Sociological Research• How does social research add to our knowledge of

human societies?

• What is the relationship between theory & research?

• What are the main steps in the sociological research process?

• Why is it important to have different research methods?

Why is Soc Research necessary?

Sociologists try to understand social behaviour

Sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behaviour through research

The sociological perspective

incorporates theory and research

to arrive at a more informed understanding

of the “hows” and “whys” of human social interaction.

5 Ways of Knowing the World

There are several ways of knowing the world:◦Personal Experience◦Tradition◦Authority◦Religion◦Science

All are valid sources of understanding.

Personal Experience

We have discovered for ourselves many of the things we know

◦If we put our tongue on a frozen doorknob, we learn that removing it can be very painful

Tradition

People hold firmly to a belief because “everyone knows” it to be true

◦Tradition tells us that something is correct because it has always been done that way

◦We accept what has always been believed rather than finding out the answers by ourselves

Authority

Experts tell us that something is true

◦We do not need to go to the moon to discover its mineral composition, but instead accept the judgment of space scientists.

◦In practice, much of what we know about medicine, crime, and many other phenomena is based on what authorities have told us

Religion

A specific type of authority is religious authority

◦We accept the truths that our particular scriptures and religious officials advocate

◦ Factors as diverse as morality, diet, ◦ dress, and hair styles are based on

◦ religious authority

Scientific Knowledge

The scientific way of knowing involves controlled, systematic observation

◦Scientists insist that all statements be tested and that testing procedures be open to public inspection

Approaches to Research

Empirical Approach◦Its findings are based on the assumption that

knowledge is best gained by direct, systematic observation

Normative Approach◦Uses religion, tradition, or authority to answer

important questions◦Based on beliefs about what is right & wrong,

and what is desirable in a society

Scientific Research

Empirical approach

Systematic & public

Self-correction, re-evaluation

Objectivity is valued◦Methods, processes are transparent

How to recognize an Empirical Article?

Article abstract includes details of a study, observation, or analysis of a # of subjects

Article is fairly lengthy (5-30+ pages)

Article contains subsections marked:

◦Methodology, Research Methods, or Methods ◦Results, or Findings

Sociological Research

Sociologists tend to use 2 types of empirical studies:

◦Descriptive◦Attempt to describe social reality or provide facts about

some group, practice, or event◦ i.e. The Canadian Census

◦Explanatory◦Attempt to explain relationships and to provide

information on why certain events do or do not occur

Theory & Research Cycle

Theory a set of logically interrelated statements that

attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events

Attempts to explain why something is the way it is

Theory & Research CycleT&R Cycle consists of 2 approaches:

◦The deductive approach◦Begin with a theory & use research to test the theory

◦The inductive approach◦Collect information or data & then generate theories

from the analysis of that data

Battling Bad ScienceBen Goldacre

http://www.ted.com/talks/ben_goldacre_battling_bad_science.html

Pankaj Ghemawat: Actually, the world isn't flat◦http://www.ted.com/talks/

pankaj_ghemawat_actually_the_world_isn_t_flat.html

Tali Sharot: The optimism bias◦http://www.ted.com/talks/

tali_sharot_the_optimism_bias.html

Theory & Research Cycle

Theory & Research form a continuous cycle that encompasses both deductive and inductive approaches

The Deductive Approach

The researcher begins with a theory & then collects & analyzes research to test it

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4

The Inductive Approach

The researcher collects & analyzes data & then generates a theory based on that analysis

1

2

3

4

The Sociological Research Process

2 Dominant Theories on Research:

◦Quantitative

◦Qualitative

The Sociological Research Process

◦Quantitative Research

The goal is scientific objectivity Focuses on data that can be measured numerically

◦Qualitative Research

Interpretive description (words) are used rather than statistics (numbers) to analyze meanings and patterns of social relationships

Quantitative

Uses numerical data to measure the results of the study.

Select and define the research problem.Review previous research.Formulate the hypothesis.Develop the research design.Collect & Analyze the data.Draw Conclusions & Report the Findings.

Qualitative

Uses observation, interviews, reflections, field notes, etc.

Problem formation: general approach.Collect and analyze data to assess the

Validity OF the starting position: refining concepts.

Detailed view of the topic: smaller number of cases and many variables.

