1.24

Macedonia

Ivan Blinkov and Alexandar Trendafilov

Department of Erosion and Surveying, Faculty of Forestry, University ‘St Cyril and Methodius’,1000 Skopje, Macedonia

1.24.1 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The Republic of Macedonia (RM) is located in the central part of the Balkan Peninsula. It is a landlocked

country having an area of 25 713 km2 with approximately 80% of the entire territory in hilly and mountainous

regions. About 2 % of the land area is covered by water comprising 35 large and small rivers, three natural

lakes (Ohrid Lake, Prespa Lake, Dojran Lake) and over 100 reservoirs. The population of the country is around

2 million, of which about 60 % live in urban areas and the overall population density is 81 inhabitants per km2.

The major urban centres are Skopje, Bitola, Tetovo, Kumanovo, Veles, Prilep, Stip, Ohrid, Strimica and

Gostivar.

Industry is the dominant sector, accounting for 35% of the gross social product (GSP) and 39.9% of

employment. Agriculture combined with forestry and fishing and the service sector account for 22% and 30%

of the GSP, respectively.

Although the RM is small in area, it shows a great diversity of relief forms, geological formations, climate,

plants and soils.

The difference in altitude is from 40 to 2764 m above sea level. The territory of the RM belongs to three basins: the

Black Sea (44 km2 or 0.17%), the Adriatic (3359 km2 or 13.07%) and the Aegean (22 310 km2 or 86.76%). The main

river is the Vardar with a catchment area of 20 545 km2 (79.9% of the whole territory).

As a result of the heterogeneity of natural conditions, the territory of the RM can be distributed into eight

climate–soil–vegetation zones. About 56% of the territory belongs to two zones (continental submediterranean

and warm continental). The average annual temperature is 10.5 �C, with absolute extremes of 44.3 and

�31.5 �C. Average annual precipitation is 660 mm.

Soil Erosion in Europe Edited by J. Boardman and J. Poesen# 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-85910-5

About 25% (634 000 ha) of the total land area is pasture, 25% (550 000 ha) arable, 55 300 ha meadows,

57 000 ha vineyards and orchards, 8% (20 5000 ha) barren, 37.5% (965 650 ha) forest, 2% lakes and 2.5%

urban or industrial land. The 1982 Physical Plan projected an increase in forest land and a decrease in

agricultural land over the forthcoming decades. About 60% of the population live in urban areas and over the

last 20 years there have been absolute decreases in population in many of the rural areas.

Fertile land is scarce, with 82% of arable land in fertility classes IV–VII. Because of recent declines in the

rural population and economic activity, fallow and uncultivated land is increasing in area, comprising about

160 000 ha in 1993, or 30% of arable land. About 70% of arable land is privately owned and plans are under

way to privatize the remainder.

Pasture constitutes about 634 000 ha but yields are well below potential, averaging only about

270 kg ha�1 (potential yields could be as high as 800 kg ha�1). The low yields may also indicate that

some of this land may be more appropriate as forest. In the past, much pastureland in Macedonia, as

elsewhere in the Balkans, was previously forested. Pasture is managed by the public enterprise

‘Macedonian Pastures’.

Forest reserves cover about 1� 106 ha or 37.5% of the land area of Macedonia. This is characteristic of oak

stands. About 50% of forests comprise pure and mixed oak stands (480 000 ha), 29% (285 000 ha) beech, 8%

(80 000 ha) black pine and Scotch pine and 15% other stands. About 67% of forests are coppiced. Degraded

forests and shrubs cover 262 000 ha (27%) of the forest land. A substantial proportion of the forest is located

on steeply sloping land, where forest cover is necessary for soil conservation and watershed protection

purposes, and where logging is restricted.

Urban growth has not always been accompanied by adequate infrastructure development, and urban

expansion has frequently taken place on high-quality agricultural land. According to some estimates, about

0.5% of agricultural land is lost annually to construction.

1.24.2 HISTORICAL EVIDENCE FOR EROSION

A lot of natural conditions in RM (climate condition, topography, vegetation cover, geology) contribute to high

rates of erosion. Also, poor arable farming, grazing management and deforestation in the past have contributed

to erosion, a problem affecting all of the country.

