sociology : social context and place of action

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Sociology

Social context and place of action

Sociological questions today lie at the heart of intellectual debate; they influence and modify the museum’s view of itself and consequently its architectural structure.

The museum is ,particularly well suited to serve as an experimental sociological model, since it is, on the one hand, a place where individuals develop an awareness of self and society, a feeling of togetherness, while on the other it exerts a three-dimensional effect within a verifiable and limited framework. It can also serve as a sociological model because in a society regulated by the division of labour it is one of the last free spheres of existence.

Since sociology deals with all human relationships, which are almost as difficult to grasp in their complexity as reality itself, all we can attempt to do is to formulate a few major points sufficient to trace the outline of pragmatic spatial models. A familiar difficulty arises here since the sociologist speaks a generalizing analytical language while the architect speaks a pragmatic lanl guage incorporating spatial and material images, which means that specific scientific concepts have to be accommodated within an over-all conception forming a representational whole.

As stated earlier, this paper will deal with the complex web of problems surrounding the modern museum largely owing to its pluralistic nature-as regards both the content of the collection and the sociological composition of visitors. It stands to reason that the smaller, more homogeneous and special- ized a museum is, the easier it will be to solve the problem of co-ordination, even though it thereby loses something of its specific character.

The museum’s position in relation to the public can be defined as an inter- action between sociological self-representation and self-realization. The museum curator here acts as a catalyst.

He and his few fellow-workers have to cope with a phenomenon of extreme and baffling complexity.

It is therefore desirable that, whenever a museum is built, a systematic sociological study should be carried out, including an analysis of structures and trends and the formulation of value systems, leading to scientifically based forecasts. The most difficult part of this task-the preparation of pragmatic models-can be accomplished only by an interdisciplinary team which is capable of evaluating accurately and sufficiently far in advance the repercus- sions on the spatial representation.

The starting-point will be an analysis of the circle of people participating in the museum-event. On account of his paramount importance, the visitor will be the main object of discussion here, museum workers, scientists and so on

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being mentioned only in so far as they enter into contact with the visitor, as informants or guides for instance.

From the sociological point of view a distinction can be drawn between actual and potential visitors. Statistics should be collected on both groups, including demographic characteristics, origin, occupation, education and eco- logical data. The question of catchment area should be studied in detail, for, unlike schools and hospitals, a museum does not cater mainly for local users but for widely-scattered groups, including tourists merely passing through.

Equally, a museum will not have the same features in an industrial society as in an agricultural society. If the latter is progressing towards an industrial society, its future sociological development must be thoroughly studied.

Research into potential visitors has an important part to play whenever a new museum is built, giving rise to theories, hypotheses and forecasts. How- ever desirable it may be to attract the largest possible number of people (in theory, everyone) to the museum, the task of the sociologist consists in recognizing limits and defining the circle of people who are likely to be involved in view of their capabilities, attitudes or geographical circumstances.

In addition to determining the sociological set-up it is also necessary to carry out an inquiry into the needs of visitors, who could, for example, be questioned on the following points: I. Interests and level of awareness. 2. Premises and expectations in regard to education. 3. Personal activities and self-discovery. 4. Human relations: (a) with groups of visitors or (b) with the museum worker. j . Emotional needs. 6. Attitude to the environment. It is extremely dificult to make a scientific evaluation of these needs, since surveys are highly problematical (‘No man can see himself objectively’) (see Cameron) and must as far as possible be worked in such a way as to transcend the conventional museum framework and be valid irrespective of any precon- ceived and known models.

It is, however, possible to site museums in their present-day setting empiri- cally or on the basis of the development of knowledge and to deduce the sociological trend to the point where this can be expressed in the form of theses. On the assumption that these are widely accepted, they will not be discussed further but are merely listed as follows: I. The museum event is no longer regarded as the antithesis of everyday life,

but is integrated in the social and urban structure. As far as possible the dividing barriers will be broken down.

2. The areas of contact will be extended in relation to the sociological and museum event. The extent to which they induce communication depends on individual readiness and appreciation. They should give rise to produc- tive rather than consumer attitudes.

3. Two-way communication should be encouraged: (a) with the content, through an effective system based on knowledge of the psychology of perception and behaviour; (b) with other persons and groups, who participate in an intellectual exchange via the language of the object; and (c) with the museum worker, whose task it is to supply the key to understanding.

The main aspects of relations with the public, which will be briefly illustrated by means of examples showing how these find concrete expressions in the architectural environment, are accordingly as follows:

P U B L I C I T Y

Formerly the museum was based on a belief in values, whereas today’s museum helps in the search for values. It therefore stands open and inviting to the outside world, and tries to avoid giving the visitor the impression of crossing a threshold. This could find concrete expression in the adaptation of existing

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buildings, a transparent ‘display-case’ architecture or semantically symbolic forms.

I N F O RIvI A T I O N

Formerly the museum conveyed information solely through the dumb language of the object to educated middle-class citizens prepared to receive it. Nowadays, the unprepared visitor, who may be from any social group, expects to be offered information which he can call upon at any time. In concrete architectural terms this may mean providing special rooms or additional space for information purposes. In the extreme case this can develop into a type of museum which presents information only, and is thus more concerned with breadth than depth.

I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

. Formerly, the visitor interpreted the object subjectively whereas nowadays the object comes complete with interpretations ready to hand. Emphasis is placed on the intellectual viewpoint. The problem lies in the danger of dental maspu- lation. The architectural expression may consist in the creation of additional surfaces for libraries, lectures, discussions and audio-visual media.

