Social Psychology Lecture 9

Attitude change

Advertising and fear appeals

Jane ClarbourRoom PS/B007 email: jc129 Tel: (01904-43) 3168

Objectives• Show an understanding of the role of ‘beliefs’

in attitude change• Provide a definition of what is meant by a

‘fear appeal’• Contrast differing models of fear appeals• Describe the main beliefs that Protection

Motivation Theory considers essential for fear appeals to be effective

• Discuss why the minimal appeal may be more effective for behavioural change

Belief formation

Beliefs are formed 3 ways:1) Through active and direct observation

of object – attribute relationships

2) By being given information relating to the object which is accepted

3) Through inferring object attribute relationships

Changing beliefs

• Two ways to change beliefs1. Active participation

• Direct observation of new attribute-object relation

• Problem of perception of relationship

2. Persuasive communication• Problem of acceptance of the

relationship

Attitude change (Fishbein & Azjen, 1975)

2 ways to change attitudes1. Change current salient beliefs by

supplying new belief– Supply new attitude-object relation– Small dogs are snappy– Snappy dogs are guard dogs

2. Change evaluation of the attributes– Snappy dogs are bad– Guard dogs are good

Changing behavioural intentions

2 ways to change behavioural intentions1. Change attitude toward the behaviour

• Change belief• Change evaluation of attribute

2. Change subjective norms– Attack specific normative beliefs– Provide motivation to comply

Yale approach

Internal processes of persuasion

• Attention – Source of communication (high/low

credibility)

• Comprehension – Type of message (implicit or explicit)

• Emotive or rational

• Acceptance – Latitude of acceptance or rejection

Message-learning approach

4 factors that influence persuasion

• What strengthens and weakens a persuasive message?– Source variables (who)– Message variables (says what)– Medium or channel variables (how)– Target variables (to whom)

Who says what by what means and to whom

Credibility of source

• “Propaganda, to be effective, must be believed. To be believed, it must be credible”

Hubert Humphrey (U.S. Senator and Vice President, 1911-1978)

• Credibility is based on 2 main factors:– Expertise– Trustworthiness

Message-learning (evidence based) approach to persuasion

(Hovland et al., 1953, adapted from Franzoi, 2000)

Stage 1

yes

Stage 2

yes

Stage 3

yes

Persuasive message

Attention to message?

Comprehension of message?

Acceptance of message?Acceptance of message?

Attitude change

No attitude change

Influence of message content

• Two types of message content1. Evidence based (Fact/information)

2. Attention grabbing (Vivid story/picture)– Evidence based appeals enhance persuasive

messages• Evidence enhances persuasion but not all evidence

persuades.• Evidence based appeals are more persuasive when

credible• Evidence based appeals increased when combined

with imagery

At least THREE MILLION people in England suffer from dental fluorosis. The Government's York Review on water fluoridation showed that about THREE QUARTERS OF A MILLION people have dental fluorosis which is "of concern". No studies have ever been done on the psychological damage caused by fluorosed (stained) teeth. A 1998 survey showed that people with defective teeth are more likely to experience social and employment discrimination. Half of the respondents saw unattractive teeth as a sign of poor personal hygiene. International scientists concur that dental fluorosis is a FORESEEABLE event from fluoridating drinking water, and the victims are at increased risk for psychological and behavioural problems and difficulties. This can be the subject of litigation against those who promote and implement water fluoridation.

Abstract (Glaser & Jones)

"After a handshake, a friendly smile is one of the most important elements in creating a good first impression. However, it's hard to smile if you're self-conscious about teeth that are yellow or stained." (School of Dental Medicine at the University of New York).

Emotive persuasion

• What is a ‘fear appeal’?– Both attention grabbing and evidence based

communication – Intention of arousing fear as a means to induce

attitude change– Implies some sort of risk– Arouses emotion of fear because of element of

risk

Emotive persuasion

• How does it work?– Emotion activates arousal– Motivated to accept information to reduce

state arousal

Use of fear appeals

• Commonly used in most health education advertising – focus on:– Vivid language– Personalistic language– Gory pictures– Emotive scenes

Three components of fear appeals

1. Fear

2. Threat

3. Efficacy

1. Fear

• Negatively valenced emotion accompanied by high levels of arousal

• A motivational state that protects against danger (Cannon, 1915)

• Elicited by a threat that is perceived to be significant and personally relevant (Easterling & Leventhal, 1989)

2. Threat

• An external stimulus variable • Real

– If person holds cognition that threat is present then that person is perceiving a real threat

• Role of perceived severity– Belief that threat is severe– Belief of chances of experiencing the threat

3. Efficacy

• Two types of efficacy– Response efficacy

• How effective is the information to stop risk

– Self efficacy• How capable is self for doing it

Outcome variables

• Two types of outcome variables in fear appeal research:– Message acceptance

• Measurement of attitude, intention, or behaviour

– Defensive avoidance• Denial or minimization of the threat

Types of theoretical approaches – models of attitude change

• Drive models (Janis & Hovland, 1953)

• The parallel process model (Leventhal, 1970)