Deforestation was extreme before World War II. In the 13–14th centuries, German miners arrived in

Macedonia and started mining activities especially in the east and north-east. They cut forests and used wood

for fuel and mining construction.

The Turkish Ottoman Empire governed Macedonia for five centuries from the 14th to the beginning of the

20th century. Wood from forests in the central part of Macedonia was fully cut and transported along the River

Vardar to Thessalonica. Today in that area, part of the left side of the river in Central Macedonia is possibly the

only semi-desert in Europe.

Forests around the settlements were also degraded. Low education levels, insufficient awareness, social

structure and poverty were reasons for extensive forest destruction around the settlements.

1.24.3 CURRENT EROSION PROCESSES

There is an Erosion Map prepared at a scale of 1:50 000 in a database version. This version was finished in

1992. The digital version was finished in 2002.

The empirical methodology of Gavrilovic (which is similar to methodology of Poljakov) was used for

mapping erosion intensity.

290 Soil Erosion in Europe

Of the total area, 96% is affected by processes of erosion. An amount 9423 km2 or 36.65% of the total state

territory is in the highest categories (I–III: Table 1.24.1).

The total annual production of erosive material is about 17� 106 m3 y�1 or 685 m3 km�2 yr�1, of which

7.5� 106 m3 yr�1 or 303 m3 km�2 yr�1 is carried away. Significant parts of these deposits, about

3� 106 m3 yr�1, is not carried through the downstream sections of the rivers to the exit of the state territory,

but sedimented in natural lakes and reservoirs.

Annual soil loss represents an annual average loss of an arable soil layer 2 cm deep over an area of 8500 ha.

The economic cost of erosional impacts therefore considerable.

The distribution of erosional processes is shown in Figure 1.24.1

TABLE 1.24.1 Erosion distribution in RM

Degradation category

(erosion processes) Area (km2) Area (%)

Mean annual

erosion (m3 km�2 yr�1)

I Extremely high 698 2.77 >3000

II High 1832 7.38 1500–3000

III Medium 6893 27.78 1000–1500

IV low 7936 31.98 500–1000

V Very low 7463 30.09 70–500

Figure 1.24.1 Erosion processes in the Republic of Macedonia

Macedonia 291

1.24.3.1 Soil Loss on Experimental Plots

Research has been carried out on experimental plots with an area of 100 m2 where sediment is collected at the

downstream edge and later analysed in a laboratory (Jovanovski and Blinkov, 1992–98). Collectors were

perforated and buried in the soil to allow drainage of water while retaining the sediment.

There are four different locations: Skopje (Figure 1.24.1, marked 1e), Probistip (2e), Kriva Palanka (3e) and

Kavadarci (4e), with two experimental plots, one of which is natural vegetation (grass, bushes, trees) and the

other simulates an arable area. The data (sediment) were gathered during the period 1993–98 several times

during the year (Table 1.24.2–1.24.4).

Although there are insufficient data, preliminary relationships between the annual soil loss and the slope

were estimated:

y ¼ 329:1x� 3884:5 ðr2 ¼ 0:91Þ

TABLE 1.24.2 Basic characteristics of the experimental plots

Skopje (1e) Probistip (2e) K. Palanka(3e) Kavadarci (4e)

Land use Abandoned arable land

Slope (%) 11 21 27 16

Bad rock Palaeogene sediments Neogene sediments Gneiss and

micaschists

Palaeogene

sediments

Soil type Chromic cambisol Smolnitza (vertisol) Chromic cambisol Colluvial soil

Vegetation cover (%) 90 100 90 95

TABLE 1.24.3 Mean annual precipitation [P (mm)] and temperature [t (�C)] during the research period and long period

of observation

Skopje (1e) Probistip (2e) K. Palanka (3e) Kavadarci (4e)

Period P (mm) t (�C) P (m) t (�C) P (mm) t (�C) P (mm) t (�C)

