Some important aspects of management of environment

The Indian Philosophy, of Environment focuses on a holistic approach towards the Management of Environment. According to the Isha Upnishad,-

“The whole universe belongs to the lord of creation or the Nature togetherwith all its creatures. By giving up all the green, one can enjoy the bounties of nature. No creature is superior to any other, and human beings should not have absolute power over nature. Let no species encroach on the rights and privileges of nature. The elements of sustainability are ingrained in this, because the emphasis is on using nature for the good of all human beings.”

According to the Traditional Culture of India, the harmony with the Natural Environment is the essential part of survival of human societies. Nature and Man form inseparable parts of the life support system of the earth that are interconnected and interdependent. The deterioration in one element affects others. There is greater emphasis laid down on values, beliefs and attitudes in traditional social ethics that helps man to live in harmony with nature. The most impressive and eloquent testament of Ecological Values found anywhere in the world literature is the Bhoomi Suktam contained in the Atharvaveda. In the World History, the Ecological Concerns became the State Concerns, for the first time during 272-232 BC. The Empireal Edicts declared by Ashoka lay down the rules of conduct that had to be obeyed with respect to the environment and non-compliance with those edicts met with adequate punishments. Here is another example of the Traditional Attitudes of Reverence that shows age long ethical approach of the Environmental Management in India-

“Impart to us those vitalizing forces that come,O Earth! from deep within your body,your central point, your navel; purify us wholly.The Earth is Mother; I am son of the Earth,The rain-giver is my father; may he shower on us blessings.”

- Atharvaveda: (12.1.12).

Here is a current statement in support of the Ethical Aspects of Environmental Management in India –

“It is an arrogant assumption to say that human beings are Lords and Masters of the lower creatures. On contrary, being endowed with greater things in life, they are the trustees of the Lower Animal Kingdom. The delicate and holistic balance that exists in nature has to be respected and maintained."- M.K.Gandhi. quoted by T. N. Khoshoo, in “An Apostle of Applied Human Ecology”- 1988.

Since we cannot raise the carrying capacity of the earth systems, we have our moral duty to conserve all the resources and biodiversity with all its means, traditions, cultures and religious practices. “To save our planet with all its living and non-living manifestations and to ensure the diversity that has been its strength, there is an urgent need to adopt a code, which may be called the Dharma of Ecology” (Khoshoo, T. N. 1999.Dharma of Ecology, Current Science. Vol.77 No. 9: 1147-1153).The Dharma of Ecology, is the ethical sense that should be one important aspect of the Environmental Management.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTEconomics has very much to do with development and development tends to do very much with the natural environment. Industries, agriculture, mining, developmental projects etc. are the pillars of the modern development and these, either directly or indirectly cause most of the problems in the environment. All of these, the industries, agriculture, developmental projects (including dams, bridges, flyovers, roads, rail-tracks, pastures etc.) are based on economic principles. The Environmental Management must take care of the cost and benefits together with the health of the environment while analyzing and managing development in its favour.

Environmental Managers must ensure that all the industries use pollution control devices to ensure good health of their local environment. On the other hand, industrialists often try to escape from using these devices as it affects the cost of industrial production and profit by consuming electricity or so. Many industries initially start using pollution control devices but later stop their function to reduce the consumption of energy and thus the cost of production. Hence, industries should be checked and their activities should be monitored regularly so as to safeguard the environment.

Industrialists often donot take into account the loss of health of environment in the price of the industrial productions. In case the industrialists’ donot include the impacts or costs experienced by adversely affected people on their health, or on the environment on the whole; in the prices they pay, the industry may produce pollutants in excess of the socially optimal level. The Theory of the Tragedy of Commons given by Garret Hardin reveals that visitors to an open access recreational area use the resources more than if they have to pay for it. It leads to the degradation of the environment. If Municipal Corporations lift up all the restrictions from the public walking along roads in cities, the moving public tends to convert every bend of a street into a toilet and every open space into a garbage dump or so. If Municipal Corporations construct toilets and lavatories and charge taxes from users, the problem will disappear automatically. Thus taxation in this case improves the economic level of municipal corporations and helps in the management of the health of the city environment. If the motor vehicles, industries and allied sectors that cause pollution are forced to pay taxes and fines, the problem of pollution in the local environment can be minimized and the income of enforcement organizations can be improved.

The economic aspect of the Environmental Management values the losses caused to the health of environment in economic terms. Hence the environmental management applies some practices as solutions to environmental problems. Some of these practices are explained below.

Environmental RegulationsThe impact of development is estimated in economic terms through regulations. Most of these regulations are enforced by fines that are operated in the form of tax if pollution rises above the prescribed limit. Secondly, pollution is monitored on regular basis and enforcement agencies see that the laws pertaining to the control of emissions or effluents are obeyed by industrial units.Pollution Quotas

Pollution can be reduced by fixing pollution quotas in the form of tradable emission permits. The polluter company tries to reduce pollution load on its own if it has to pay more than the actual expenses for pollution reduction.

Taxes and Tariffs on PollutionIf the cost of pollution is increased a polluter becomes bound to reduce the pollution being caused through its industrial unit. In view of this thought, taxes and tariffs on pollution are usually imposed on polluters. These taxes are termed as Green Taxes. A pollution tax that helps in the reduction of pollution to the socially “optimal” level would be set at such a level that pollution occurs only if the benefit to society exceeds the cost. Some people suggest shifting the tax on sales tax and income tax to the tax on pollution. It is popularly known as the Green Tax Shift.

Property RightsOne economic aspect of environmental management is redefining the property rights. Through environmental management, the property rights may be assigned to them who suffer from pollution. According to this theory of property rights which is also called as the Coase Theory, if people living near a factory had a right to clean air and water, then the factory could pay to the affected people. On contrary, if the factory had the right to pollute, though it can never be accepted), the people could pay the factory for reducing pollution.

Economic PoliciesThe economic aspects of management also relates to the economic policies so as to manage the global market system and its impact on environment. The economic policies should encourage environment friendly enterprises that employ people and take care of their welfare along with protecting the environment. Under this aspect of environmental management, resources are treated as natural capitals and so, these are accounted and assessed in the economic context. This is called as Green Accounting.

Promotion of Traditional Values and OccupationsA number of traditional values and practices can be substituted to economic values. For example, planting twigs of trees in paddy fields is a traditional practice of pest control through birds and it saves money expected to be consumed by pesticides. On the other hand, if traditional and environment friendly economic activities of people are promoted adequately, it will improve their economic conditions along with protecting the environment. The traditional Small Scale

Industries like Bee-keeping, Pisciculture, Sericulture, Mixed Farming etc. promote health of environment togetherwith improving the economic conditions of farmers. These traditional practices should be subsidized by the government instead of subsidizing the purchase environment damaging projects.

TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTThe technological aspects of environmental management relate to the development and adoption of environment friendly technologies that may help improve the income of people along with protecting the environment. Under this aspect, efficiencies of machines are improved so as to improve production with lesser expenses. This demands further research and innovations for the improvements of indigenous technologies, designing of better machines and enhancing production while safeguarding the natural environment.

The government of India has prescribed regulations and standards to adopt emission control strategies and to use eco -friendly technologies. Eco Marks are awarded to products that are environmentally safe and that have been manufactured through the application of environment friendly and efficient technologies. Along this line Eco Marks are awarded under following conditions-

(i).The products of industries should meet the standards prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).

(ii).The manufacturers should have sufficient evidence of compliance of Environmental Protection Act and Rules framed by the government. Such acts and rules may be the Environmental Protection Act, Water Act, Air Act, Prevention of Food Adulteration Act and Rules etc.

(iii). All the products should display the composition on the label pasted on the container of the product along with dates of manufacturing and expiry.

(iv).The manufacture of a product should use recyclable packaging materials.

The benefits of awarding Eco Marks are –

(i)Increase in the accountability for environmental impact.

(ii)Consumer Awareness

(iii)Improvement in the image of product and manufacturer.

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTSocial Aspects of Environmental Management incorporate: Community Health, Traditional Values, Traditional Culture, Nutrition and Human Rights including Women and Child Welfare in

relation to environment. Some specific areas of social field especially covered under equity, social justice and women empowerment have been described below.Equity and Social Justice

According to Adams, 1965 – the relational satisfaction in terms of perception of fair distribution of resources within interpersonal relationships is called as equity. The term was first developed by John Stacy Adams in 1963. Equity in the sense of environmental Management relates to equal distribution of resources and equal sharing of benefits of development by all the sections of society.

The programmes of modern development have not been supporting equally to all the sections of society. It has been a common experience that poor have always been sufferers during the constructions of mega-dams, power stations, industries, hospitals etc. The Green Revolution benefited big farmers only as the poor could not afford machines and agro-chemicals. Thousands of poor families have to migrate leaving their habitats and their shares of natural resources for ever. Many tribal populations have to face multiple migrations after being displaced during developmental activities. The environmental management should therefore ensure that natural resources are shared equally by every section of society so that the poor may not remain poor for ever and the underdeveloped may gain full chances of proper development. On the International Level, we have the example of a few developed nations exploiting maximum resources of the world. The International efforts are being made to fill this gap of disparity.

A concept of society in which justice is received in every aspect of the society rather than merely the administration of law, is called as Social Justice. There is injustice in many societies of the world. It is of common observation that some groups of people are consistently privileged while others are consistently disadvantaged. According to an opinion, “the social justice is about preventing human rights abuses and ensuring adherence to the International Law. Issues of minority groups, international justice, issues pertaining to women and children come under the process of social justice. Social justice on International level refers to war crimes, and crimes against humanity, including genocides.Environmental resource management

Environmental resource management is the management of the interaction and impact of human societies on theenvironment. It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself. Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystem services are protected and maintained for future human generations, and also maintain ecosystem integrity through considering ethical, economic, and scientific (ecological) variables.[1] Environmental resource management tries to identify factors affected by conflicts that rise between meeting needs and protecting resources. It is thus linked to environmental protection and sustainability. ignificance[edit]

Environmental resource management is an issue of increasing concern, as reflected in its prevalence in seminal texts influencing global socio-political frameworks such as the Brundtland

Commission's Our Common Future,[2] which highlighted the integrated nature of environment and international development and the Worldwatch Institute's annual State of the World (book series) reports.

The environment determines nature of every objects around the sphere. The behaviour, type of religion, culture and economic practices.

Scope[edit]

Improved agricultural practices such as these terraces in northwest Iowa can serve to preserve soil and improve water quality

Environmental resource management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. Environmental resource management involves the management of all components of the biophysical environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to the interconnected and network of relationships amongst all living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural and economic environment with the biophysical environment. The essential aspects of environmental resource management are ethical, economical, social, and technological. These underlie principles and help make decisions.

The concept of environmental determinism, probabilism and possibilism are significant in the concept of environmental reasource management.

It should be noted that environemntal resource mangement covers many areas in the field of science: geography, biology, physics, chemistry, sociology, psychology, phisiology, and etc

Aspects[edit]

Ethical[edit]

Environmental resource management strategies are intrinsically driven by conceptions of human-nature relationships.[3] Ethical aspects involve the cultural and social issues relating to the environment, and dealing with changes to it. "All human activities take place in the context of certain types of relationships between society and the bio-physical world (the rest of nature),"[4] and so, there is a great significance in understanding the ethical values of different groups around the world. Broadly speaking, two schools of thought exist in environmental ethics: Anthropocentrism and Ecocentrism each influencing a broad spectrum of environmental resource management styles along a continuum.[3] These styles perceive "...different evidence, imperatives, and problems, and prescribe different solutions, strategies, technologies, roles for economic sectors, culture, governments, and ethics, etc."[4]

Anthropocentrism[edit]Main article: Anthropocentrism

Anthropocentrism, "...an inclination to evaluate reality exclusively in terms of human values,"[5] is an ethic reflected in the major interpretations of Western religions and the dominant economic paradigms of the industrialised world.[3] Anthropocentrism looks at nature as existing solely for the benefit of man, and as a commodity to use for the good of humanity and to improve human quality of life.[6][7][8] Anthropocentric environmental resource management is therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake, but rather the conservation of the environment, and ecosystem structure, for human sake.