Research Terminology

HypothesisConceptVariable

◦Dependent vs Independent variableOperational definitionReliabilityValidityAnalysisReplication

How Theory & Research Work Together

Theory Helps Interpretation of Data

Theory Generates Questions for Research

Research Helps Generate Theory

Q V. Q

Quantitative Research Methods

Emphasis on Precise Measurement

Uses Statistics and Numbers

Qualitative Research Methods

Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and

Interpreting Behavior

Research Methods

ExperimentsSurveysSecondary Analysis of Existing DataField Research

Review the chart of page 60 of the text.

Experiments

A carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects’ attitudes or behaviour

Experiments

Designed to create real-life situations

ideally under controlled circumstances

the influence of different variables can be modified & measured

Key Terms

Experimental Group Subjects are exposed to an independent variable

Control Group Subjects are not exposed to the independent V.

Conventional Experiments require that subjects be divided into these 2 group

Key Terms

Independent Variables Presumed to cause or determine a dependent V.

◦Age, sex, race, ethnicity

Dependent Variables Assumed to depend on or be caused by the indp V.

◦The outcome/effect

Example:

Hypothesis: women are more likely to be altruistic than men

◦Independent variable:◦gender

◦Dependent variable:◦Degree of altruism

Example:

The context of the study determines whether a variable is Dep. Or Indp.

◦Investigate the relationship between a family’s income & the likelihood of their child graduating from university

◦University education = dependent V

◦Study the relationship between university education & voting behaviour

◦University education = independent variable

Experiments

Subjects are divided into Control & Experimental groups

The Indp V is manipulated by researchers

The Dep V is measured by researchers

Experiments

Subjects may be matched for similar characteristics or be randomly assigned so comparisons can be made

This ensures the groups are equivalent at the beginning of the study

Simple Experiment Design

1 - Subjects are pre- tested◦Measured in terms of the Dep V in the Hypothesis

2 - Exposed to a stimulus representing an Indp V

3 - Post-tested◦Re-measured in terms of the Dep V

4 – Experimental & Control groups are compared to see if they differ in relation to the Dep V & Hyp. is confirmed/rejected

Types of Experiments

Laboratory Experiment◦Subjects are studied in a closed setting so

researchers can maintain control over research

Natural Experiment◦Real-life occurences (floods) that provide

researchers with “living laboratories”

Field Experiment◦Researchers stage events in a natural setting

Case Study: Bystander Effect

Pages 45 - 49

Terms you should know:

Experiment◦Laboratory◦Natural◦Field

Experimental Group

Control Group

Terms you should know:Hypothesis

Dependent Variable

Independent Variable

Quantitative

Qualitative

Terms you should know:Experimental Group

Subjects are exposed to an independent variable

Control Group Subjects are not exposed to the independent V.

Terms you should know:Laboratory Experiment

◦Subjects are studied in a closed setting so researchers can maintain control over research

Natural Experiment◦Real-life occurences (floods) that provide

researchers with “living laboratories”

Field Experiment◦Researchers stage events in a natural setting

Terms you should know:Independent Variables

Presumed to cause or determine a dependent V.◦Age, sex, race, ethnicity

Dependent Variables Assumed to depend on or be caused by the indp V.

◦The outcome/effect

Terms you should know:

Terms you should know:Quantitative Research Methods

Emphasis on Precise Measurement

Uses Statistics and Numbers

Qualitative Research Methods

Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and

Interpreting Behavior

Surveys

A number of respondents are asked identical questions through a systematic questionnaire or interview

Answer questions about their attitudes, opinions or behaviour

Surveys

Most common in Sociology

Very important research method…

◦Can study things that are not directly observable (attitudes & beliefs)

◦Can describe a population too large to observe directly

Survey Terminology

Respondents:◦Persons who provide data for analysis through

interviews or questionnaires

Population◦The total group of people about whom we want

to know

Survey TerminologySample

◦The small group chosen from the population to be studied

Representative Sample◦A selection from a larger population that has

the essential characteristics of the total population

Random Sample◦Every member of the population has an equal

chance of being selected

Survey Terminology

Questionnaire:◦A research instrument containing a series of

items to which subjects respond face-to-face, telephone, internet or self-administered

Interview:A data collection encounter in which an

interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers

Case Study 2: The Gift of Blood

Research Ethics

Weighing the social benefits of research against the potential physical and emotional costs to participants

Check out some of the ethical issues in these articles:

http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/ethics