1993–98 404.3 12.9 442.6 12.8 540.2 10.3 497.5 13.7

1951–90 501.7 12.5 471.8 12.8 633.5 10.1 476.7 13.8

Ratio: data 1993–98 (D1)/data 1951–90 (D2)

D1/D2 0.81 1.03 0.94 1.00 0.85 1.02 1.04 0.99

TABLE 1.24.4 Mean annual soil and nutrient losses on experimental plots

Mean annual soil and nutrient losses

Soil K2O P2O5 N Humus

Plot (t ha�1) (kg ha�1) (kg ha�1) (kg ha�1) (kg ha�1)

Skopje (1e) 0.040 0.021 0.008 0.172 1.929

Probistip (2e) 3.833 1.598 0.401 1.370 19.226

K. Palanka (3e) 4.773 1.426 0.737 2.704 33.546

Kavadarci (4e) 0.498 0.228 0.109 0.082 2.063

292 Soil Erosion in Europe

All the results shown are from plots which simulate arable land. Those plots covered with vegetation (grass

and bushes) show minimum runoff with no silt in the collectors.

1.24.3.2 Irrigation Erosion

Agriculture is the basis of the Macedonian economy; water deficit is high, especially during the vegetation

period, so irrigation is necessary for high quantity yields. There are 106 different irrigation schemes in the

country with a capacity to serve 124 000 ha. However, owing to inefficiencies in the systems, not more

80 000 ha are irrigated. Erosion due to inadequate irrigation practices, such as furrow irrigation on sloping

land, is less serious than other erosion factors. About 40 000 ha of irrigated land is subject to erosion, with an

annual average soil loss of about 308 000 m3. However, this soil is generally very fertile. About 60% of the

irrigation is done through sprinklers and the rest through furrows. Most of the irrigation systems which account

for more than 50% of the irrigated land are more than 15 years old and many are seriously damaged. Research

was carried out in the period 1975–78 on vineyards near Ve (Table 1.24.5).

1.24.3.3 Landslides and Landfalls

Landslides and falls occur very often. They are natural events, sometimes directly caused by human activities.

Usually, landslides occur in settled areas, causing serious damage. The most important landslides occurred in

Veles (Ramina), Rostuse and Germo. There are many shallow landslides. During the war period in 2001, a high

percentage of the forest in the region of Sar Planina, north-west of Tetovo, was illegaly cut, which caused

several landslides in that region.

The biggest landfall on the Balkan Peninsula occured in 1958 in the central part of Macedonia (15 km south

of Kavadarci). The eroded material formed a natural dam with a height of more than 35 m. This dammed the

River Luda Mara (Crazy Mary) and formed a lake. During the period of high-intensity rainfalls in November

1979, there was a risk of this natural dam breaking and all material being transported, covering with sediment

lower parts of Kavadarci city (citizens from vulnerable areas were evacuated). Fortunately, this catastrophe

was avoided and now the river is controlled with hydraulic structures. Nearby, in the Tikves region, in 1992,

there was a major landslide and several hectares of vineyards were destroyed (this region is marked on Figure

1.24.1 as @).

1.24.3.4 Sediment in Reservoirs

The best way to determine erosion in the catchment area is through direct measurements of the deposited

sediment in the reservoir, but for Macedonia this is expensive. Although the Water Act of RM requires annual

TABLE 1.24.5 Results from measurements of irrigation erosion

Soil

Vertisol Vertisol

Type of irrigation Furrow Furrow

Discharge (l s�1) 0.8219 0.8219

Water velocity (m s�1) 0.16 0.16

Slope of furrow (%) 3.67 10.10

Soil loss for one flooding (kg m�2 1.134 3.626

Annual soil loss (3–4 floodings) (t ha�1yr�1) 39.69 126.91

Macedonia 293

measurement of sediment entry into all reservoirs (now by echo sounder), it cannot be put into practice owing

to lack of finance.

For this purpose there were established polygonal nets around the reservoirs and defined cross profiles on the

reservoir bed. There is the so-called ‘zero situation of the bed’ before the reservoir came into use.