Ecocentrism[edit]Main article: Ecocentrism

Ecocentrists believe in the intrinsic value of nature while maintaining that human beings must use and even exploit nature to survive and live.[9] It is this fine ethical line that ecocentrists navigate between fair use and abuse.[9] At an extreme end of the ethical scale, ecocentrism includes philosophies such as ecofeminism and deep ecology, which evolved as a reaction to dominant anthropocentric paradigms.[3] "In its current form, it is an attempt to synthesize many old and some new philosophical attitudes about the relationship between nature and human activity, with particular emphasis on ethical, social, and spiritual aspects that have been downplayed in the dominant economic worldview."[10]

Economic[edit]

A water harvesting system collects rainwater from the Rock of Gibraltarinto pipes that lead to tanks excavated inside the rock.

The economy functions within, and is dependent upon goods and services provided by natural ecosystems.[11] The role of the environment is recognized in both classical economics and neoclassical economics theories, yet the environment held a spot on the back-burner of economic policies from 1950 to 1980 due to emphasis from policy makers on economic growth.[11] With the prevalence of environmental problems, many economists embraced the notion that, "If environmental sustainability must coexist for economic sustainability, then the overall system must [permit] identification of an equilibrium between the environment and the economy."[12] As such, economic policy makers began to incorporate the functions of the natural environment—or natural capital — particularly as a sink for wastes and for the provision of raw materials and amenities.[13]Debate continues among economists as to how to account for natural capital, specifically whether resources can be replaced through the use of knowledge and technology, or whether the economy is a closed system that cannot be replenished and is finite.[14] Economic models influence environmental resource management, in that management policies reflect beliefs about natural capital scarcity. For someone who believes natural capital is infinite and easily substituted, environmental management is irrelevant to the economy.[3] For example, economic paradigms based on neoclassical models of closed economic systems are primarily concerned with resource scarcity, and thus prescribe legalizing the environment as an economic externality for an environmental resource management strategy.[3] This approach has often been termed 'Command-and-control'.[3] Colby has identified trends in the development of economic paradigms, among them, a shift towards more ecological economics since the 1990s.[3]

Ecological[edit]

A diagram showing the juvenile fish bypass system, which allows young salmon and steelhead to safely pass the Rocky Reach Hydro Project inWashington

Fencing separates big game from vehicles along the Quebec Autoroute 73 in Canada.

"The pairing of significant uncertainty about the behaviour and response of ecological systems with urgent calls for near-term action constitutes a difficult reality, and a common lament" for many environmental resource managers.[15] Scientific analysis of the environment deals with several dimensions of ecological uncertainty.[16] These include: structural uncertainty resulting from the misidentification, or lack of information pertaining to the relationships between ecological variables; parameter uncertaintyreferring to "uncertainty associated with parameter values that are not known precisely but can be assessed and reported in terms of the likelihood…of experiencing a defined range of outcomes";[17] and stochastic uncertainty stemming from chance or unrelated factors.[16] Adaptive management [18][19] is considered a useful framework for dealing with situations of high levels of uncertainty [20] though it is not without its detractors.[21]

A common scientific concept and impetus behind environmental resource management is carrying capacity. Simply put, carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. The concept of carrying capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots in Malthusian theory. An example is visible in the EUWater Framework Directive. However, "it is argued that Western scientific knowledge ... is often insufficient to deal with the full complexity of the interplay of variables in environmental resource management.[22][23] These concerns have been recently addressed by a shift in environmental resource management approaches to incorporate different knowledge systems includingtraditional knowledge,[24] reflected in approaches such as adaptive co-management [25][26]

[27] community-based natural resource management [28][29] and transitions management.[30] among others.[24]

Sustainability[edit]

Main article: Sustainability and environmental management

Sustainability and environmental resource management involves managing economic, social, and ecological systems within and external to an organizational entity so it can sustain itself and the system it exists in.[31][32] In context, sustainability implies that rather than competing for endless growth on a finite planet, development improves quality of life without necessarily consuming more resources.[33] Sustainably managing environmental resources requires organizational change that instills sustainability values that portrays these values outwardly from all levels and reinforces them to surrounding stakeholders.[31][32] The end result should be a symbiotic relationship between the sustaining organization, community, and environment.

Many drivers compel environmental resource management to take sustainability issues into account. Today's economic paradigms do not protect the natural environment, yet they deepen human dependency on biodiversity and ecosystem services.[34] Ecologically, massive environmental degradation [35][36] and climate change [37][38] threaten the stability of ecological systems that humanity depends on.[32][39] Socially, an increasing gap between rich and poor and the global North-South divide denies many access to basic human needs, rights, and education, leading to further environmental destruction.[32][39][40][41] The planet's unstable condition is caused by many anthropogenic sources.[37] As an exceptionally powerful contributing factor to social and environmental change, the modern organisation has the potential to apply environmental resource management with sustainability principals to achieve highly effective outcomes.[31][32] To achieve sustainable development with environmental resource management an organisation should coincide with sustainability principles, such as: social and

environmental accountability, long-term planning; a strong, shared vision; a holistic focus; devolved and consensus decision making; broad stakeholder engagement and justice; transparency measures; trust; and flexibility, to name a few.[31][32][42]

Current paradigm shifts[edit]

To adjust to today's environment of quick social and ecological changes, some organizations have begun to experiment with various new tools and concepts.[43][44]Those that are more traditional and stick to hierarchical decision making have difficulty dealing with the demand for lateral decision making that supports effective participation.[43] Whether it be a matter of ethics or just strategic advantage organizations are internalizing sustainability principles.[44][45] Examples of some of the world's largest and most profitable corporations who are shifting to sustainable environmental resource management are: Ford, Toyota, BMW, Honda, Shell, Du Pont, Swiss Re, Hewlett-Packard, and Unilever.[31][32] An extensive study by the Boston Consulting Group reaching 1,560 business leaders from diverse regions, job positions, expertise in sustainability, industries, and sizes of organizations, revealed the many benefits of sustainable practice as well as its viability.[45]

It is important to note that though sustainability of environmental resource management has improved,[31][32] corporate sustainability, for one, has yet to reach the majority of global companies operating in the markets.[42] The three major barriers to preventing organizations to shift towards sustainable practice with environmental resource management are: not understanding what sustainability is; having difficulty modeling an economically viable case for the switch; and having a flawed execution plan, or a lack thereof. [45] Therefore the most important part of shifting an organization to adopt sustainability in environmental resource management would be to create a shared vision and understanding of what sustainability is for that particular organization, and to clarify the business case.[45]

Stakeholders[edit]

Public sector[edit]

A conservation project in North Carolina involving the search for bog turtles was conducted by United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission and its volunteers

The public sector comprises the general government sector plus all public corporations including the central bank.[46] In environmental resource management the public sector is responsible for administering natural resource management and implementing environmental

protection legislation.[47] The traditional role of the public sector in environmental resource management is to provide professional judgement through skilled technicians on behalf of the public.[43] With the increase of intractable environmental problems, the public sector has been led to examine alternative paradigms for managing environmental resources.[43] This has resulted in the public sector working collaboratively with other sectors (including other governments, private and civil) to encourage sustainable natural resource management behaviours.[47]

Private sector[edit]

The private sector comprises private corporations and non-profit institutions serving households.[48] The private sector's traditional role in environmental resource management is that of the recovery of natural resources.[49] Such private sector recovery groups include mining (minerals and petroleum), forestry and fishery organisations.[49] Environmental resource management undertaken by the private sectors varies dependent upon the resource type, that being renewable or non-renewable and private and common resources (also see Tragedy of the Commons).[49] Environmental managers from the private sector also need skills to manage collaboration within a dynamic social and political environment.[43]

Civil society[edit]

Civil society comprises associations in which societies voluntarily organise themselves into and which represent a wide range of interests and ties.[50] These can include community-based organisations, indigenous peoples' organisations and non-government organisations (NGO).[50] Functioning through strong public pressure, civil society can exercise their legal rights against the implementation of resource management plans, particularly land management plans.[43] The aim of civil society in environmental resource management is to be included in the decision-making process by means of public participation.[43] Public participation can be an effective strategy to invoke a sense of social responsibility of natural resources.[43]

Tools[edit]

As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. An environmental management standard or system or protocolattempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by some objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental risk management and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common auditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.

Other environmental management systems (EMS) tend to be based on the ISO 14001 standard and many extend it in various ways:

The Green Dragon Environmental Management Standard is a five level EMS designed for smaller organisations for whom ISO 14001 may be too onerous and for larger organisations who wish to implement ISO 14001 in a more manageable step-by-step approach,[51]

BS 8555 is a phased standard that can help smaller companies move to ISO 14001 in six manageable steps,

The Natural Step  focuses on basic sustainability criteria and helps focus engineering on reducing use of materials or energy use that is unsustainable in the long term,

Natural Capitalism  advises using accounting reform and a general biomimicry and industrial ecology approach to do the same thing,

US Environmental Protection Agency  has many further terms and standards that it defines as appropriate to large-scale EMS,[citation needed]

The UN and World Bank has encouraged adopting a "natural capital" measurement and management framework,[citation needed]

The European Union Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS).

Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems" using performance audits and full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products into consumables, service products or durables and unsaleables — toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases, do not realize they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of any purchase, better environmental resource management is achieved without systems.

Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of integrated management. It shares a wider approach and stresses out the importance of interdisciplinary assessment. It is an interesting notion that might not be adaptable to all cases

ISO and the environment

Three aspects of technology

Far from being opposite to culture, technology is an inalienable element of culture that permeates the fabric of our ways of life.  Residing not only in high-tech goods and services but more importantly in human understanding, it influences how we do things , relate to each other, and organize our social institutions.

Technology has three major aspects: goods and services, human activities that create these products, and capabilities that enable technical activities.  The aspects are interrelated and mutually reinforcing.  Activities in research, development, and production create not only consumer goods and services but also knowledge and skills, which supply the growth of technological ability.  On the other side, people’s demand for goods and services stimulate technological activities, some of its results are ploughed back as social investments in education, research, and infrastructure, which expand technological capability.  Thus technology progresses under the “supply push” and “demand pull,” influenced in each step by myriad factors such as natural resources, economic conditions, and consumer tastes.

Technological products and infrastructures

High-tech goods and services permeate our daily life.  Less conspicuous are various implements and infrastructures geared toward processes of production.  Besides being capital investment, they embody certain human skills and experiences in hardware:

plant layouts and operating procedures machines for agriculture and manufacture control mechanisms for automation standards for technological systems and products

public infrastructures for energy, communication, transportation, information processing, public health, and national defense.

Environmental Aspects

The infrastructure and environmental aspects for all telecommunications equipment, including that installed at subscriber premises is under study in ETSI technical committees. Environmental aspects considered include: 

climatic and biological conditions chemically and mechanically active substances mechanical conditions during storage, transportation and while being used power supply issues including power distribution, earthing and bonding techniques thermal management for equipment and facilities noise emission of equipment.