E V A L U A T I O N A N D C R I T I C I S M

Since no universally recognized scale of values is available, it is necessary to focus attention on certain key images, justified on technical or artistic grounds. These images are presented for debate and ‘judgement’. The individual can compare, evaluate and assimilate them. The conflicts which arise in the process serve to clarify matters and to prevent ‘alienation’. In architectural terms this can find expression in the various spatial possibilities offered by an ‘agora’.

A C T I V I T Y

Not only should the individual abandon consumer attitudes and achieve self- realization through action; the sociological structure of society itself should be reinforced through communal activity.

Extra experimental rooms and technical workshops, open to the public, help the individual to identify with his work by their specially designed spatial qualities. They can also help to bring together the public and the artist in the creative process.

C O N T E M P L A T I O N A N D E M O T I O N

Whereas in former times the content of the collection tended to be over- emphasized, the tendency nowadays is to underplay it. Surveys have revealed, however, that there is still a need for undisturbed dialogue with the object. This need can be met by, for instance, creating a special circuit with additional surface qualities and rest areas.

P A R T I C I P A T I O N

The visitor considers that the museum is his affair and that he has a certain right to see into its inner workings. This can be given architectural expression by allowing the visitor a look behind the scenes, at some of the restoration rooms, laboratories and technical installations, as is done for example at the Capodimonte museum (overhead lighting design) (Fig. II).

The extent to which these trends can be put into practice, and the form they will take, must be examined afresh in every case.

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12 The visitor-exhibit relationship seen as a quantitative problem. The smaller the ratio of visitors to exhibits the more opportunity for concentration and for each individual to enter freely into a relationship with the exhibit.

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13 Group viewing an exhibit. Close contact with the exhibit is no longer possible without disturbing other members of the group. Visitors must arrange themselves around the exhibit keeping an equal distance from it.

14 A large number of visitors viewing an exhibit. The quality of contact with the exhibit decreases with each succeeding semi-circle of viewers. The spacing of exhibits may be determined by the extent to which the ‘spheres of influence’ of the different exhibits tend to overlap.

schitectaa sal expression

We have indicated by a small selection of examples the extent to which the architecture of the museum can give appropriate spatial expression to certain sociological trends. Further examples of actual spatial situations will be selected as models of sociological behaviour and examined from the point of view of the relation between ends and means.

The point is to achieve the most harmonious balance possible, that is the greatest possible compatibility, between the architectural environment and the needs and tendencies of the users.

The actual construction phase brings to light the diametrically opposing nature of sociological-psychological requirements and of scientific requirements in regard to the individual exhibit or object. The realm of sociological- psychological requirements is characterized by constant evolution and change. Since man has only a limited capacity to assimilate experience in consciousness, tensions arise in the course of time within the individual and also within society, for instance in the form of the generation gap. This inherent plasticity . of the mental realm is fundamentally and irreconcilably opposed to the dura- bility in the material realm stemming from the inert character of building materials.

It is the task of the architect to take decisions which will harmonize a large number of contradictory requirements. The sociological position of the architect is that of a ‘servant’ of society, who must know his ‘master’ very intimately in order to create a proper framework for his peculiarities and wishes, even though unconscious and inarticulate.

The architectural consequences of the museum’s new ‘open’ character vis-à-vis society consist in: (a) a need for additional space by comparison with museums devoted solely to objects; and (b) an ‘open’ architectural structure which can be more readily modified.

The first is a surface problem, the second a construction problem. The areas devoted to the sociological presentation of objects can be: (a) dis-

persed throughout the collection; (b) set aside for subsequent use in this way in the plans; (c) built in as special sections.

The problem consists in integrating these sections in the ‘world of the object’ without disturbing its specific laws. Divergences in space requirements are often considerable, depending on such factors as, for instance, optical distraction, acoustic disturbance, security measures, visiting hours, etc.

Since these special sections can be included in other types of building not specifically of museum character, they will be discussed here only to the extent that they compete with the ‘world of the object’ by virtue of their position, the purpose they are designed to serve or the technical equipment they necessitate.

Attention should also be drawn to the danger of allowing these sociologically oriented installations to expand to the point where they risk undermining the original and irreplaceable justification for the museum’s existence as the guardian of authentic objects.

Exhibition 8

D I IvI E N S I O N S

The so-called ‘open museum’ has introduced new standards of presentation, which result from the large influx and varied composition of visitors. The consequences of this situation, whether an individual, a group or a community takes up position in front of the original, are primarily problems of space. The necessary space and the distance from the object increase with the number of

Social context and place of action IGI

observers, that is the number of visitors per unit of surface area is inversely proportional to the number of objects.

The individual observer and the small group can come as close to the original as they wish, in order to study and experience it to the full. The sociological pre-requisite for effective contact is a high level of culture and awareness, corresponding to an equivalent social attitude. The historical model of private collections of works of art and curiosities shows that the objects can be crowded closely together, since it is possible to concentrate attention on the object, regardless of the surroundings. The psychological importance of a unique encounter with the original is preserved. The space required can be reduced to the objects’ own ‘living space’ (Fig. 12).

The larger group must stand at a certain distance from the object, which makes it more difficult to ‘enter into possession’ of it. Dialogue with the object is still possible, but has all the advantages and disadvantages of a ‘round- table’ discussion. The centre of gravity is necessarily displaced from contemplation towards information. Security measures and consequently the separation of the object from the observer assume greater importance. Viewing space and distance from the object increase (Fig. 13).

Large groups visiting as such have no longer virtually any opportunity of entering into close contact with the original, for the space they occupy is too large and the restriction of movement makes observation in depth impossible. The unique character of the encounter with the original is nevertheless still observable, although noticeably less marked. There is a danger of superficiality and disappointment, since each individual-of ,whom the mass is composed- came to the museum in the hope of making personal contact with the original (Fig. 14).

