the representation of the ‘Other’. However, the
investigation of this topic in archaeology can be considered as grossly under-
represented. In this thesis I have demonstrated that colonial underpinnings still
exist in at least one facet of archaeological research. Further studies may
dispute these findings; however I believe that research into other archaeological
texts would prove that these colonial underpinnings still exist elsewhere.
94
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