The Technical Committee EE is responsible for defining the environmental and infrastructural aspects for all telecommunication equipment and its environment, including equipment installed in subscriber premises. Where ever possible this will be achieved by references to existing international standards. 

The field includes:

Environmental Conditions Power Supply, Bonding and related topics Mechanical Structure and Physical design Environmental affairs

Energy efficiency is now a key focus of ETSI's Access, Terminals, Transmission and Multiplexing Technical Committee (TC ATTM). The TC is defining the general landscape of

work required to address the energy consumption of all telecommunications equipment and systems. TC ATTM and the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation (CENELEC) are working together on broadband implementation in Europe. Energy costs continue to rise, while broadband penetration is introducing new equipment to the network architecture. Energy consumption is therefore a major consideration affecting widespread broadband deployment.

Technology management

Technology management is set of management disciplines that allows organizations to manage their technological fundamentals to create competitive advantage. Typical concepts used in technology management are technology strategy (a logic or role of technology in organization), technology forecasting (identification of possible relevant technologies for the organization, possibly through technology scouting), technology roadmap (mapping technologies to business and market needs), technology project portfolio ( a set of projects under development) and technology portfolio (a set of technologies in use).

The role of the technology management function in an organization is to understand the value of certain technology for the organization. Continuous development of technology is valuable as long as there is a value for the customer and therefore the technology management function in an organization should be able to argue when to invest on technology development and when to withdraw.

Technology management can also be defined as the integrated planning, design, optimization, operation and control of technological products, processes and services, a better definition would be the management of the use of technology for human advantage.

The Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering defines technology management as the field concerned with the supervision of personnel across the technical spectrum and a wide variety of complex technological systems. Technology management programs typically include instruction in production and operations management, project management, computer applications, quality control, safety and health issues, statistics, and general management principles.[1]

Perhaps the most authoritative input to our understanding of technology is the diffusion of innovations theory developed in the first half of the twentieth century. It suggests that all innovations follow a similar diffusion pattern - best known today in the form of an "s" curve though originally based upon the concept of a standard distribution of adopters. In broad terms the "s" curve suggests four phases of a technology life cycle - emerging, growth, mature and aging.

These four phases are coupled to increasing levels of acceptance of an innovation or, in our case a new technology. In recent times for many technologies an inverse curve - which corresponds to a declining cost per unit - has been postulated. This may not prove to be universally true though for information technology where much of the cost is in the initial phase it has been a reasonable expectation.

The second major contribution to this area is the Carnegie Mellon Capability Maturity Model. This model proposes that a series of progressive capabilities can be quantified through a set of threshold tests. These tests determine repeatability, definition, management and optimization. The model suggests that any organization has to master one level before being able to proceed to the next.

The third significant contribution comes from Gartner - the research service, it is the hype cycle, this suggests that our modern approach to marketing technology results in the technology being over hyped in the early stages of growth. Taken together, these fundamental concepts provide a foundation for formalizing the approach to managing technology.

Accreditation and certification

The Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering (ATMAE), accredits selected collegiate programs in technology management. An instructor or graduate of a technology management program may choose to become a Certified Technology Manager (CTM) by sitting for a rigorous exam administered by ATMAE covering production planning & control, safety, quality, and management/supervision.

ATMAE program accreditation is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) for accrediting technology management programs. CHEA recognizes ATMAE in the U.S. for accrediting associate, baccalaureate, and master’s degree programs in technology, applied technology, engineering technology, and technology-related disciplines delivered by national or regional accredited institutions in the United States.(2011)[2]

Innovation management

Innovation management is the management of innovation processes. It refers both to product and organizational innovation.

Innovation management includes a set of tools that allow managers and engineers to cooperate with a common understanding of processes and goals. Innovation management allows the organization to respond to external or internal opportunities, and use its creativity to introduce new ideas, processes or products.[1] It is not relegated to R&D; it involves workers at every level in contributing creatively to a company's product development, manufacturing and marketing.

By utilizing innovation management tools, management can trigger and deploy the creative capabilities of the work force for the continuous development of a company.[2] Common tools include brainstorming, virtual prototyping, product lifecycle management, idea management, TRIZ, Phase–gate model, project management, product line planning and portfolio management. The process can be viewed as an evolutionary integration of organization, technology and market by iterating series of activities: search, select, implement and capture.[3]

Innovation processes can either be pushed or pulled through development. A pushed process is based on existing or newly invented technology, that the organization has access to, and tries to find profitable applications for.

A pulled process is based on finding areas where customers needs are not met, and then find solutions to those needs.[4] To succeed with either method, an understanding of both the market and the technical problems are needed. By creating multi-functional development teams, containing both engineers and marketers, both dimensions can be solved.[5]

The product lifecycle of products is getting shorter because of increased competition. This forces companies to reduce the time to market. Innovation managers must therefore decrease development time, without sacrificing quality or meeting the needs of the market.

Definition[edit]

In a survey of literature on innovation, Edison et al. [6] found over 40 definitions. They also performed an industrial survey to capture how is innovation defined in industry. After analysis of the existing definitions whether these definitions comprehensively cover all the dimensions of innovation, they found the following definition to be the most complete: "Innovation is: production or adoption, assimilation, and exploitation of a value-added novelty in economic and social spheres; renewal and enlargement of products, services, and markets; development of new methods of production; and establishment of new management systems. It is both a process and an outcome.". This definition was given by Crossan and Apaydin and it builds on the OECD manual's definition.

Innovation Management

The pioneer of innovation management was the Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter, working during the 1930s, who identified innovation as a significant factor in economic growth.[7] His book “Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy” first fully developed the concept of creative destruction.

Innovation management helps an organization grasp an opportunity and use it to create and introduce new ideas, processes, or products industriously.[1] Creativity is the basis of innovation management; the end goal is a change in services or business process. Innovative ideas are the result of two consecutive steps, imitation andinvention.[8]

By utilizing innovation management tools, management can trigger and deploy the creative capabilities of the work force for the continuous development of a company.[2] Common tools include brainstorming, virtual prototyping, product lifecycle management, idea management, TRIZ, Phase–gate model, project management, product line planning and portfolio management. The process can be viewed as an evolutionary integration of organization, technology, and market, by iterating series of activities: search, select, implement and capture.[3]

Innovation processes can either be pushed or pulled through development. A pushed process is based on existing or newly invented technology that the organization has access to. The goal is to find profitable applications for the already-existing technology. A pulled process, by contrast, is based on finding areas where customers' needs are not met and finding solutions to those needs.[4] To succeed with either method, an understanding of both the market and the technical problems are needed. By creating multi-functional development teams, containing both engineers and marketers, both dimensions can be solved.[9]

Innovation, although not sufficient, is a necessary prerequisite for the continued survival and development of enterprises. The most direct way of business innovation istechnological innovation and institutional innovation. Management innovation, however, plays a significant role in promoting technological and institutional innovation.

The goal of innovation management within a company is to cultivate a suitable environment to encourage innovation.[10] The suitable environment would help the firms get more cooperation

projects, even ‘the take-off platform for business ventures’.[10]:57 Senior management's support is crucial to successful innovation; clear direction, endorsement, and support are essential to innovation pursuits.

Managing complex innovation

Innovation is a change that outperforms a previous practice. To lead or sustain with innovations, managers need to concentrate heavily on the innovation network, which requires deep understanding of the complexity of innovation. Collaboration is an important source of innovation. Innovations are increasingly brought to the market by networks of firms, selected according to their comparative advantages, and operating in a coordinated manner.

When a technology goes through a major transformation phase and yields a successful innovation, it becomes a great learning experience, not only for the parent industry but other industries as well. Big innovations are generally the outcome of intra- and interdisciplinary networking among technological sectors, along with combination of implicit and explicit knowledge. Networking is required, but network integration is the key to success for complex innovation. Social economic zones, technology corridors, free trade agreements, and technology clusters are some of the ways to encourage organizational networking and cross-functional innovations.

6 Key Aspects of Management

These aspects are

exercising authority

making things happen

prioritizing

exercising control

problem-solving

decisivenessExercising Authority

Good managers depend more on the authority they have of expertise and wisdom than their

formal authority of power. They are able to clearly and persuasively specify what they want

people to do. They lead by example, and display confidence in what they do.Making Things Happen

Getting results begins with setting specific goals that are demanding, but realistic and attainable.

This is accompanied by continual monitoring, so that deviations can be corrected early. High

achievers are enthusiastic about the task and spread that enthusiasm to others. When setbacks

occur, they are able to quickly regroup.

Prioritizing

There are often conflicting demands on time and resources, and it is necessary to decide which

should be done first. Here is one approach on how to make these decisions

1. List everything that has to be done. These can be grouped into three types. First, regular duties,

then special requests from others, and finally work initiated by yourself.

2. For each task, note: the significance of the impact of the task; the importance of the person

requesting the work; the urgency of the task; the possibility of extending deadlines; and the

duration of the task.

3. Determine how much time is available to complete the work beyond the routine work that must

get done. Determine also the available of resources, staff, etc., for completing the work.

4. Prepare a draft of the priorities, based on the criteria in step 2.

5. Determine the possibility of fitting the prioritized list into the time and resources that are

available. If necessary, move self-imposed priorities to the back burner and give more priority to

the higher impact tasks. Where possible, negotiate later completion times in order to move a task

further down the priority list.

6. Finalize the priority list and schedule the work.Exercising Control

In order to ensure that planned activities will succeed, it is important to plan well, measure actual

progress against planned progress, and take corrective actions when deviations occur. This

means having fair targets and budgets, success criteria and regular monitoring of performance

against the success criteria.Problem-Solving

When managing people, problems are a common occurrence. Here is one method of solving

problems effectively

Define what the situation is. Sometimes the biggest difficulty is understanding what is wrong or

about to go wrong.

Specify objectives for what should be achieved in order to deal with the current or potential

problem.

Develop hypotheses about what might have caused the problem in the first place.

Beginning with these hypotheses, get the facts about what actually happened and what should

have happened.

Analyse the facts and determine which are relevant. Use this to diagnose the cause of the

problem.

identify and evaluate possible courses of action based on the cost, the likelihood of achieving

objectives, stakeholder impact, etc.

Determine the optimal alternative, plan how to implement it, and finally, execute the plan. The

solution to a problem should always be approached while keeping in mind how the solution will

be implemented.Decisiveness

Decisions are rarely a choice between right and wrong, but rather between choices where there is

no clear winner. In discussion solutions with people, better decisions frequently come from a

clash of viewpoints. That said, when a decision is needed, avoid procrastination and work to

have a response as soon as possible. That said, be careful of assumptions and learn from past

experience. Although speedy decision making is desirable, allow time to think over what you are

thinking of giving as your answer.4 Key Aspects of Procedure ManagementProcedure management is an ongoing process and not a single event.  Procedures are dynamic documents that need to be continuously updated and improved throughout their life cycle.  They shouldn’t be written, read once and forgotten in a file cabinet!

Companies need to evaluate if they have a system in place that supports the entire process of managing procedure information.  The system must be able to handle 4 key aspects of the process:

1. Document – procedures are used for recording all of the initial tasks involved to complete a process.  For example, there may be many procedures and tasks performed to complete the process of order entry.  Documenting the steps leads to greater efficiency and accuracy so that the information is available the next time an employee performs the same job.