This is a pressing problem wherever there are large numbers of visitors to exhibitions or museums, in industrial countries and developing countries alike.

If this trend continues, intensive contact with the original becomes more and more difficult or else the museum visitor is obliged to adopt an élitist behaviour. In some countries (China), experiments have been made using excellent copies which cannot be distinguished from the original, and the original itself is kept in store, where it benefits from optimum conservation conditions. It is possible to regulate psychologically and physiologically the contact with the copy substituted for the original, to dispense with security measures and barriers, and to eliminate to a large extent the opposition between consumption and conservation. The question whether such a solution is acceptable is a philosophical rather than a technical one, depending on the value which is attributed to the human observer and to the object in all its uniqueness and on the possibility of reaching a generally binding social con- sensus on this matter.

This stringent yardstick can only be applied, we would recall, to precious objects such as belonging mostly to archaeological and fine arts museums (Fig. I/).

Another proposal must be mentioned in this connexion which has already been made on several occasions with a view to establishing contact between a large group of visitors and a single object. In order to obtain satisfactory viewing, the kinetic man-object relationship is reversed. The object is presented in dynamic fashion, on a kind of podium, to visitors who remain immobile in an auditorium. Apart from the fact that in many cases questions of conservation may arise, mobility of the object often runs counter to the creative intention and what we know from the psychology of perception. This applies especially to art galleries, whereas such a formula could be considered for specimens in science and technical museums. In this case architecture ceases to act as an aid to interpretation (Fig. 16).

These considerations lead logically to the use of other communication media such as the cinema, television, etc. It would doubtless be an advantage if the main museums had their own television studios where informational activities

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I,. Division of groups among several exhibits by means of copies. Copies of the original can be scattered over a large area and the relationship of a large group to the original replaced by the relationship of smaller groups to copies. The opportunity for closer contact with the exhibit must be weighed against the fact that the exhibit in question is now only a copy, the original of which is kept in the museum store.

16 A way of dealing with the problem of laige amounts of information and large numbers of visitors. The exhibits are brought to the visitor rather than the visitor himself moving from one exhibit to another. The advantages of presentation of the exhibit with appropriate audio- visual effects must be weighed against the need to restrict the amount of information and the passivity of the viewer.

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Co-ordination of exhibits and supplementary information areas. Parallel arrangement. The exhibits are accompanied by information areas of varying intensity. Exhibits are placed along the main circuit and information areas along a parallel circuit. If this arrangement is readily comprehensible to the visitor it makes for a varied and evenly paced museum visit.

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18

:

20

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18 Intercalation of exhibits and information areas. The disadvantage is uncertainty as to whether information should precede or follow presentation of the exhibit. The exhibit-information axis is identical with the main circuit. Difficulty in understanding the arrangement of the subject-matter may, however, oblige the visitor to retrace his steps.

‘9. Dispersal or grouping of exhibits. Exhibits and information are not arranged in a systematic way but information is related to each exhibit separately. The ‘highway’ from one exhibit to the next is clearly discernible but there are ‘byways’ through information areas as well. The flexibility of this type of arrangement can, however, result in visitors getting in each other’s way as they follow different itineraries.

could be carried on regularly with the collaboration of specialists who have received scientific training so that their influence may be felt not only inside but, even more, outside the museum.

As a television studio constitutes a special sector, and as its planning does not form part of the specific functions of a museum, we shall not pursue the matter further here.

A R T I C U L A T I O N

The incorporation of information areas in the layout of a museum also raises an architectural problem. The models are based on the assumption that the layout will be determined by high aesthetic demands. If an arrangement of objects is to be fully satisfactory as regards the psychology of perception, much space is required, and it is therefore impossible to apply this formula to the whole of a large museum’s collection. For the purpose of displaying the exhibits the museum must be divided into areas of varying density.

Differentiated displq and interpretation areas

A number of points of special interest are thus placed along separate circuits, to attract groups of visitors with varying tastes. Consequently the architecture has not only to adapt to the various different spatial qualities, but also to emphasize these differences. An effort must be made as it were to lead the visitor on from one area to another (the pleasure of ‘discovery’ must be preserved, for example), this having a direct bearing on the extent to which the architectural structure is of the open type (see Figs. IOI and 119).

Integrated informtion areas

This formula is intended to ensure, in accordance with the sociological trend, an even greater interpenetration between the visitor and the object. The possibilities which it offers for the co-ordination of the three elements: (a) display; (b) visit circuit (in the sense of a guiding axis); and (c) information sectors, are as follows: parallel arrangement (Fig. 17), rhythmic intercalation (Fig. I¿’), dispersal in relation to the exhibits (Fig. IS) and special sector-in proximity to the exhibits (Pig. 20).

Reconcilitg the optimam m e of space with the need for information areas

The problem raised by the increased amount of information provided must be considered in conjunction with the need to make the most economical use of space for technical reasons of conservation as weal as on psychological grounds. As regards the distribution of space, there is a series of possible variants according to whether preference is given, in the relationship between display and information, to providing information in greater quantity or in greater depth (Fig. 21).

P R O B L E M S O F T H E R E L A T I O N S H I P B E T W E E N D I S P L A Y

A N D I N F O R M A T I O N

The spatial qualities of the information sectors differ in many ways from those of the display sectors. When the requirements in regard to display are very high-as in the case of archaeological and fine arts museums-the interference caused by information media and their installation are a source of conflict.

I/erbal ilzformation. The difficulty of providing discreet but useful inscrip-

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22

tions is a well-known problem everywhere. Inscriptions take on architectural dimensions when they are presented in the form of large panels which serve as a background to the object or counterbalance it. As the transition from the visual sphere to the intellectual sphere requires a psychological effort, the eye often sees panels from an aesthetic point of view (that is they must tone in with the object or, where this is not possible owing to the nature of the object, be set apart).