• Expectancy values theories– Protection motivation theory (Rogers, 1983)

– Subjective expected utility theory (Sutton, 1982)

Drive models• Some fear arousal need to elicit a

motivational drive state – but too much is maladaptive

• Fear as a drive because it produces the LEARNING of new responses

• Unpleasant tension caused by fear arousal which motivates individuals to get rid of their fear (Largely rejected due to lack of evidence)

• Fear can be aroused without attitude change (Rogers, 1983)

The parallel process model

• The two processes are:–Cognitive

• attempts to control the DANGER –Leads to ADAPTIVE behaviour

–Emotional• attempts to control the FEAR

Protection motivation theory

• Function of 4 major beliefs1.That the danger is probable

2.That the danger is serious

3.The recommendations will be effective

4.That they can competently carry out the recommendations

Advertising and fear appeals

• Advertisers remind us that life is full of potential anxieties and dangers– Stress sells products– Anxiety provides compelling reason to buy

product

Marketing strategy

• Advertisers don’t create the fear, it has to be based on some kind of reality

1. Address the problem

2. Provide the solution

Vivid imagery

• Vivid imagery makes evidence more persuasive (Gonzales et al, 1988).

– Salesmen trained to present information relating to heating lost through holes in walls in graphic and vivid terms increased sales from 15% to 61%.

• BUT: – Under certain conditions attention grabbing vivid

imagery lessens the effectiveness of message content (Frey & Eagly, 1993).

The AdvertisingThe AdvertisingMessageMessage

AsiaAsia--Pacific Marketing FederationPacific Marketing Federation

Certified Professional MarketerCertified Professional MarketerCopyright byCopyright by

Marketing Institute of SingaporeMarketing Institute of Singapore

The BriefThe BriefFactors in message developmentFactors in message development

In developing a message, consider the 3 C’s:In developing a message, consider the 3 C’s:

(a) (a) CCustomer ustomer ---- Target audienceTarget audience(b) (b) CCompany ompany ---- ProductProduct(c) (c) CCompetitive Positioningompetitive Positioning

Customer Customer ---- Target AudienceTarget AudienceKnow their:Know their:

Demographic CharacteristicsDemographic Characteristics (e.g., age, sex)(e.g., age, sex) audience physical profileaudience physical profile

PsychographicPsychographic CharacteristicsCharacteristics (e.g., (e.g., activities, interests, opinions)activities, interests, opinions)

how they live and reasons for their how they live and reasons for their behaviorbehavior

Decision ProcessDecision Process opportunities available to influence opportunities available to influence

product choiceproduct choice

CompetitionCompetition

If intense competition, greater need for If intense competition, greater need for distinctive imagedistinctive image

Distinctive image Distinctive image Share of consumer’s Share of consumer’s mind mind When choice arises, advertised When choice arises, advertised brand is evokedbrand is evoked

1. 1. InformativeInformative Audience receives factual product info Audience receives factual product info No arguments; no evaluationNo arguments; no evaluation Suitable when:Suitable when:

(a) audience actively seeks info(a) audience actively seeks info(b) easy to assess the facts(b) easy to assess the facts(c) judgment is(c) judgment is favorablefavorable to advertiserto advertiser(d) no significant competition(d) no significant competition

Advertising StrategiesAdvertising Strategies

Fear AppealFear Appeal

Negative consequences of not using product Negative consequences of not using product product is usedproduct is used

Threat, with implications of dangerThreat, with implications of danger

Curvilinear relationship between fear and Curvilinear relationship between fear and persuasion (see next figure)persuasion (see next figure)

Relationship between fear levels and message acceptance

Facilitating effects

Resultant nonmonotoniccurve

Inhibiting effects

Acceptanceof messagerecommendation

HighLevel of fear

Minimal appeal (Janis & Feschbach, 1954)

• Strong appeals invoke too much tension• Minimal appeal is most effective in

behavioural change• Minimal appeals invoke highest level of

conformity to the message– When people feel threat too high, or can’t do

anything (no change)– Need to counterbalance threat with knowledge

that can do something about it.

Summary

• Message learning approach useful for understanding when and how persuasion occurs – (passive view of persuasion)

• Cognitive response approach useful for why people change their attitudes– (people as active participants in change

process)

Conclusions

• Attitude change involves changing beliefs• Traditional fear appeals increase levels of

physiological arousal• Cognitive appraisal of threat produces

arousal which mobilises motivatation to protect oneself from the threat

• Naïve to suggest that can change people’s attitudes by frightening them

Key reading

• Rogers (1983) Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation

• Hewstone & Stroebe (2001) Chapter 16: Behaviour and health

• Franzoi (2000) Chapter 6: Persuasion

What next….?

• Lecture 10: Cognitive dissonance theory• Essential reading:

– Beavois & Joule (1996) A radical dissonance theory. Chapter 7: Misattribution paradigm and rationalisation (pp. 123 – 154)

– Cooper & Fazio (1984) A new look at dissonance theory (pp. 230 – 266)

– Franzio (2000) Chapter 5: Attitudes (pp. 170-181)