2. Maintain – procedure information needs to be continuously maintained.  The business environment is always changing and information must be updated in order to reflect those changes.  An effective system provides a method to easily access and update existing information with modified or new instructions.  It also must capture expert knowledge such as procedure enhancements and problem resolutions.

3. Communicate – a key part of the procedure management process is communicating up-to date procedure information to all users.  Everyone should be made aware of newly documented policies and procedures and any modifications that occur.  This ensures that management and its’ employees are kept in sync regarding how a company actually performs their work.

4. Manage – the final step in the procedure management process is the business managers’ monitoring of the system.  They need to assess if proper controls are in place for handling procedure information correctly.

Procedure management involves successfully implementing all four aspects of the process in order to satisfy the needs of both employees and business managers.  Employees need to get up to speed quickly with initial documentation and gain quick access to information for future reference.  Managers must be able to communicate new information as the business changes.  Also, controls must be in place to monitor the procedure management process.  Keep these four main aspects in mind when evaluating your procedure management system.

The Three Most Important Aspects of Performance Management –

Performance management is basically a system of different processes that combine to create an effective workforce within your company that can effectively reach your business goals. There are many different aspects of performance management, but in most cases it can be broken down into a few simple steps. If you're adopting a performance management process for the first time or want to modify your current one to maximize its effectiveness, there are three key aspects that are the most important in your performance management system. Obviously these are up for debate, but in most cases of performance management you can plan on these to have the most impact on the success or failure of your performance management efforts.

1. Planning – The first step in any good performance management process is likely also the most important. Haphazardly stumbling towards goals will usually only end in disaster, so it's important that proper planning is used during performance management. This applies not only to the performance management system itself, but also to the inner workings of the business. Speaking strictly about performance management, good planning begins by analyzing the exact goals you want your company to attain and to develop realistic ways to achieve them. It's vital that your goals be realistic, otherwise your performance management plan will fail. It's also important to take the time to create a real plan that can achieve your goals. 

2. Monitoring – If any performance management system is to succeed it needs to involve a very rigorous monitoring process. Closely surveying your overall company, each department, and individuals is vital for performance management and for you to reach your goals. Monitoring during performance management involves not just monitoring the progress of each department and employee but also providing them with constant feedback whether it is in the form of praise and reward or in constructive criticism. If you want your performance management efforts to succeed you'll have to monitor each step towards your goal very closely to ensure everything is

going according to plan. If areas seem to be lacking, you'll need to be able to take steps to improve them such as providing training. 

3. Rewards – While some experts place this lower in importance than other aspects of performance management, the truth is that your employees deserve rewards and that few things will influence not only the success of your performance management efforts but also the success of your entire company quite like appropriate rewards. Whether it is simple public recognition or actual monetary rewards, no performance management process will be complete or effective without good use of rewards. They can improve morale and employee satisfaction, boost productivity, and help you move closer to your goals. If you want your performance management to be successful, take the time to utilize rewards.Unicorn HRO provides performance management tools that can help you formulate plans, monitor progress closely, and even track and manage rewards. Having software that allows you to effectively implement performance management is important and almost as vital as the actual steps that you take in your performance management efforts.Why Training Management Matters – What you Should Know

Employee training is a major part of any successful business' strategy and can yield an ROI of up to twenty four percent with a single year. There are many different steps and tools that you need to employ to help with employee training, but one of the best is using training management software to help with the process of training employees. While you may be tempted to overlook training management the truth is that training management software is one of the best tools you can employ to ensure that you get the best results from employee training. There are many reasons that training management matters, but for now we'll look at some of the biggest ones.First of all, training management software allows you to track training requirements and needs for each individual in your department. This aspect of training management makes it easy to see who needs training and when, thus eliminating spending money on training when it isn't needed. You'll also be able to schedule training through training management software, placing groups into the proper training sessions without leaving a department devoid of workers. This is an important aspect of training management that can help ensure that your company continues to function smoothly during the training process.Training management software will allow you to send emails out to employees who need to undergo training and let them know in advance what will be expected of them. Training management lets you notify supervisors and employees of any required training that must be done. This aspect of training management software matters because it avoids confusion and helps all of your employees including management stay aware of any forthcoming training issues that could arise. In other words, training management makes the training process simple and hassle free, and gives everyone involved the opportunity to prepare for it before it arrives.Another reason that  training management   software is so important to your company is that it can help you manage and track the costs of your training programs and more. With training management software you'll be able to check the costs of training based on individuals, groups, and any other metric you need to view. This lets you assess just how much you're spending on training. You can also use training management programs to gain insight into what kind of positive effects training is having on your company since good training management systems will let you track employee progress during the training and afterwards.

Training management software lets you handle other tasks as well, such as archiving training histories for audits and compliance reviews. There's no question that employee training is a vital part of your business, and training management systems make it easier than ever to manage and oversee every aspect of training. Unicorn HRO offers a variety of training management solutions and can help you take control of your employee training programs like never before. Whether you're just starting up a training system or want to improve the training methods you're already using, training management programs can help you boost effectiveness and improve productivity throughout your company. They're real solutions you can't ignore.The High Cost of Failure at Retaining Employees – Expensive and Dangerous

Retaining employees is one of the single most important aspects of your company. Even losing a low level worker can cost you big. Low estimates say that the turnover of a single eight dollar per hour employee will end up costing your company close to four thousand dollars when you factor in recruiting, interviewing, retraining, and loss of productivity that comes from the loss. With higher paid employees, retaining employees is even more vital. While every company will lose some employees each month for whatever reason, retaining employees can be done and your company can be more successful at it than you think. For now, however, let's take a cold, hard look at the real costs that come with a failure at retaining employees.

First, we'll continue with the immediate and obvious costs that come when you lack the skills needed for retaining employees. Many studies have been done in this area, and most report that thirty percent to fifty percent of an employee's annual salary is about what it costs to replace them. The steps needed for retaining employees, like benefits packages, may seem expensive until you realize what not retaining employees can really cost you. Why so much? Consider what you've already invested in the employee, then factor in the costs of attracting a replacement, interviewing applicants, reviewing them, hiring a replacement, and the cost of training them. Now add the cost of lost productivity, and you'll see why not retaining employees can be so costly.There are unseen costs that come with not retaining employees as well. Mainly, your other employees take a hit when a coworker leaves, especially if they've been with the business for years. Morale drops and productivity follows. Retaining employees keeps everything working smoothly in your company, like a well-oiled machine. If you fail at retaining employees and one leaves, the entire department may have to readjust to their absence and then readjust to their replacement. Not retaining employees can have serious effects beyond the obvious.Of course, retaining employees realistically means that you simply won't be able to keep all of your workers. Turnover is common, especially among newer hires. It's retaining employees who have been with you for an extended period of time that is so important. While not retaining employees that are newer will still cost you, the expense is nothing when compared to what failure at retaining employees of a higher level will be.Many companies ignore the importance of retaining employees because they assume it's just part of operating a business. While that's true to a point, you should still never overlook the value of retaining employees or the high costs of not doing so. Unicorn HRO offers outsourcing and technology solutions that can help you with retaining employees of all skill levels. If you're tired of not retaining employees and watching your profits run down the drain, you need to make adjustments within your company to improve your ability at retaining employees. Otherwise, you're fighting a battle you may not be able to win.

After asking many executives what characteristics made a successful leader, I created a list of the 20 top answers. Are you following all 20? And with the right experiences can all executives learn to be leaders?

1. Ethical and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) - leadership sets the standards and culture for ethical behavior.

2. A Leader is there to serve - A truly successful leader understands that you are there to serve your team, not to be served.

3. A vision of commitment to the organization - Leadership is about creating a vision that inspires those who work for and around you to participate actively in key goals, objectives and the overall mission.

4. From the top to the bottom – Leaders must be able to quickly assess the gap between top management and the working group, and think of innovations of how to encourage the team to act and feel satisfied as winners or contributors to the success of the company.

5. Excellent communication – Leaders must have an astute clarity of expression, communicating thoughts entirely synchronized with the messages delivered AND received. A leader must have the ability to communicate effectively at every level in your organization.

6. Ability to listen and debate - Rather than simply ‘delivering’ ideas, prepare to engage in debate around ideas and really listen to every suggestion.

7. Teamwork – Absolutely essential is the ability to create and maintain trust and respect between team members quickly and effectively. A leader should be able to spot key problems and empower management to iron out any issues.

8. Delegation - A senior executive leader must have confidence to delegate work to his or her team and step back - leaders are there to empower others to become leaders and managers themselves.

9. Management is not the same as leadership - As your leadership grows your necessity for managing greatly decreases as people become self driven towards the vision. Leadership itself is NOT about operational procedures, metrics, or work styles it's about "vision" and "empowerment."

10. However, many leadership positions often require management skills – Many executives must learn to perform as both leaders (visionary) and managers (ability to define strategy and drive execution). This requires a great versatility that allows the executive to set clear goals, objectives and targets, and communicate these in an effective way.

11. Be a Leader not a micro-manager - Give employees room to breathe while monitoring their performance from behind the scenes. Encourage managers and employees to hold one another accountable against their plans and focus on achieving collective results.

12. Talent Management - Ability to inspire teams and to bring the best out in people. Recognize where further training and education can be used to develop skills of team members. It is about providing the empowerment necessary to guarantee people can succeed.

13. Change Management – Adapt quickly to changes in the marketplace and communicate these to all members of the organization. Get the entire company behind changes necessary through visionary leadership.

14. Forward thinking – Beyond adapting to external changes, a leader must enact their own – an executive leader should be able to see current and future trends, apply them to his or her organization and stay ahead of the competition.

15. Resilience, perseverance and motivation management – Particularly in today’s climate, leaders have to be able to withstand lows and still motivate their teams. This requires a commitment to positivity even in times of extreme hardship; leaders must encourage teams to think and act positively, and instill passion in their work.

16. Honesty and integrity – Although leaders must be positive, when things are not going well, the truth must be communicated. Subsequently, leaders must provide the vision and encouragement to bring the organization forward.

17. A Problem Solver – Leaders must always find solutions or (at least) suggest alternatives to every problem.

18. Focused – Keep the team on the right track on goals and strategies – ask for reminders of projects / goals and maintain focus on critical objectives despite endless obstacles.

19. Confidence without arrogance – Senior executives must lead by example, not just by words.

20. Learn and evolve– leadership positions require a constant learning process to adapt to the latest developments. Programs of executive education and further training should be continually completed.

Management Key Aspects

Management Key Aspects of the BMUS

The audit that had been performed and the enquiries and interviews done in the localities members of the SUBM led to a series of conclusions structured on the basis of the key management aspects, grouped in the four aforementioned categories: infrastructure, economy, public administration, community. 1. Infrastructure

Public utilities: The water supply and the sewage systems, the integrated waste management are considered priority issues in most of the localities, especially in the rural area.

Transport infrastructure: The county and communal road network has a good coverage, but they do not have a solid condition; moreover, there is no public transport system between the localities members of SUBM.

Healthcare services: In most of the localities in the regions, there is no major healthcare institution (hospitals, medical centers, clinics).

Education services: In Baia Mare, there are institutions for all the levels of education, whereas in the rural area there are not enough high-schools and no vocational schools or postgraduate institutions.

Natural resources: The main natural resources are represented by the natural landscape proper for the development of tourism activities, agriculture/zootechnics, wood processing and construction materials (gravels and sands), as well as deposits of useful metaliferrous mineral substances.

Environment: There are areas where the likelihood of earthslides is high (Baia Mare, Baia Sprie, Tăuţii Măgherăuş, Dumbrăviţa, Groşi), areas where therisk of flooding is high, as well as three industrial processing facilities held by the mine companies with technological risks (Baia Mare) and tailing dumps (Tăuţii Măgherăuş, Recea).