Three-dimem-ional models. Although these generally remain in the visual sphere they must be clearly distinguished from the original and set apart from it.

Aadio-visual media. Media such as cinema or television require physiological and psychological adjustment (to darkness, noise, etc.) which may cause widespread irritation in the display sector. In such cases, separation must be achieved at the level of perception and measures taken to isolate these sectors architecturally (cubicles, etc.).

The installation of integrated information sectors may be an important factor in architectural design, in the form of a fixed spatial element specially equipped, or an element which may be moved around in the available space (Figs. 22, 23).

20 Linkage and separation of display areas. Grouping of exhibits and separation of display and information areas. The path to be followed by the visitor must be clearly indicated. Under this system the visitor is still free to decide whether or not he wishes to inspect the information area.

21 Isolation of information areas. An ‘open plan’ effect is created and the visitor can be sure of not being distracted in the information areas, but the feeling of continuity is lost. The substantiality of the information cubicles may indeed have an adverse effect on appreciation of the exhibits.

22 METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, New York. Lipchitz Exhibition. Example of integrated audio-visual information. Art exhibition featuring a videotape interview with the artist. In a glass booth set in one corner of the room the visitor can concentrate his attention on the audio-visual information. The booth does not spoil the over-au effect of the exhibition due to its transparency.

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24. ROMISCH-GERMANISCHES MUSEUM, Cologne. Here the audio-visual information is presented outside the field of vision containing the works of art and therefore does not interfere with it. Architect: Heinz Röcke.

Original

A Q Familiar

24 The form in which information is presented must strike a balance between originality and familiarity. It must teach the recipient something new without being so unfamiliar as to be incomprehensible. Such are the basic dialectics of communication. (From: Males, Information Tlleoiy a n d Aesthefir Perception.)

The entrance to a museum is specially significant as a zone of sociological contact. Since it plays an important part in providing a bridge between the public and the collection, it should be designed as an independent but closely integrated architectural element, drawing, from a sociological and psychological standpoint, on the fruits of experience with similar zones of contact in central urban areas.

A museum should be so organized as to exert the greatest possible influence on the surrounding community and at the same time afford the public the freest possible access to it. Following on an analysis of the behavioural motiva- tions to the community-which vary from case to case-a flow-sheet should be drawn up indicating successive stages or levels of contact with the museum, and this in turn will be transposed into a succession of architectural spaces.

In order to determine what this succession in space and time should be, we can turn first to psychology, which tells us that innovation should be accompanied by what is already familiar, that is assimilation is made easier by a blend of old and new (Fig. 24).

In this context the three most important stages are: I. Enhancing the vicinity of the museum by providing appropriate additional

amenities such as shopping malls, recreational facilities and places for people to meet (not necessarily designed as a single sociological structure but in keeping with the environment).

2. Exploiting these amenities on behalf of the museum by using psycholo-

Social context and place of action 1%

gically-based techniques to gain wide publicity for, and interest in, the services of the museum (‘transparency’, action programmes aimed at the public).

3. Psychological preparation by abolishing distance and gradually changing the layout into ‘harmonious space’ (Fig. 21).

In country districts (for example, for site museums), the town-planning approach is replaced by contact with nature, which may have the opposite psychological effect. Peace and solitude make the museum more attractive; in other words, the same stages hold good, but in the reverse order.

The way in which not only the immediate vicinity but also the museum building itself is presented to the psychological perception of the visitor acts as publicity in spreading information about the works in the collection and making it widely known to the community. Thus a show window for a temporary exhibition epitomizes the principle of the open museum; on the other

Sorting principle Collection on show Study collection Storehouse

Temporary exhibition Special visitors Action

Administration

Object Information Contemplation

Third transition zone Museum

/1 Sorting principle Educational material Conferences

- Loop Second transition zone Administration - -

Restaurant

Reception

- - Seated groups -

Action - Wall surfaces (’do-it-yourself‘ - crayons and paints) Conversation corners Day nursery Painting school

Outside advertisement Films Sculptures

Meeting-point News-stand Seated groups Play area

Shops Offices

Main street or square

Signs and direction indicators (in town) Posters Sculptures

- Information - Sale of tickets - - - - First transition zone

Liaison with other cultural institutions

Open area or green for leisure activity

space

Access to the park

a to the environment 0 Activities corresponding

n Il U -

O ’Surface of contact‘ - with town life - Influence extended on wider urban area

2J. Diagram showing the possibilities of integrating a museum in a town. Strategy for introducing visitor to museum.

Sociology I 66

26. VICTORIA ARTS CENTRE, Melbourne. The plain façade, set behind a moat which adds greater mystery, osers no clue as to the museum’s contents and arouses curiosity. The opening of the entrance and the single bridge over the moat create a suggestive effect. Architects: Roy Grounds and Alan B. Nelson.

L/ REUCHLINHAUS, Pforzheim. The entrance and approaches to the museum complex, which consists of a number of separate buildings, are designed to attract the visitor. Note the use of a variety of materials connected with the museum’s contents. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.


hand, a treasure-house locked up on all sides can also be made to tell a story, provided it is in keeping with its contents.

The use of materials, the choice of proportions and the juxtaposition of configurations can convey ‘messages’ which are perceived subliminally and evoke associations with the contents of the museum, before one ever enters it (Figs. 26, 27).

The same process is repeated in the entrance hall, with a wider range of indications as to what is on show. Here a system of signs such as the display of typical works, which convey visual information, is preferable to the use of written panels or texts (Fig. 28).