There are data from direct measurements for only two of the most important reservoirs: Kalimanci (marked

6 on Figure 1.24.1) and Tikves (marked 7). From 1968, when these measurements started, to 1991 there were

nine measurements for each reservoir (Table 1.24.6). In 1991 (year of independence from Yugoslavia), there

started a transitional period, with war in the neighbourhood and poverty and low economic standards at home,

and this is reflected in the water economy also. In this period, there were only a few measurements spread all

over Macedonia, and the results are not used for analyses.

1.24.3.5 Torrent Erosion

A total of 1245 torrents are registered over the whole territory (as a result of the new Water Master Plan) (Table

1.24.7). Torrential flows (flash floods) endanger infrastructural facilities (roads, bridges, etc.) and they cover

agricultural land with sterile sediments (stones, gravel, etc.). Small torrents (with catchment areas less than

5 km2) account for 62% of the total number.

Although their catchment area is small, there are torrents with peak flows of more than 30 m3 s�1 that result

in substantial sediment on the flooded areas.

1.24.4 MAJOR ON- AND OFF-SITE PROBLEMS AND COSTS

Owing to the hilly character of RM, soil erosion is spread all over the country. Processes of water erosion are

dominant. In the western part of RM, the terrain is rough and steep, so processes of deep erosion are dominant.

There are landslides also. In the central part of Macedonia, processes of sheet erosion are dominant. There is

wind erosion in this area but the intensity is not as high as water erosion in the other parts. A combination of

processes occur in the eastern part of RM. Gully erosion occurs all over the country.

Inadequate ploughing and irrigation have led to different processes of sheet and rill erosion. There are high

losses of topsoil, humus and nutrients from the agricultural land located on the slopes.

TABLE 1.24.6 Sediment deposited in two of the most important reservoirs in RM

Catchment

area

Reservoir

storage

Total deposited

sediment

Mean annual

sediment yield

Reservoir (km2) (� 106 m3) (m3) (m3 yr�1) m3 km�2 yr�1

Kalimanci 1135 127 9 413 580 490 629 432

Tikves 5377 475 29 320 019 1 274 783 237

TABLE 1.24.7 Torrent distribution (degradation categories as in Table 1.24.1)

Distribution of streams in category of destruction (%)

Total I II III IV V

100 0.48 3.69 39.52 45.70 10.60

294 Soil Erosion in Europe

Torrential flows are very frequent. There is no city in Macedonia without problems with torrents and their

consequences: sedimentation of material in the urban area, damaged streets, bridges, houses and other

infrastructure and sometimes with human victims.

Sedimentation in reservoirs is one of the greatest problems. Hence water management enterprises are

interested in erosion processes and have invested in anti-erosion measures.

1.24.5 SOIL CONSERVATION AND POLICIES

Measures to control erosion were initiated in the early 1900s, aimed mostly at protecting rivers and reservoirs.

Following the passage of the Law on Financing Melioration Systems, these measures were strengthened, and

as of 1985, 285 basins were regulated. The water management projections anticipate continuing this work.

Given likely budgetary constraints over the coming years, it would be advisable to prioritize these investments.

Measures to control erosion on deforested barren lands have also been under way since 1945, when

restrictions were placed on nomadic breeding of goats and sheep in forests. This measure, although unpopular,

led to a recovery of degraded forest and shrub land.

There were few Acts directly related to erosion control in the past: the Act for Afforestation of Bareland

(1951), Act for Erosion Control on Steep Slopes (1952) and Act for Steep Slope Protection and Torrent

Control (1957). Later, these Acts were suspended.

As part of the erosion control programme, an ‘Afforestation Fund’ was established in 1970. Under these

measures, 164 360 ha were afforested, which was 260% more than planned. Since 1990, afforestation has

declined 10-fold, mainly because of budget constraints. In an environment of limited available resources, a

programme to prioritize areas for afforestation would be useful. There are conflicts in certain areas between

afforestation of barren lands and preservation of pastures, even if their quality is poor.

The new Physical Plan of RM (proposal version 2003), predicts afforestation of 80 000 ha of bareland

spread over the country. The best way of addressing this issue is through close consultation with farmers and

adoption of an integrated approach to watershed management.