2. Economy

Finances and insurances: In all urban localities, especially in the city of Baia Mare, there are several finance and banking institutions. 

Economic operators: There is an investment dynamics in the manufacture activities (light industry, food industry and wood industry), as well as transport and distribution services, especially around Baia Mare, Recea, Tăuţii Măgherăuş, Seini.

Labour force: The youth holds a higher percentage of the total population, as compared to the county and national average, and the unemployment rate has low values in the rural area. There is still a number of unemployed people who used to work in the mining industry, which was closed down; most of them are in Baia Mare and Baia Sprie.

Public budget: If assessed in terms of the capacity of co-financing the projects that are submitted for financing from Structural Funds, the public budget is not sufficient (except for the city of Baia Mare) in all the partner public administrations.

3. Public administration

Themain issue that the public management deals with is the lack of trained servants employed by the public administration system in the communes; anyhow, a better situation can be noticed in the towns and especially in the city of Baia Mare.

The urbanism regulations in force have not been updated recently in many of the localities, and their enforcement is not sufficiently followed up and monitored.

The services and support for SMEs are provided only in the urban area, except for the Recea Commune.

The dissemination of information and the communication with the citizens are not done systematically in the small communities and there are no set procedures in this

respect. Therefore, the information and the consultation of population with respect to the investment projects and to the development of the locality are done only sporadically.

4. The community

The community spirit is more intense in the rural communities, where it is manifested through the presence of a united and responsible community that participates to the public life and shows interest in the public domain of the locality. Anyhow, it is not evenly represented in the public spaces, which are of a better quality in towns and in the city of Baia Mare.

The safety of citizens – this aspect is characterized by the feeling of insecurity and the number of crimes. In the urban area, due to the poor social relations in the community, the security level is recorded to be lower than in the rural area.  

The accommodation potential shows the level of the tourism infrastructure, which is better represented in Baia Mare, Baia Sprie, Somcuta Mare, Săcălăşeni.

The food and non-food stores are well represented in the region, especially in the city of Baia Mare.

The cultural infrastructure and the sports facilities in Baia Mare serve the entire peri-urban area.  

The historical and cultural patrimony is distinguished by quantity, diversity and value, as well as by the balanced layout in the territory (3 areas with high density of monuments: Baia Mare, Baia Sprie şi Somcuta Mare). Almost every locality benefits from the economic opportunities offered by the presence of the protected complexes in their region. 

SWOT Analysis: The development capacity of SUBMSynthetic table

Conclusions: management key aspects The analysis described above shows a series of characteristic aspects for the SUBM management, which would lead in the next stage to the elaboration of the strategic objectives, then of the development policies, programmes and projects: A) The peripherical position in relation with the major transport corridors 

The geographical layout close by the borders with Hungary and Ukrain represents a real comparative advantage for the study area, which has not been capitalized yet due to the peripherical position of the system in relation with the major transport corridors. This advantage will be consolidated in the future by an increased accessibility, through the rapid roadway Baia Mare – Satu Mare – Petea, Baia Mare highway– Zalău, Baia Mare – Dej – Cluj Napoca and the opening of the airport for international Charter flights.

 B) The effect of the economic restructuring Three sub-zones can be noticed within SUBM, displaying different characteristics

through their specifics and economic tradition; these sub-zones concentrate around three urban cub-centres: (a) Seini, Tăuţii Măgherăuş, Recea, (b) Baia Mare, Baia Sprie, Groşi, Dumbrăviţa, Săcălăşeni, Copalnic Mănăştur, (c) Somcuta Mare, Valea Chioarului, to which Mireşu Mare and Boiu Mare will probably adhere. In the first two subregions, the economic development mainly deals with issues related to the restructuring of the economic activities.

 C) The existence of the territorial imbalances

At the accession time, SUBM was a territorial amalgam of urban and rural regions with gaps regarding the basic, social and economic infrastructure; of this amalgam the main interest for investment, as well as for the largest offer of public services and utilities are held by the city of Baia Mare.

D) The existence of environmental problems Beyond the qualities of the natural environment, the territory of SUBM deals with issues

related to environmental protection (the pollution of Tisa River), thus damaging its image; these issues have to be seriously approached in order to promote the tourism in this area.  

 E) Damaged built heritage The area includes a valuable built heritage that needs all kinds of rehabilitation works so

as to point them out to the public eye, for reasons of tourism development and for the local identity and image.

 F) Complexity of the public management Currently, SUBM does not operate as a social and economic unit and it is not equipped

with an operational mechanism for the spatial planning and management, or for the planning and management of the services and utilities of metropolitan interest.

Sustainable event management

Sustainable event management (also known as event greening) is the process used to produce an event with particular concern for environmental, economic and social issues. Sustainability in event management incorporates socially and environmentally responsible decision making into the planning, organisation and implementation of, and participation in, an event. It involves including sustainable development principles and practices in all levels of event organisation, and aims to ensure that an event is hosted responsibly. It represents the total package of interventions at an event, and needs to be done in an integrated manner. Event greening should start at the inception of the project, and should involve all the key role players, such as clients, organisers, venues, sub-contractors and suppliers. History[edit]

The first time that environmental concerns were raised by the public was at the 1992 Albertville Winter Olympics in France, which led to the first ‘green Games’ inLillehammer, Norway, in 1994. The Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee received the UNEP Global 500 Award for setting environmental standards which were absent from previous Olympic games.

The Centennial Olympic Congress, Congress of Unity, held in Paris in 1994, recognised the importance of the environment and sustainable development, which led to the inclusion of a paragraph in Rule 2 of the Olympic Charter. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) has acknowledged its particular responsibility in terms of promoting sustainable development, and regards the environment as the third dimension of Olympism, alongside sport and culture. This led to its decision in 1995 to create an IOC Sport and Environment Commission.[1]

Environmental Guidelines for the Summer Olympics were developed to guide Olympic hosts to ensure that facilities are constructed in a more environmentally friendly manner. The Guidelines were successfully used in the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. As a result, the organizers of the Sydney Games were honoured with the Global 500 Award in 2001 for organizing the greenest

games ever. Since then, other major sports events have also considered their environmental impact.

A major aspect of UNEP’s work is with the IOC. A cooperative agreement was signed in 1994 with IOC and an Agenda 21 for Sport and Environment developed. Since 2002, UNEP has participated in a task force of the UN Secretary-General on the use of sport for the implementation of the United Nations Development Goals. UNEP also supports the IOC in organizing world conferences and regional seminars on sport and the environment.[2]

During the 2006 FIFA World CupTM in Germany, Green Goal was launched, which was also implemented in South Africa for the 2010 FIFA World CupTM. The Host City Cape Town Green Goal programme had been awarded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Sport and Environment Award. Nominated by FIFA, the award recognised the efforts of the Host City Cape Town to mitigate negative environmental impacts of the FIFA World Cup and to maximise a positive environmental and social legacy.[3]

Event greening is however not only limited to sports events, and other examples include the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), Johannesburg 2002, and UNFCCC 15th Conference of the Parties (COP15) held in Copenhagen in 2010.

Benefits[edit]

Events are highly resource-intensive, and can have negative environmental consequences for the host city and population. Globally, more and more events are hosted in an environmentally, socially and economically responsible way. Many international companies are making event greening a part of their tender process. Greening your event should reduce the negative environmental impact, but should also leave a positive and lasting legacy for the local community.

The following are some of the positive benefits of event greening for the organisers, participants, service providers and the local community that should be considered:

Cost savings: Conserving energy, reducing waste, purchasing local products, and simply consuming less can save money.

Positive reputation: A green event is a very visible demonstration of your organisation’s commitment to sustainability, and your support of global actions against the negative influence of global warming.

Environmental innovation: Greening efforts promote innovative technologies and techniques, which help us to use resources more efficiently.

Awareness raising: Each event offers a unique opportunity to raise awareness among participants, staff, service providers and the local community about the benefits of sustainable living, and enhances environmental best practice in the region.

Social benefits: If planned and implemented carefully, the event could benefit the local region through providing jobs, selecting regional suppliers, promoting better working conditions, and acting as a catalyst for social improvement.

Influencing decision making: By sharing standards, and introducing new ways of behaviour, other organisations could be motivated to introduce environmental and social improvements in their events as well.

Return on investment: By pursuing greening, you will not only reduce costs, but also increase strategic opportunities.

Greening practices[edit]

There are many areas where organisers can have a positive impact when hosting an event. Greening practices [4] are practical things that can be done to encourage sustainable living and the following greening practices should definitely be considered when planning or implementing an event:

Eco-procurement or green purchasing Waste minimisation and management Energy efficiency Water conservation Emissions reduction Biodiversity conservation Social and economic developmentGreen purchasing[edit]

The materials, supplies and products used to produce an event all have the potential for negative environmental impacts. Through environmentally preferable purchasing reductions in these impacts can be achieved back up the supply chain. Options to reduce environmental impacts of purchasing can be achieved through such things as; using products which have an eco-label, including organic, fair trade, FSC or other sustainable forestry products, VOC free, environmentally safer cleaning agents, PVC-free paints, sustainably produced foods, products made from sustainable and recyclable materials, etc.

Waste minimization[edit]

REDUCE, RE-USE, RECYCLE : Reducing the total amount of waste going to landfill or incineration is the aim. This can be done through preventing waste from being created in the first place such as not using disposable products, or through diverting waste from landfill/incineration through recycling, composting biodegradable waste (or sending to biogas facilities) and through salvage and re-purposing.

Energy efficiency[edit]

The energy used to produce an event can be provided directly through the mains/grid power or through mobile or portable power generators. Reducing the environmental impacts of event production can be achieved through reducing the amount of energy needed or to provide energy through renewable or zero emissions sources.

Water conservation[edit]

The amount of water used at an event and focusing on its reduction is the key to sustainability in event management in this topic. Reducing the amount of sewage andgraywater produced is also an aim.

Emissions reduction[edit]

The carbon footprint of an event is the total impact of the event relating to the total amount of CO2 emitted due to the consumption of fossil fuels. This would include aspects such as the energy consumption, the waste generated, marketing, transport, flights, accommodation, and other actions that would contribute to climate change.

The impact of the audience's travel to an event is often seen as one of the largest environmental impact. CO2 emissions as a direct result of transport is the measure used to gauge this. To reduce the impact of audience transport to and from an event, public transport use, filling up all the seats in the car, and coming on foot or by bicycle where appropriate, can be encouraged.

One of the simplest ways to reduce some of the footprint is moving to paperless events. With today's smartphone and tablet technologies, this is easily achieved using mobile conference apps without compromising the attendee's experience. Organizers should be careful though to avoid merely shifting the responsibility to attendees by providing printable PDFs.

Biodiversity[edit]

The variety of life on earth – its biological diversity – is commonly referred to as biodiversity. The number of species of plants, animals and micro-organisms; the enormous diversity of genes in these species, and the different ecosystems on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and coral reefs, are all part of a biologically diverse earth. Appropriate conservation and sustainable development strategies attempt to recognise this as an integral part of any approach. Protecting the natural environment, both flora and fauna and the ecosystems in which they live is an important aspect to the environmental management of event production.

Social and economic development[edit]

Event greening is not only about the environment, but needs to consider the social and economic benefits to the local community as well. By stimulating the local economy and social development, the whole community will benefit from the event, and this will support poverty alleviation in the long term.