Special areas

The new trend towards opening up museums vis-à-vis society is aimed at the integration of the greatest possible number of activities. But its translation into terms of architecture produces divergent requirements, which may give trouble both as regards the space devoted to such activities themselves, and more specially as regards the relationship between it and the space needed for display purposes. In most cases -it has proved necessary to adjoin or append these zones for conservation, study, etc., as special areas so as to ensure that they are fully designed to meet their purpose (as regards acoustics, technical equipment, etc.). Frequently too they are so organized as to have a life of their own (use for several purposes, at different times, etc.), which makes independent access desirable.

It is symptomatic of open museums that such areas-which might be des- cribed as ‘parasitic’ from the point of view of the museum as purely a place for exhibits-tend to keep on growing. They have however proved to be of great importance in making museums come alive, provided that their relationship with the display area remains perfectly clear. Their purpose is to ‘process7 the contents of the collection, in the widest sense of the term, and above all to experiment with the resulting artistic, scientific or technical possibilities. And it is not conducive to this purpose if they are used for activities that are no longer related to the collection itself. For this reason it is desirable that visitors should be able to move freely around them; easily handled mobile partitions should be used which can be assembled or dismantled as necessary. A feature of the architecture of these special areas will be its adaptability.

T E M P O R A R Y E X H I B I T I O N S

Each temporary exhibition forms part of a series of widely differing events, calling for rapid improvization and the possible use of all available facilities. The diversity is such that there can be no question of providing different areas for each event; the only possible solution lies in the direction of maximum flexibility. The architect must thus give way to the civil engineer. We are no longer dealing so much with a museum as with a trade fair or exhibition building, with related but specific requirements such as neutral spaces, areas clear of pillars, a modular system for the fixed and variable parts, and elements which can be assembled-all commonplace features of contemporary building practice.

The dif3culty is that for philosophical and psychological reasons, the museum must remain as far as possible in natural surroundings. This means that daylight should also be used flexibly, hence it should ideally be admitted from all sides under the best possible conditions. The necessary regulating and pro- tective devices, such as slatted blinds and variable elements, together with air-conditioning, are typical of the architecture of temporary exhibitions and distinguish it from that of theatres or department stores, with their artificial light and ventilation-which are relatively easier to provide.

A 28 A series of attractive vistas in the entrance hall. Simplified ground-plan. From the hall one can see objects represent2tive of each section.

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Thus the ‘museum’ type of flexible architecture represents a particular form which requires a certain financial outlay, but one which can be fully justified by the philosophy of the museum. Its architectural value can be measured by the extent to which it succeeds in incorporating the great quantity of technical equipment required without obtruding on the visitor’s psychological perception or competing with the exhibits.

For these reasons temporary exhibitions tend to adopt the principle of free arrangement in three-dimensional space, and are exceptionally well suited to serve as a ‘show window’ opening onto the outside world (Fig. 29).

A R E A S F O R C O M M U N I C A T I O N A N D A C T I O N

These areas are designed to free the visitor from a passive consumer role and encourage creative action. It is here also that a deliberate attempt is made to come to terms with the conflict inherent in communication. These areas should enable the visitor to experience this conflict and formulate it.

A salient feature of the architecture is its ‘absence of order’, which should break down inhibitions and stimuIate ‘participation’.

A special problem is that of ‘artist’s studios’ (Fig. 14j). In practice, the architecture is much the same as for temporary exhibitions,

but less attention is paid to the requirements of aesthetic perception and more to the solidity of the construction. Communication is not only visual but also acoustic and haptic. Sociological surveys and forecasts suggest that the over- all flexibility of a large area can be replaced by a series of different types of spaces leading into each other (big-small, light-dark, angular-round, etc.). These can be used to serve the purpose of studios, stages, play areas or amateur workshops, as required.

The criterion is the wide range of possibilities and easy adaptability. Depend- ing on the type of museum, technical equipment will be needed approximating in part to that found in a television studio (for example a battery of projectors), in part to that associated with a workshop (a travelling crane, running water, etc.). A comparison can also be made with a modern experimental theatre, where the actors intermingle with the audience. Daylight is desirable, less for aesthetic than for practical reasons; also access to a workshop.

The plans for communication and action areas (as also for temporary exhibitions) should take into account the need for suitable ‘backstage’ premises and large store-rooms, which should be located as near as possible to the scene of action.

Access should also be provided for delivery vans. Experience has shown the value of separate work-rooms and rooms for

painting, for both adults and children, in this category of premises. Rooms for conducting experiments are specially worthwhile in technical museums.

E D U C A T I O N A N D R E S E A R C H

While the special areas set aside for communication are oriented towards the sphere of action and emotion, those designed for education place the emphasis on analysis and reasoning. The individual contents of the museum are ap- proached scientifically and transposed into other media (writing, slides, sound); for instance with an art gallery, vision becomes thought. There is a social obligation to make accessible to the widest possible public the educational potentialities which each exhibit possesses, both as a process and as a result. This determines the location of the education area in the over-all plan, which should also take account of the various groups of users: I. Everyday visitors: easy access (lecture and reading rooms). 2. Special visitors, such as schoolchildren, students and research workers:

special classrooms should be provided where possible, with easy access from the official entrance.

Social context and dace of action I Gc,

3. Outside visitors for activities external to the museum (publicity value). In

The spatial requirements are appreciably different from those of the areas set apart for exhibits and action, being primarily peace and quiet, with little need for flexibility (as much as in an office building): The lecture room is designed in the light of its special functional requirements,

with stepped rows of seats, a projection booth, etc. Putting it to several different uses gives rise to technical difficulties and is rarely satisfactory. As it is much in demand for congresses and school activities, daylight is desirable, in addition to essential lighting and ventilation installations.