Until 1990, anti-erosion measures and activities were on a ‘higher level’ and institutional support was

higher. There were sections for erosion control in all regional water management enterprises. There were parts

of the budget aimed at erosion control.

Now, the situation is the opposite. Unfortunately, erosion is one the largest environmental and economic

problems in RM, but there is no special Act for erosion control. There are some articles in other regulations

(Water Act, Forest Law, Agricultural Land Act, Promotion of the Environment Act), but implementation of

these articles is not sufficient for adequate erosion control.

RM ratified the UNCCD convention in 2002. Soil erosion is seen as the most important natural contributor

to land degradation and desertification in RM. There is an ongoing project, ‘National capacity self assessment

for implementation of UNCCD’. A few projects related to UNCCD are planned: national strategy and national

and regional action plans.

1.24.6 CONCLUSIONS

Owing to the natural conditions, soil erosion is one of the greatest environmental problems in RM. The

vegetation cover is not sufficient to combat erosion processes. Also, some human activities in the last 13 years

have contributed to an increase in erosion processes.

Illegal forest cutting, especially in war-affected areas, is a major problem. Forest fires in 2000 destroyed

48 000 ha of forest (4% of the forests in RM). Traditional livestock farming is associated with overgrazing,

Macedonia 295

particularly with recent increases in the number of goats. Inadequate agricultural practices as a result of

farmers’ poverty also contribute.

The major problems related to erosion processes are as follows:

1. loss of topsoil (including humus and nutrients), especially from agricultural land located on steep slopes;

2. decreasing soil physical quality;

3. physiological changes and the loss of natural vegetation;

4. disturbance of the water regime, which results in high erosion rates and flash floods;

5. sedimentation in reservoirs.

At the moment 36% of the area is highly eroded and 8% of the area is bare. During the period of socialism,

there were numerous anti-erosion activities and soil erosion was reduced, but most activities stopped recently.

Erosion is a major problem and one of the priorities for RM is combating this phenomenon.

REFERENCES

Blinkov I, Blinkov D. 2002. SoER (State of Environment Report) – (Topic – Soil). Electronic version on the Ministry of the

Environment of the Republic of Macedonia website: http://www.moepp.gov.mk.

Blinkov I, Petrovski P. 2000. Soil degradation, current attitudes toward it, prospects as regards concrete action projects in the

Republic of Macedonia. Presented at The Soil Campaign, Prague Conference, SCEEC, NIS, CAC, Current State and

Future Perspectives, Prague.

Blinkov I, Trendafilov A. 2002. Erosion processes in the Republic of Macedonia. Presented at the International Conference

‘Natural and Socio-Economic Effects of Erosion Control in Mountainous Regions’, 10–13 December 2002, Belgrade/

Vrujci Spa.

Gesovski S. 2002. Erosion intensity as a result of furrow irrigation on vineyards of ZIK ‘‘Lozar’’ near the reservoir

‘‘Mladost’’; newspaper ‘‘Problems in Water Management’’, special edition - 30 years of Water Development Institute,

Skopje 1882.

Gorgevic M, Trendafilov A, Jelic D, Georgievski S, Popovski, A. 2003. ‘‘Erosion map of the RM’’ - Water Development

Institute - Skopje - part I - textual, part II - maps 1: 50 000 and 1: 250 000, digital version - (2002).

Jovanovski S, Blinkov I, Micevski L, Vasilevski K. 1999. ‘‘Influence of soil, land cover, rainfall intensity and slopes on the

erosion intensity in Central and Eastern Macedonia’’ - scientific project supported by Ministry of Science of the Republic

of Macedonia, final report 1999.

NEAP (National Environmental Action Plan). Government of the Republic of Macedonia � Ministry of Urbanism,

Construction and Environmental Protection 1997.

Water Master Plan of the RM (on-going project) http://www.wmp.gov.mk/indexasp.asp? MyId¼’E.

WDI (Water Development Institute). (1969–90). Results from Direct Measuring of Deposited Sediment in the Reservoirs in

RM. WDI, Skopje.

296 Soil Erosion in Europe