Initiatives to stimulate the local economy and empower the host community should be incorporated into greening activities whenever possible. This can be done by purchasing local products, skills training and job creation, or considering human health during event organisation. Short-term and permanent job creation and training through the event-greening activities (e.g. training in waste separation, tour guides, translators, use of local suppliers of goods and services, etc.) could result in increased pride, better knowledge about sustainable living and practices, and the power to make more responsible decisions.

High Impact Areas[edit]

Event-greening practices (as outlined above) can be implemented in all aspects of event management by venues, sub-contractors, suppliers and event organisers, regardless of the size or type of event. Some high-impact areas were chosen as key focus areas, as they can lead to a considerable reduction in the negative effect on natural resources, as well as have a positive influence on social and economic development:[5]

Venues and accommodation

Food and beverages Exhibitions Marketing, PR and production Transport General, including the office, AV, IT, decor and entertainmentVenue, accommodation and destination[edit]

Ensuring that the choice of destination, accommodation and venue is suitable for the requirements of the event and the attendee demographic can be key in reducing unnecessary travel and boosting local economy. By sourcing local suppliers, the carbon footprint of the event will be reduced dramatically as suppliers will need to transport themselves, products or services to the event.

Food and beverages[edit]

Wherever people meet, there is a need for food and beverages in some form or another. Whether it is a formal gala dinner, a picnic hamper or a hotdog, it has hidden environmental impacts that need to be considered. From the production and packaging of the food, through to the transport, storage, and finally the preparation – these all need to be taken into account when considering the impact of catering in the events industry.

Exhibitions[edit]

With a trade show or expo, an exhibition may be the core component of the event, while on other occasions, it is done on a smaller scale in support of a larger event. Regardless of the size or purpose of an exhibition, it provides the opportunity to do business as usual, or to think twice about the environmental footprint.

Marketing, PR and production[edit]

Large events usually require a large amount of marketing, which would include aspects such as media, communication, public relations and the associated production. It is an important aspect of an event, but should also be done responsibly, as it contributes to the event’s environmental footprint. Using cloud based services, mobile conference apps, and digital event displays, the majority of the printed event documentation can be provided in digital formats. Offering paperless events not only reduces the conference footprint but is convenient for attendees.

Transport[edit]

Transport requirements for events produce high levels of carbon emissions, and consume large amounts of energy. Some small changes can have a big impact on the carbon footprint of an event, and can reduce harmful emissions. With international or national events where many people have to use air travel, transport can account for most of the emissions. Even with local events, the transport emissions can be high due to the use of single-occupancy vehicles. Transport is therefore an important area for greening interventions, with the main objective to reduce harmful carbon emissions.

General[edit]

Special events generally require high-impact AV and IT, which can use a lot of energy. Lighting is used to create a specific atmosphere, or to get a message across, which is usually a key requirement of the host. If this can be avoided, it would reduce the carbon footprint of the event.

Alternatively, however, it is important for the sub-contractors to have an environmental policy in place, and to ensure its implementation in their day-to-day work.

Monitoring and evaluation[edit]

Monitoring and evaluation is an essential component of event greening, and should be used to make continuous improvement. A detailed plan needs to be in place to ensure that information is gathered on all aspects of the event – before, during, and also after the event. This ensures that information is available to understand the effects of greening interventions (e.g. to what extent was water used, and how did water-saving measures reduce water use), as well as the potential improvements to future event-greening initiatives.

With large events it is best to ensure an independent report, which complies with international standards, such as the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI).[6] The GRI Event Organizers Supplement provides organizations in the sector with a tailored version of GRI’s Reporting Guidelines. It includes the original Guidelines, which set out the Reporting Principles, Disclosures on Management Approach and Performance Indicators for economic, environmental and social issues. The Event Organizers Supplement’s capture the issues that matter most for event organizers to be reported on:

Site selection Transport of attendees Recruiting and training of the event workforce, participants and volunteers Sourcing of materials, supplies and services Managing impacts on communities, natural environments, and local and global economies. Planning and managing potential legacies Accessibility of an event

The British Standard (BS 8901) has been developed specifically for the events industry with a purpose of helping the industry to operate in a more sustainable manner. The standard defines the requirements for a sustainability event management system to ensure an enduring and balanced approach to economic activity, environmental responsibility and social progress relating to events.

It requires organizations to identify and understand the effects that their activities have on the environment, on society and on the economy both within the organization and the wider economy; and put measures in place to minimize the negative effects. These standards will however be replaced by the International Standard (ISO 20121) for Sustainability Management Systems.

Ecoagriculture

Eco friendly agriculture describes landscapes that support both agricultural production and biodiversity conservation, working in harmony together to improve the livelihoods of rural communities.[1]

Elements in an eco-agriculture landscape

While many rural communities have independently practiced eco-agriculture for thousands of years, over the past century many of these landscapes have given way to segregated land use patterns, with some areas employing intensive farming practices without regard to biodiversity impacts, and other areas fenced off completely for habitat or watershed protection. A new eco-agriculture movement is now gaining momentum to unite land managers and other stakeholders from diverse environments to find compatible ways to conserve biodiversity while also enhancing agricultural production

Approach and practitioners[edit]

The term "eco-agriculture" was coined by Charles Walters, economist, author, editor, publisher, and founder of Acres Magazine in 1970 to unify under one umbrella the concepts of "ecological" and "economical" in the belief that unless agriculture was ecological it could not be economical. This belief became the motto of the magazine: "To be economical agriculture must be ecological."[2]

Eco-agriculture is both a conservation strategy and a rural development strategy. Eco-agriculture recognizes agricultural producers and communities as key stewards of ecosystems and biodiversity and enables them to play those roles effectively. Eco-agriculture applies an integrated ecosystem approach to agricultural landscapes to address all three pillars—conserving biodiversity, enhancing agricultural production, and improving livelihoods—drawing on diverse elements of production and conservation management systems. Meeting the goals of eco-agriculture usually requires collaboration or coordination between diverse stakeholders who are collectively responsible for managing key components of a landscape.

Landscape scale[edit]

Eco-agriculture uses the landscape as a unit of management. A landscape is a cluster of local ecosystems with a particular configuration of topography, vegetation, land use, and settlement. The goals of eco-agriculture—to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem services, manage agricultural production sustainably, and contribute to improved livelihoods among rural people—cannot be achieved at just a farm or plot level, but are linked at the landscape level. Therefore, to make an impact, all of the elements of a landscape as a whole must be considered.

Defining a landscape depends on the local context. Landscapes may be defined or delimited by natural, historical, and/or cultural processes, activities or values. Landscapes can incorporate many different features, but all of the various features have some influence or effect on each other. Landscapes can vary greatly in size, from the Congo Basin in west-central Africa where landscapes are often huge because there are vast stretches of apparently undifferentiated land, to western Europewhere landscapes tend to be much smaller because of the wide diversity of topographies and land use activities occurring close to each other.

Importance of agriculture areas for biodiversity conservation[edit]

Agriculture is the most dominant human influence on earth. Nearly one-third of the world’s land area is heavily influenced by cropland or planted pastures. An even greater area is being fallowed as part of an agricultural cycle or is in tree crops, livestock grazing systems, or production forestry. In addition, most of the world’s 100,000+ protected areas contain significant amounts of agricultural land. And over half of the most species-rich areas in the world contain large human populations whose livelihoods depend on farming, forestry, herding, or fisheries.

Agriculture as it is often practiced today threatens wild plant and animal species and the natural ecosystem services upon which both humans and wildlife depend. Over 70% of the fresh water withdrawn by humans goes to irrigation for crops, causing a profound impact on the hydrological cycles of ecological systems. Moreover, fertilizers, pesticides, and agricultural waste threaten habitats and protected areas downstream. Landclearing for agriculture also disrupts sources of food and shelter for wild biodiversity, and unsustainable fishing practices deplete freshwater and coastal fisheries.

Additionally, an increase in the planting and marketing of monoculture crops across the globe has decreased diversity in agricultural products, to the extent that many local varieties of fruits, vegetables, and grains have now become extinct. Given that demands on global agricultural production are increasing, it is imperative that the management of agricultural landscapes be improved to both increase productivity and enhance biodiversity conservation. Wild biodiversity increasingly depends on agricultural producers to find ways to better protect habitats, and agriculture critically needs healthy and diverse ecosystems to sustain productivity.

Bridging conservation and agriculture[edit]

Traditionally there has existed a divide between conservationists, who want to set land aside for the protection of wild biodiversity, and agriculturalists, who want to use land for production. Because more than half of all plant and animal species exist principally outside protected areas –- mostly in agricultural landscapes –- there is a great need to close the gap between conservation efforts and agricultural production. For example, conservation of wetlands within agricultural landscapes is critical for wild bird populations. Such species require initiatives by and with farmers. Ecoagriculture provides a bridge for these two communities to come together.

Farmers as ecosystem partners[edit]

Farming communities play a vital role as managers of their ecosystems and biodiversity. As Ben Falk points out, they are often viewed as stewards. In his understanding, "Stewardship implies dominion, whereas partnership implies co[-]evolution; mutual respect; whole-archy, not hierarchy. A partner is sometimes a guide, always a facilitator, always a co[-]worker."[3] Since a farmer's dependence on their land and natural resources necessitates a conservation ethic, their farm productivity critically demands their assistance in delivering a range of ecosystem services. Wild species often also play an important role in providing livestock fodder, fuel, veterinary medicines, soil nutrient supplements and construction materials to farmers, as well constituting an essential element of cultural, religious, and spiritual practices. The dominance of agriculture in global land use requires that eco-agriculture approaches be fostered by rural producers and their communities on a globally significant scale. To do this, farmers need to be able to conserve

biodiversity more consistently in ways that benefit their livelihoods. Experiences from around the world suggest that there are a number of incentives to encourage and enable farmers and their communities to preserve or transition towards eco-agriculture landscapes:

Many management practices that improve ecosystem health also benefit farmers by reducing production costs, raising or stabilizing yields, or improving product quality. Intensive rotation grazing systems practiced in Europe, the United States, and Zimbabwe have been shown to reduce dairy production costs compared to stall-fed systems, while also reducing risks of land degradation and improving wildlife habitat.

Farming communities are especially motivated to conserve biodiversity and ecosystem services critical to their own livelihoods and cultural, spiritual, or aesthetic values. To protect their access to local water sources and medicinal plants, for example, farmers in western Kenya have mobilized to protect threatened forests in and near their communities. And in some agricultural landscapes in West Africa, 'sacred groves' are the principal remaining areas of native forest.

Farmers are seeking new income opportunities from product markets that value supplies from biodiversity-friendly production systems. More than 80 eco-certification programs now provide opportunities for farmers to receive higher prices for products produced with environmentally friendly practices.

Farmers can gain new income opportunities from payment for ecosystem services provided by non-farm beneficiaries of their ecological partnership. These opportunities include carbon emission offset payments for carbon sequestration in soils and trees and water quality protection, among others.

Farmers are seeking ways to comply with the goals of environmental regulation, in ways that also maintain or improve their agricultural livelihoods. In the US, farmers in the Chesapeake Bay watershed are incorporating perennial vegetative buffer strips around stream banks, which provide habitat niches for birds and wildlife, to both help meet water quality regulations and to diversify their output.