The library and reading room are needed equally by the public and research workers, and this determines their accessibility.

Classrooms and study rooms should not be designed solely with teaching requirements in mind, but should also be fitted up with some degree of comfort, so that those who spend some time in the museum may find it an agreeable experience. For schoolchildren, this will be fundamental for their subsequent identification with the museum.

The research premises and laboratories are variously designed and equipped for each individual programme.

The research museum can be defined typologically by the high proportion of ofices and laboratories. When the great bulk of its work is research, it loses some of the specific features of a museum, and at the same time has fewer multipurpose areas of sociological ~on tac t .~

There is a tendency to make the research function independent, and to regard the museum as a ‘collection of materials’ belonging to an educational insti- tution.

this case a special entrance is desirable.

Scboo I and zm’versity ?nuseutns

29 WILIXELM LEHMBRUCK MUSEUM, Duisburg. Temporary exhibition used as a ‘shop window’ at the museum entrance (right). As they approach, visitors have further views of the sculpture section and a glimpse of the sculpture courtyard. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

Without going into a detailed study of the problem, it should be noted that in these cases the museum loses much of its general multipurpose character, and thus falls outside the scope of this paper. Sociologically speaking it ceases to be an ‘open museum’, and runs the risk of becoming a special museum for an élite public. 5 . See Appendix IV, page 277.

170 Sociology

Furthermore, as far as architecture is concerned, classrooms and research premises come within the category of educational buildings, and are subject to their special requirements.

30 FORESTRY MUSEUM, Gävle (Sweden). The restaurant area is in a central position. It may be used as a meeting-place, a recreation area within the museum or an external area. There are several points of contact with the circuit of the display area. Access is therefore easy and a variety of possibilities offered. Close dependence on the museum’s activity. Underground plan: I. Exhibition area; 2. Cafeteria; 3 . Reserves; 4. Store-rooms; j. Corridor; 6. Cloakroom; 7. Unloading area; 8. Laboratory; 9. Workshops; IO. Archives; I I . Offices. Architects: Sven H. Wraner, Erik Herlöw and Tormod Olesen.

n- The sociological effectiveness of the museum depends on its attractiveness, that is to a great extent on the well-being of the individual visitor, which can only be achieved if his physical and mental characteristics are together taken into account. Hence the museum should physiologically perform the task of catering for the visitor’s needs, and psychologically extend him an invitation to linger and enjoy himself. The fact of finding himself ‘at home’ in familiar everyday surroundings helps him to assimilate the ‘novelty’ of what he en- counters there (Fig. p i ( b ) ) .

Thus a blend of ‘private’ and ‘public’ should be offered, a place where the visitor forgets both the ego-relationship (of the home) and the feeling of being lost (of the agora), and is transported to a psychological equilibrium which enables him to enter into contact with people and objects.

In specific architectural terms, these functions may be performed by: rest rooms for brief relaxation within the display area (see chapter on physiology), refreshment areas (a cafeteria, restaurant, etc.). As the architecture of refreshment areas is not specific to museums, we shall here refer oniy to their location within the museum complex: I. In the centre of the collection. Here the advantage is that they can be reached

quickly from any point of the museum circuit; the drawback is that they are closed in on themselves and do not take the visitor out of the museum atmosphere. In addition, problems of conservation may arise in the case of fragile exhibits (Fig. 30).

2. At the entrance. Here the advantage is that these areas constitute an added attraction and create a lively, sociologically diversified atmosphere; the drawback is that usually they can only be visited at the beginning or end of the tour. The question of access facilities is thus particularly important: whether these areas should open only on to the outside, for the general public, or be accessible only from the museum visiting area. The optimum solution is undoubtedly to provide dual access from both the outside and the inside, but special attention may then have to be paid to the checking of tickets

It should be possible for tradesmen to have access to the kitchen premises (Fig. 3 44).

without going through the museum.

The lofty tone of museums and their disregard of relations with other spheres of life in the first half of this century made it difficult to extend their action on the sociological plane. The trend today is to discard the functional separation typical of the past and to create the largest possible number of ‘surfaces of contact’ with other fields. As the points of contact with other cultural institutions are specially numerous, it is a short step to the idea of bringing people together in a (cultural centre’. This somewhat ill-formulated but by now well- recognized concept should be defined and delimited in this context, as a form of collaboration on an equal footing between different cultural activities, in which each activity is represented over its full range, not merely associated incidentally with another range of functions (for example a small exhibition in the foyer of a theatre). It thus entails the interpretation of spheres of culture such as: (a) education, libraries, archives; (b) theatre, cinema, music; and (c) museums and the visual arts, with their numerous related fields.

171 Social context and place of action

31 LOUISIANA MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS (Denmark). (a) The restaurant is situated at the end of a linear circuit and commands a fine view. Communication with a reading-room heated by an open fire makes for a relaxed atmosphere; rest, reflection or discussion will form the conclusion to the museum visit. Ground-floor plan: I. Entrance from pre-existing house; 2. Connecting corridors (side-lit); 3. Two- storey high gallery; 4. Lantern-lit galleries; 5 . Kitchen; 6. Library; 7. Cafeteria; 8. Sea. (b) The glass wall eliminates any sense of separation between the tree outside and the visitor inside. Children enjoy an enriching game as they discover the work of art (Tingndy exhibition). Architects: Jörgen Boe and Vilhelm Wohlert.

172 Sociology

A distinction should be drawn between organizational and inteuectual problems. The organizational and functional advantages are numerous: a common reception point with a large contact area, use of the parking area, a multifunctional entrance hall with a variety of facilities (serving at the same time as a foyer), grouped areas for relaxation, catering facilities, conference rooms and action areas, ofkes, store-rooms, studios, etc. Care will have to be taken to ensure that the right balance is struck between communal and independent facilities: particular attention should be paid to the arranging of time- tables (day and evening use).

From the intellectual point of view there are also many advantages. Integra- tion provides both a stimulus and additional possibilities. Understanding can be developed and extended through the interpretation of other realms of perception. The differing conditions under which the various activities are carried on do however give rise to problems which call for adjustment of the sensory faculties and may’ cause disturbances, such as noise and other transient factors which drown the ‘silent language’ of the exhibits, or an undesirable coming and going, etc. From the sociological point of view the accumulation of contacts makes it possible to reach many different groups and interests, but there is also the danger that too close an integration of different cultural spheres may frighten away those who are interested in one sphere alone (Fig. 32).

It will thus be for the architect to find a balanced solution to these problems, along the following lines: An advantage of the cultural centre is that cultural activities are given a definite

and identifiable setting in the context of the town. The visitor should be made fully aware of this by the location and design of the buildings.

The degree of independence of the different sectors and their special connexion with each other must be worked out in each individual case.

The specific requirements of scientific, visual, acoustic and verbal activities must be taken into account and integrated with the architecture.

Provision must be made for an adequate number of transition zones, with ‘lock chambers’ permitting physiological and psychological adjustment.

The plan should provide for flexible zones which allow free passage from one sector to another, though it must be possible to shut them off hermetically when necessary.

On account of the complex organization involved (control of visitors) it is recommended for all activities that ‘on stage’ and ‘backstage’ activities should be clearly separated.

To be successful a cultural centre should therefore leave room for both the selective differentiation and the integration of activities.

Three models may be envisaged: I. A system of pavilions. A loose grouping of sectors with the dimensions,

independence and potentialities of an identifiable single-function style of architecture. Each pavilion can be extended irrespective of the others. Spatial and functional integration is however practically impossible on account of the distances involved (Figs. 32,33).

2 . A system of pavilions with a central entrance hall. A central grouping of largely independent, architecturally identifiable sectors with flexible arrange- ments for close inter-sector contacts via intermediate zones and limited possibilities of extension (Fig. 34(a), (b)).

3. A single block building. Limited independence of the different sectors, non- optimal functional design (public sector), sectors identifiable only by the interior architecture. The maximum amount of ‘contact surfaces and flexibility (the type of the ‘information’ museum) (Fig. 3 ~ ) .

BnvoBvemewt w i t h the surrounding area

As already noted more than once, the museum’s new open stance vis-à-vis society leads naturally to the so-called ‘open museum, and an open-plan


I

Activity Information 1 I I 1 1 Publicity

32 NICOSIA CULTURAL CENTRE (Cyprus). Different cultural activities gradually merge in a carefully structured central contact area. Simplified ground-plan. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

Theatre

33 NICOSIA CULTURAL CENTRE (Cyprus). Pavilion system with central entrance hall.. I. Entrance court; 2. Library; 3. Open-air exhibition and performing arts; 4. Exhibition gallery; 5 . Theatre. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

I74 Sociology

34(a)

34(a), (6 ) Loose grouping of buildings devoted to various cultural activities: I. Information: 2. Opera house; 3 . Opera studio; 4. Exhibitions; 5 . Museum; .6. Art gallery; 7. Garden restaurant; 8. Restaurant; 9. Parking. Model of a cultural centre in Cairo. Architect: Fritz Bornemann.

JI CENTRE GEORGES-POMPIDOU, Paris. Compact system. Model. Architects: Piano & Rogers; Ove Arup & Partners.


architectural structure. As an initial hypothesis it can be assumed that bringing action areas geographically closer together (or merging them) and breaking down spatial barriers are conducive to social contacts and facilitate the psychological approach to exhibits. This is so only up to a certain point, however, since complete openness is bound up with a loss of definition. This in its turn results in a levelling of scales of value, which may lead to the museum’s losing some of its drawing power. It is a question of proportion.

Even if ‘openness’ is a relative concept, it is still at the present time the justified aim of sociological analysis to sublate distance intellectually and spatially (‘bring down’ what is ‘too high’) and integrate the museum in the structure of the town.

Three models are suggested: I. Elements of street architecture (shops, public and private installations of

all kinds) are brought into the approaches to the museum and intermingle with or overlay the museum building. This gives a false impression of integration, even though the museum remains organizationally unaffected within its own separate climate. The aim is to make people feel at ease, but the result may be that the museum does not stand far enough back to be noticed (Fig. 36).

2. The street passes through the museum, that is a pedestrian way (foot- path, split-level passage, etc.) is cut through it, climatically apart from it, in the hope that this wider view of what the museum has to offer will encourage the ‘man in the street’ to visit it. The museum itself remains organizationally intact, but the glimpses passers-by have of it produce a psychological effect of publicity. There is, however, a danger of internal disturbances

3. The museum as a street: public spaces and thoroughfares pervade the museum. The advantages of this solution are operative only if it is possible to walk through the museum, in other words when there are several entrances and exits. The problem is a security one, which only a few types of museums can afford to ignore. Here audio-visual surveillance systems and electro- nically controlled transport facilities (e.g. to and from cloakrooms) offer new possibilities, though their practical implementation still calls for critical study. A further matter calling for consideration is whether: (a) visitors and exhibits can do without air-conditioning; (b) exhibits can be adequately protected by individual localized air-conditioning (e.g. in showcases); or (c) general air-conditioning is necessary. In the third case, the chambers leading into .the air-conditioned areas again detract from the complete openess which is aimed at (Fig. 38).

I

(Fig. 37).