Ecoagriculture land management practices[edit]

Agricultural landscapes that aim to achieve the objectives of ecoagriculture –- enhanced biodiversity conservation, increased food production, and improved rural livelihoods –- should be managed in ways that protect and expand natural areas and improve wildlife habitats and ecosystem functions, in collaboration with local communities to insure their benefit. Specific land management practices that may be incorporated include:

Plan and manage protected areas together with local farming, pastoralist, and forest communities in their landscapes. Community-conserved areas on lands owned by farmers and pastoralists are important for ecosystem-wide management of biodiversity. The more ownership/engagement these communities have in the management of protected areas, the more successful the landscape will be overall in contributing to the three goals of ecoagriculture.

Link unfarmed areas, forest fragments, and wetlands within agricultural landscapes to develop habitat networks and corridors that support and expand the range of wild species.

This approach is particularly useful to migratory species, which can include pollinators and natural enemies of agricultural pests.

Reduce or reverse conversion of natural areas to agricultural areas by improving the productivity of currently utilized agricultural, forestry, grazing lands and fisheries.

Modify farming systems so they mimic natural vegetation and ecological processes. Integrating trees, shrubs, and grasses into agricultural production systems can improve ecosystem services across the whole landscape.

Manage agricultural wastes to protect the surrounding ecosystem by encouraging shifts from input-intensive to ‘knowledge-intensive’ agricultural practices. These may include integration of crop, livestock, and nutrient systems; more precise application of organic and non-organic fertilizers; and crop rotations to improve soil fertility.

Encourage soil, water, and vegetation management strategies that limit negative impacts on surrounding ecosystems. These practices include conservation tillage, improved fallow systems, on-farm crop or fertilizer trees, inter-cropping, and livestock diversification.

Role of traditional and local knowledge[edit]

Many indigenous peoples and rural communities have developed, maintained, and adapted different types of ecoagriculture systems for centuries. Local farmers, pastoralists, fishers, forest users, and other community members are the foundation of rural land stewardship. Their knowledge, traditions, land use practices, and resource-management institutions are essential to the development of viable ecoagriculture systems for their landscapes.

The mainstreaming of ecoagriculture approaches will be crucially dependent upon mobilizing local communities to become leaders in ecoagriculture, as teachers and as advocates for political and institutional change. Communities facing similar challenges can share questions, ideas, and solutions with each other. Local communities also need effective processes for sharing their expertise with national policymakers and the international community and thus play a more central role in settinge coagriculture objectives in policy and program development.

Contribution of ecoagriculture to the Millennium Development Goals[edit]

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), eight ambitious targets which range from halving extreme poverty to halting the spread of HIV/AIDS and providing universal primary education, were put forth by the United Nations in 2000, to be achieved by 2015. Ecoagriculture strategies will be essential to achieving the MDGs, particularly for hunger and poverty, water and sanitation, and environmental sustainability.

The MDGs will not be reached without securing the ability of the rural poor to feed their families and gain income, while at the same time protecting the biodiversity and ecosystem services that sustain their livelihoods. Of the estimated 800 million people who do not have access to sufficient food, half are smallholder farmers, one-fifth are rural landless, and one-tenth are principally dependent on rangelands, forests and fisheries. For most of them, reducing poverty and hunger will depend centrally on their ability to sustain and increase crop, livestock, forest, and fishery production.

A key opportunity for enhancing progress towards the MDGs is investment in locally-driven land management approaches –- such as ecoagriculture strategies –- that build upon synergies between rural livelihoods, environmental sustainability, and food security.

Landscapes For People, Food and Nature (LPFN) Initiative[edit]

The Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Initiative is a collaborative three-year process of research, discussion, knowledge-sharing and advocacy. The initiative is facilitated by EcoAgriculture Partners and Co-organizers from leading international institutions: Bioversity International; Conservation International; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; International Fund for Agricultural Development; Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation; United Nations Environment Programme; United Nations University; World Agroforestry Centre; and World Resources Institute.

The Initiative will consist of three integrated components:

A Global Review in 2011 and 2012 will amass the evidence base for ecoagriculture from diverse disciplinary and sectoral perspectives, including its prevalence and rate of development on each continent, innovations in production systems and conservation practices, costs and benefits under different circumstances, conditions leading to effective implementation, and potential roles in addressing food security, climate change, species loss and ecosystem degradation.

A multi-stakeholder Dialogue, beginning with the Nairobi 2012 Forum, will bring together innovators engaged in applying and promoting integrated landscape approaches. The dialogue events will serve as venues in which to interpret the results of the Global Review and craft the action agendas for policy, investment, capacity building and research.

Action and Advocacy  to implement these agendas through 2014 and beyond will be promoted at the landscape level through collaboration among a wide range of stakeholders (e.g., farmers, governments, NGOs, donors and the private sector) and at national and international levels through support for policy formulation in influential forums including the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20); UN conventions on climate change, desertification, and biological diversity; and key regional platforms such as NEPAD in Africa.

Engage with the Initiative:

The Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Initiative needs active support to make each component a success. Partipants and organizations wishing to engage with the Initiative are welcome to provide input into the Key Questions by contributing relevant research. Further, the regional inventories of integrated landscape initiatives are now being built by Initiative partners; you may submit a recommendation of initiatives from your home landscapes to include in these inventories.

Organizations may also submit specific landscape cases of integrated agricultural approaches in the landscapes in which they work. With the launch of the Initiative blog, organizations and individuals are also welcome to contact blog organizers and contribute to the three foundational themes - Landscape of the Week; Exploring the Evidence; and Voices from the Field.

Please contact the Initiative co-organizers if you plan to attend one of the key International Events and would be interested to engage in advocacy activities there. The Initiative’s results and recommendations will be designed for diverse stakeholders including policy-makers, researchers, international development leaders, landscape management professionals, small-holder farmers and donor institutions. A key opportunity for participation will be sharing these results and recommendations at local, regional and national levels in your home landscape.

History[edit]

The ecoagriculture movement was first recognized internationally in a joint study of the World Conservation Union and the Future Harvest Foundation published in 2001 called “Common Ground, Common Future” (McNeely and Scherr 2001). The report was later expanded to become a book called “Ecoagriculture: Strategies to Feed the World and Save Wild Biodiversity” (McNeely and Scherr 2003). The study confirmed the dominant influence of agriculture on wild species and habitats around the world, and also identified promising examples of land use strategies and practices that benefited both. The international non-profit "EcoAgriculture Partners" was incorporated in 2004 to promote ecoagriculture globally, with Scherr as President and CEO and McNeely as one of the independent governing board members. Scherr and McNeely edited a second book in 2009, entitled "Farming with Nature: The Science and Practice of Ecoagriculture" (Scherr and McNeely 2009).

Related fields[edit]

The values and/or principles of ecoagriculture have much in common with existing concepts, such as sustainable agriculture, permaculture, agroecology, integrated natural resource management, organic agriculture, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, protected area management, and others. In fact, ‘ecoagriculture’ landscapes often feature many of these approaches. Ecoagriculture draws heavily on these and many other innovations in rural land use planning and management. The landscape management framework defined by ecoagriculture has four particularly important characteristics:

Large scale: Ecoagriculture moves beyond the management of individual farms and/or protected areas to help detect and plan for interactions among different land uses at the landscape scale. In addition, important attributes such as wildlife population dynamics and watershed functions can be meaningfully understood only at the landscape scale. Also, in recognition of the fact that short-term tradeoffs may lead to long-term synergies, ecoagriculture advocates conducting analyses over longer temporal scales than is commonly done.

Emphasis on synergies: Ecoagriculture emphasizes both the need and the opportunity to foster synergies among conservation, agricultural production, and rural livelihoods. The ecoagriculture research and monitoring agenda seeks, in part, to identify and document these synergies.

Emphasis on stakeholder collaboration: Ecoagriculture can not be achieved by individual land managers. The management of ecoagriculture landscapes requires processes that support a variety of land managers (within the landscape) with diverse environmental and socio-economic goals to collaboratively develop coordinated conservation and production

management approaches that collectively achieve conservation, production, and livelihood goals at a landscape scale.

Importance of both conservation and agricultural production: Building on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, ecoagriculture brings conservation fully into the agricultural and rural development discourse by highlighting the importance of ecosystem services in supporting continued agricultural production. Ecoagriculture also identifies the conservation of native biodiversity and ecosystems as an equally important goal in its own right. It also supports conservationists to more effectively conserve nature within and outside protected areas by working with the agricultural community and developing conservation-friendly livelihood strategies for rural land users.

Corporate Social ResponsibilityAsiaWorld-Expo, upholding the continued commitments to our society, is devoted to social responsibility in our business operations by striving for the prosperity and sustainability of the communities in which we operate and, at all times, respecting the environment which we share.Caring for the Environment

The environment is a precious resource which we all have a responsibility to safeguard for future generations. As an industry leader, AsiaWorld-Expo is committed to the very highest standards of eco-friendly operations, and dedicates significant resources to setting an example that the entire exhibition industry can follow.

Since 2009, AsiaWorld-Expo has launched the Carbon Reduction Programme in response to the global climate change issue. Through a series of facility improvement projects and in-house administrative measures, the goal to reduce carbon emissions by 15% per event unit from 2008 levels in business operations was achieved in 2012 ,which is three years ahead of the pre-set schedule. Looking ahead, AsiaWorld-Expo has set a new target to reduce carbon emissions by 25% per event unit from the same base by 2020, and with an ultimate goal to convert itself into a Carbon Neutral Venue.

Indeed, AsiaWorld-Expo strives to apply green considerations to every aspect of its business, and has received awards in recognition of its efforts. For instance, AsiaWorld-Expo was awarded Carbon"less" 18% Certificate of the Hong Kong Awards for Environmental Excellence (HKAEE) by Hong Kong's Environmental Campaign Committee (ECC) in association with the Environmental Protection Department in 2012. AsiaWorld-Expo has also achieved "Level 1 Carbon Reduction" for 2010, representing a 5%-20% reduction in carbon emissions in accordance with the CarbonCare® Label Protocol which is certified by Carbon Care Asia Limited. On a day-to-day basis, this commitment to environmentally-friendly operations is expressed in four key aspects: energy management, air quality, waste management and ecology.Energy Management

 

In 2012, AsiaWorld-Expo was awarded the “Class of Good” Energywi$e Label by Hong Kong’s Environmental Campaign Committee (ECC) in association with the Environmental Protection Department. Even Better, AsiaWorld-Expo was named as one of Hong Kong’s top three most energy-saving organizations by the Energywi$e Label. To achieve this honour, the venue beat

over 300 other organizations in a wide range of sectors such as financial services, manufacturing, property management, retail and trading, transport and logistics..

To minimise energy consumption, AsiaWorld-Expo uses Solar Control Film on its skylights, which effectively reduces indoor temperatures by 2-3 C on sunny days. Independent lighting zones further enable energy savings by allowing lights to be used only when needed. The venue likewise uses Thermal Storage Plant and Free Cooling System to optimise the operational efficiency of the air-conditioning system. 

Since 2009, AsiaWorld-Expo has been participating in the Dim It and Earth Hour campaigns, organised by Friends of the Earth   andWWF Hong Kong   respectively. By switching off the lights in the venue, AsiaWorld-Expo proudly took a proactive role in promoting environmental awareness among employees, customers and the public.Air Quality

AsiaWorld-Expo is certified as having ‘Good Class’ air quality in all of its exhibition halls and AsiaWorld-Expo Management Office under the Government’s Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Certification scheme. Demonstrating the commitment in IAQ improvement programmes, AsiaWorld-Expo also joins the Hong Kong Awards for Environmental Excellence programme (IAQwi$e Label) organised byEnvironmental Protection Department. This voluntary scheme encourages IAQ excellence in management practices, and helps publicise the issues of air quality.

Waste Management

In a venue the size of AsiaWorld-Expo, proper waste management is a critical issue. To promote eco-friendly operations, the venue has a comprehensive waste recycling programme, including an assigned recycling contractor and specific recycling targets.In recognition of its efforts to meet specific recycling targets, AsiaWorld-Expo is awarded the “Class of Excellence” Wastewi$e Label under the Hong Kong Awards for Environmental Excellence (HKAEE) programme.The large-scale kitchens at AsiaWorld-Expo also promote safe and environmentally-friendly waste management through recycling programme for different recyclable items, such as cooking oil, paper, cans, plastic, etc…From September 2011, the venue’s recycling scope has further extended to Wood Waste and Food Waste, all of which are groundbreaking new initiatives in Hong Kong’s Exhibition and Convention venues.Ecology

To sustain the eco-friendly momentum, AsiaWorld-Expo introduced a series of landmark initiatives, including the launch of innovative “Ocean-Friendly Menu” and “CarbonCare Menu”. To protect the ocean’s ecological diversity, AsiaWorld-Expo offers customised menus using seafood from sustainable sources according to WWF-Hong Kong’s Seafood Guide. An

alternative to the Ocean-Friendly Menu is AsiaWorld-Expo’s CarbonCare Menu in which ingredients are sourced and prepared in energy-saving methods to minimise carbon footprint.

To encourage customers to go further in reducing the carbon footprint of their events, AsiaWorld-Expo is pleased to partner with one of Hong Kong’s top carbon consultants, which now offers event organisers a tailor-made package of carbon-reduction services based on international protocols and the highest carbon-management standards. These carbon offset projects include Afforestation, Reforestation and the Operation of Wind Farms in Mainland China.

To ensure a greener environment for today and tomorrow, AsiaWorld-Expo has planted hundreds of trees in its marshalling area, and uses many indoor plants to ensure a high green area ratio.

Eco-friendly supply chainBeing green is the hottest trend to hit the corporate world since outsourcing. Companies have spent a fortune re-branding themselves as

green, and have paid special attention to recycling, protecting endangered forests, sourcing local products and managing water consumption

during the manufacturing process.

 

But companies themselves are consumers. Just as shoppers buy their products, companies buy goods that are components of their products

or aid in the manufacturing of their products. And they’ve found it’s not enough for them to be green. The companies that supply them with

goods and services must also use green sourcing and manufacturing methods.

 

That’s what’s called an eco-friendly supply chain. And according to a study by management consulting firm Accenture, companies have

found that having an eco-friendly supply chain can save money.

 

What is the eco-friendly supply chain?

All companies have a supply chain. It traces the process by which companies develop and produce their goods, and then sell those goods to

consumers. For some companies, the supply chain is fairly straightforward. But for large companies in the retail, hospitality and

manufacturing sectors, for example, the supply chain can consist of hundreds, if not thousands, of individual firms that provide component

goods and services.

 

In order to have an eco-friendly supply chain, these large companies must be sure that their suppliers, for example, harvest wood in a

sustainable way. Or that they don’t deplete the water supply in areas where they work.

 

Key aspects of the eco-friendly supply chain

The specific aspects of the eco-friendly supply chain vary from industry to industry.

 

For grocers, for example, buying more fruits and vegetables from local sources is key, according to The Packer, which covers the fresh

produce industry. That’s because it reduces the distance the produce must travel from the field to the consumer’s table.

 

For companies in the electronics industry, the process of obtaining minerals such as tin, tantalum and cobalt is a key part of the eco-friendly

supply chain, according to the Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition. That’s because mining for such materials typically takes place in the

developing world where there can be sensitive geopolitical and environmental ramifications. (For more information,

visit: http://www.eicc.info/)

 

There are, however, some basic aspects of the eco-friendly supply chain that affect all companies. For example, most companies are looking

to reduce emissions, energy use and waste.

 

Companies that have excelled at greening the supply chain

It’s no surprise that the world’s largest retailer, Wal-Mart Stores, is leading the pack when it comes to having an eco-friendly supply chain.

 

According to Wal-Mart, its customers “want to know the product’s entire lifecycle.” The retailer’s customers want to know that its products are

produced in a responsible way.

 

To achieve that end, Wal-Mart has created a sustainability index for its suppliers. The first step of the index is the supplier sustainability

assessment, which includes a 15-question survey. The questions are aimed at determining if the suppliers have embraced three broad

goals:

Reducing waste to zero

Using 100 percent renewable energy

Selling sustainable products

For example, suppliers need to say whether they have measured and taken steps to reduce their annual corporate greenhouse emissions.

 

For more information, visit Wal-Mart's sustainability section.

 

A company such as Apple, which makes computers and consumer electronics, faces an additional set of priorities as it creates an eco-

friendly supply chain. The company has outlined its environmental expectations along with human rights stipulations in its supplier code of

conduct.

 

Since many of its products are made at factories in the developing world, Apple pays special attention to the safety of these facilities, and to

the rights of the workers. That means outlawing child labor, and insisting that workers not be disciplined for alerting managers to safety

issues.

 

Apple also stipulates that its suppliers limit the normal work week to 60 hours. Workers at supplier factories are given one vacation day per

seven days worked.

 

In addition, Apple asks suppliers to pay strict attention to the emission of volatile chemicals, aerosols and combustion byproducts that are

produced during manufacturing. Suppliers are expected to reduce or eliminate solid waste.

 

For more information, visit Apple's Supplier Code of Conduct.

 

According to Marriott International, the hotel chain spends $10 billion each year buying products and services for its 3,000 hospitality

properties. And it has taken steps to make sure those purchases are green.

 

Marriott purchases 47 million pens each year to stock hotel and meeting rooms, and each pen is composed of 75 percent recycled material.

And the 24 million key cards it buys each year are made of 50 percent recycled material. The hotel chain says that saves 66 tons of plastic

that would otherwise end up in a landfill. The company has pledged to replace 100,000 synthetic pillows with ones filled with material from

recycled bottles.

 Green Business 

Green business is a very broad term that can refer to companies that serve a specific, environment-benefiting purpose, or businesses that

employ eco-friendly practices though the overall function is not related to the environment. There are many other concepts that can fit into

the green business category, and as the green movement grows, so do the businesses related to it. (

http://www.mnn.com/eco-glossary/green-business

Carbon Footprint

Carbon Footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) such as carbon dioxide (CO2) that a business,

organization, product, household or personal lifestyle produces. A bigger footprint is harder on the planet. The EPA has developed

a Household Carbon Footprint Calculator to provide a rough estimate of a household's GHG emissions. Greenhouse gases act like

a blanket by trapp heat in the atmosphere making Earth warmer than it would otherwise be. 

nfrastructureA well-functioning city must first ensure that the necessary infrastructure such as roads, utilities and other essential resources are in place. To this end, the Sino-Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City (GKC) is supported by comprehensive infrastructure plans, including efficient transportation networks, sustainable water resources planning, flood protection, well-managed environmental, power, telecommunication and other municipal utilities, both within, and connecting to the City.

SSGKC Start-Up Area – eco-friendly, scenic roads The construction of municipal roads and underlying infrastructure within the SUA has commenced in 2011. Every household in the GKC will be provided directly with potable water treated by advanced technology and conveyed through a dedicated water supply network. Optical fibre network will be placed for the entire City with an integrated three-in-one service facility combining telecommunication, television and Internet signals. In the central hubs, common services tunnels will be implemented for greater reliability and to minimise road traffic disruption during maintenance. In addition, all municipal roads are equipped with cycling tracks and pedestrian walkways to create a more eco-friendly living environment. Key elements of the infrastructure in GKC are as follows: 

1. Road System 2. Common Service Tunnels

3. Direct Potable Water and Recycled Water System 4. Infrastructure to Support Smart City Initiative 5. Power Supply System 6. Infrastructure to Support Eco City Strategic Initiative

1. Road SystemGKC will take a three-pronged approach to improving accessibility into and within the City, in terms of number, capacity and quality of roads. The objective is to achieve “10-30-60”, meaning capping travel times to 10, 30 and 60 minutes respectively within zones, between zones, and to neighbouring districts in Guangzhou, respectively.Multiple Modes of Transportation, Multiple Categories of  Roads to Neighbouring DistrictsThe City will benefit from enhanced regional road connectivity, high speed inter-city rail, subway system and inter-city highways which, together, forms an integrated regional transport system. Traffic ManagementGKC will use advanced information technology and traffic engineering to monitor and manage traffic flow. An intelligent traffic management system will help the city to reduce congestion and reduce emissions on its roads.Illumination System for RoadThrough government subsidies and other policy incentives, the GKC will introduce advanced illumination systems featuring high energy-efficiency LED lights and intelligent lighting control software for bright, safe yet energy efficient lighting for walkways and other facilities along roads. 

Return to top ^2. Common Service Tunnels GKC will construct “digitised” Common Service Tunnels to enhance the operational management of infrastructure. With an integrated underground network information system, departments in charge of various utilities can closely monitor their usage, capacity, material, life-span, and physical locations. There will be service reserves provided along municipal roads to facilitate access to utilities that require frequent maintenance.

Return to top ^3. Direct Potable Water and Recycled Water SystemGKC plans to become a model for showcasing resource saving technology, by promoting water conservation and the use of alternative water sources such as recycled and rain water. With application of advanced water supply systems and management know-how, two water supply networks will be built for the GKC: direct potable water for all households and recycled water for irrigation, industrial and other non-potable uses. 

Return to top ^4. Infrastructure to Support Smart City InitiativeTo realise the Smart City strategic initiative, GKC will implement the integration of cable television, Internet and telecommunications networks. Optic fibre-to-the-premises will equip the residents of the City with the necessary hardware system to improve information connectivity for homes. Such features create a market for the development of the information and communication technology (ICT) industries.Three-in-One NetworkUnder the government’s initiative and in collaboration with major service providers, the combined three-in-one network will deliver cable television, internet and telecommunications to the homes and offices for a true “broadband” service. Digital City TechnologiesThe GKC will fully incorporate technologies such as Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information Service (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), computer multimedia and virtual reality into GKC’s information infrastructure, to drive the information economy and enable a lifestyle enhanced by digitisation.

Return to top ^5. Power Supply SystemUsing Smart Technology to develop a smart power grid will deliver an economical, reliable, efficient and environmentally friendly power supply to GKC. This will satisfy the demands of diverse users of the City, enabling business model innovation and enhancing service standards.Intelligent Power GridTo achieve the above objectives, the City’s power grid will incorporate intelligence provisions at all stages of its planning from power generation to distribution, consumption and monitoring, to achieve a full transformation to a smart power grid system.Power line CorridorsAll power cables within the City will be laid underground. High voltage cables will be laid in power tunnels. And medium and low voltage power lines will run along roads and green belts in buried pipelines. To accommodate future needs, pipelines for power cables will be built during construction of roads.

Return to top ^6. Infrastructure to Support Eco City Strategic Initiative

Green BuildingsLeveraging on Singapore’s and the world’s experience in green buildings, GKC will implement a comprehensive sustainable development plan that integrates the core principles of energy and water conservation, emission reduction and environmental protection. Case in point, the government will formulate policies and incentives to promote the implementation of the Pneumatic Waste Collection Systems (PWCS) to reduce the environmental impact of solid waste collection and transportation.Green Transportation NetworkAll of GKC’s road planning will incorporate cycling tracks and green corridors to create a green transportation network that blends seamlessly into the road system. This offers a low-carbon, eco-friendly transport option for residents.