I N T E G R A T I O N I N T H E S T R U C T U R E O F T H E T O W N

( P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E F U T U R E )

The museum ceases to be a separate building which is more or less on its own, and becomes an urban area among others, without any special town-planning emphasis. Any particularly frequented part of the town structure is used temporarily or permanently for the purposes of a museum, and can be changed at will. Public transport services come right into the district in question, which is identified by flexible architectural ‘furnishings’. Conservation problems are similar to those in 3 above, though even greater. If carried to the extreme, this conception necessitates either a very effective system of surveillance and conservation, or a social order which has abolished material values. How far either of these is desirable is a philosophical question.

This prospect is however typical of present trends, and indicates the line of demarcation between intellectual discourse and architectural achievement (Figs’ 39, ‘fol 4’).

TI L

0.aw.e r 1 1 37

1 r L

36 Combination with other buildings. Possibilities for integration in the urban scene. External surfaces may be overlaid with shops or similar urban enterprises and windows set in external walls on the ‘shop-window’ principle.

37 A pedestrian way or bridge through the museum gives the public a visual impression of the museum’s attractions and method of presentation. Problems involved are the positioning of the only entrance and the co-ordination of museum areas located on different levels.

38 Extension of public thoroughfares into the museum implies long opening hours. Security is a problem which can, however, be overcome technically, perhaps by taking measures to protect each object individually. The provision of cloakroom facilities is another problem which can only be satisfactorily dealt with by installing automatic transport systems.

Sociology 176

39 Integration in, the urban environment in a large modern city. As a general rule motor transport is allowed to run alongside the museum. Pedestrian ways can be integrated into the museum. Entrances will be positioned to exploit the possibilities of external features such as underground stations, squares and footpaths. On a large site individual town-planning features can be amalgamated in the internal connexions. The museum complex can be integrated into the urban scene, provided that its architecture is in keeping with the character of the town.

40 HISTORY MUSEUM, Amsterdam. A new street has been given a glass roof and heating system and can thu parr of the museum as well as being public thoroughfare.

s form a

Road

Street reserved for pedestrians

Social context and place of action I77

4' ECOMUSEUM OF THE URBAN COMMUNITY OF LE CREUSOT-MONTCEAU-LES-MINES. The fragmented museum covers an entire region. It inspires various activities in different places, for example: St Sernin- du-Bois, 1974-75, field trip; The Forest; Couches, summer I 972, exhibition-inquiry Folk A r t and Traditions; and summer 1973, exhibition-inquiry The T 4 z e and the IVine; Le Creusot, February-May 1973. Companions in Bnrgz& and Work and Invention; June-November 1973, The Tree, from Prehistoric Tinies t o the Present; November 1973-February 1974, Fossilsfi-om the Blanqy Coal Basin; December 1973- March I 974, The Factory, Work and Architectnre; January-February I 974, Mexican Folk A r t ; April-May 1974, Le Corbzisier; summer I 974, The Dogons, opening of the evolutive exhibition The Space of the Urban Comnzmity throtgh the Ages; first stage of the adult education programme on housing Lìuing in Le Crensot in 1974; conservation and development of one of the large industrial markets and of the crane and engine construction shop at Creusot-Loire; and 1975, Children and Images; Le Breuil, 19 75, Restoration of the Traditional Home; Montcenis, summer 1973, exhibition-inquiry From Bailliage t o Chief Coztnt/y Town; Ecuisses, 1974- 75 , field trip The Canah Les Bizots, summer 1974, Donzestìc Animals and their Wild Coil"% paris; etc.

42 However many great works there are to be seen, and however splendid the presentation, the visitor may still feel his attention and his curiosity waning, and may eventually begin to suffer from what the museologists call ‘visitor fatigue’.

I79

Physiology

Factors affecting the visitor

When someone visits a museum, there is tension between the two poles formed by human nature and the object. While conservation is based on the creation and stabilization of a state, physiology is aimed at the activation and variability of life. Nevertheless, since conservation and physiology both raise unconditional demands, a relationship must be established between them. Physiology and psychology are closely linked and function according to the principle of biological balance, manifest in rhythmical wave movements. As an exact science, physiology comes within the sphere of what is measurable, whereas psychology leaves greater room for interpretation. For this reason, despite their close interdependence, they must be considered separately.

The point of departure is the physiological constitution of the visitor which, in accordance with the pluralistic tendency, may and must show extraordinary hversity in respect of age, race, sex, state of health (motor handicapped, blind, étc.). However, the bodily functions of all human beings have a relatively small margin of fluctuation, if one considers factors such as temperature or humidity, which may serve as a basis for planning. Differences in capability and temperament from one group of people to another must also be taken into account. We shall therefore limit our discussion here to general criteria based òn the hypotlieses of occupational psychology.

Difference between suitable conditions for visitors and for objects

The museum demands a high level of concentration and sensitivity which implies optimum conditions. Psychosomatic factors can only come into play once 'the body is forgotten'. The stimulus afforded by the heightening of the awareness and the emotions in a museum exercises a basically vitalizing effect, but this is often outweighed by physiological phenomena. The latter must therefore be compensated by an above-average degree of comfort (Fig. 42).

This is where the conflict between the object and the visitor may be seen most clearly, for other demands for comfort, which the curator must define with the greatest precision, may be formulated in connexion with the object. This incompatibility may be more or less pronounced depending on the ideology of the museum, but it is always present in a latent state. The function of museum architecture is to help to find a solution through spatial differentiation. Both the visitor and the curator must understand fully that this can only be a compromise within a certain margin of tolerance.

A I R - C O N D I T I O N I N G

As geographical and demographic differences are considerable, it is impossible to establish an abstract and generally valid definition of optimum conditions. But the fact that the vasomotor regulation of the human body only

sociology : social context and place of action

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