social movements are a type of group action

7/31/2019 Social Movements Are a Type of Group Action

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Social movements

Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings of individuals

or organizations which focus on specific political or social issues. In other words, they carry out,

resist or undo a social change.

Modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider

dissemination of literature), and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and

urbanization of 19th century societies. It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression,

education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture are

responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social

movements. Either way, social movements have been and continued to be closely connected

with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in

democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization.

Types of social movement

Ramakrishna Mission

Swami VivekanandaThe Mission is a registered Society laying emphasis on rendering welfare

services undertaken with a spiritual outlook. The service activities are rendered looking upon all

as veritable manifestation of the Divine. The Motto of the organization is Atmano Mokshartham

Jagad-hitaya Cha. Translated from Sanskrit it means For one`s own salvation and for the good ofthe world.

Swami Vivekananda met with thundering applause for his speech at the Parliament of Religions

at Chicago (USA) in 1893 that reverberated throughout the world. When he returned, his

countrymen recognized him as their undisputed cultural leader. His message: "Nations like

individuals must help themselves. Every nation, every man and every women, must work out


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his or her own salvation," gave concrete shape for the foundation of a new organization

`Ramakrishna Mission` on May 5, 1897 a service wing of the monastery. Though he passed

away at an early age of 39, his institutions still flourish.

He was chief disciple of Ramkrishna Parmahamsa .The Mission follows the

inspiration of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1834-86), whose spiritual experience included

Bhakti, Tantra, and Advaita Vedanta, as well as visionary realizations in Hinduism, Islam, and

Christianity, and from these experiences he claimed that all religions lead to the same divine

realization. Swami Vivekananda spread Ramakrishna`s gospel to the world, said "Do not care

for doctrines, do not care for dogmas...they count for little compared with the essence of

existence in each man which is spirituality, and the more that this is developed in a man, the

more powerful he is for good"

Although Ramakrishna is believed to have said that there are as many paths to

salvation as there are points of view, some of his followers today advocate a quite definitepath. Ramakrishna`s experience was that the truth of all religions is a manifestation of the

Shakti, or Divine Mother, and that this divine power is at work with everyone, including the

poor, and thus inspiring the Mission`s social service.

Arya Samajwas a powerful religious movement in India during the nineteenth century. The

movement was led by Swami Dayanand Saraswati, who started it in 1875. Arya Samaj had

similarities with the Brahmo Samaj in its ideology and the mode of operations. Dayanand

Saraswati was a Sanyasi (renouncer) who believed in the flawless authority of the Vedas. He

advocated the doctrine of Karma and reincarnation and also emphasised on the ideals of

Brahmacharya (chastity) and Sanyaas. He founded the Arya Samaj to propagate his ideas among

the common people. The Arya Samaj upholds the sanctity of the cow, Samakars, oblations to

fire and social reform, including the education of women.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati became a disciple of Swami Virajananda in 1840 and it changed the

way of his life. He accompanied Virajananda for nearly three years and emerged with a new set

of goals. His main objective was to purify Hinduism and save it from its contemporary

degenerate state. Dayanand also devised a method of accomplishing these objectives. He

believed that all truth was to be found in the Vedas by anyone who used the proper analytic

and grammatical tools needed to understand Vedic Sanskrit. Dayanand separated all Hindu

scriptures into two categories namely Drsba and Un-drsba. While, the former included the

Vedas and any text based on a proper understanding of the Vedas, the latter were the products

of the post-Mahabharata period of history when true Vedic knowledge was lost and ignorance

prevailed.


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He started to roam around here and there and visited the major cities like

Calcutta, Gujarat, Bombay, Punjab, etc. After roaming for a few years, he established the

Bombay Arya Samaj (Noble Society) on 10th April, 1875. The Arya Samaj became the first

successful organisational expression of his ideas. Dayanand strongly opposed the evil practices

of Hinduism like idolatry, child marriage, elaborate rituals, etc. He also attacked the Brahmanpriests and insisted on the infallibility of the Vedas.

The Arya Samaj soon started to spread into the other parts of India and branches of

the Samaj were established in the prominent cities like Punjab, Lahore, Delhi, Madras, etc. and

also in Rajasthan and Maharashtra. However, there was no central organisation for Arya Samaj

in India and each Samaj used to operate independently. After the death of Swami Dayanand

Saraswati in 1883, the members of Arya Samaj took the responsibility to spread his ideas.

The Arya Samaj did establish itself as one of the major acculturative movements with its

purified Vedic Hinduism that rejected almost all aspects of contemporary Hinduism. Theleadership of the Samaj mostly came from the educated Hindus of the upper castes and the

Arya Samaj did adopt a wonderful organisational structure and parliamentary procedures. Both

the wings of Arya Samaj created a wide variety of institutions; offered new forms of worship;

introduced proselytism including paid missionaries, a conversion ritual; and also reduced their

teachings to a fundamental creed. The Samaj mainly focused on the energies and wealth of its

members into a variety of fields. The ideals of the Samaj were put into action, rather than be

only preached.

Theosophical Society

The origins of the Theosophical movement were therefore deep rooted in one pattern of socio-

religious dispute within western civilization of India. The term `Theo-sophy` or divine wisdom

evolved and also became popular in the seventeenth century. As Theosophy developed into a

movement in India, it exploited ideas and symbols from Egyptian, Hindu, and Buddhist religions

as justification for its criticism of contemporary life in Europe and America. Helena Petrovna

Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott brought about this movement in 1875 after becoming

acquainted through a shared interest in spiritualism. Alice Bailey, Annie Besant, Geoffrey

Hodson, C.W. Leadbeater, Alfred Percy Sinnett, Rudolf Steiner and Abner Doubleday are the

prominent personalities who worked with the Theosophical society.

The Theosophical Society was the organization formed to advance the spiritual principles and

search for Truth known as Theosophy. The main objective of the Theosophical Society was the

investigation, study and explanation of mediumistic phenomena. After a few years Olcott and

Blavatsky traveled to India and established the International Headquarters at Adyar, Madras

(Chennai). There, they also became interested in studying Eastern religions, and these were


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included in the Society`s agenda. By 1889 when Blavatsky wrote Key to Theosophy, it

mentioned the aims of the

Theosophical Society, which are as follows -

To form the nucleus of a Universal Brotherhood of Humanity without discrimination of race,color, or creed.

The society promoted the study of Aryan and other Scriptures, of the World`s religion and

sciences, and to vindicate the importance of old Asiatic literature, namely, of the Buddhist,

Brahmanical, and Zoroastrian philosophies.

To inspect the hidden mysteries of Nature under every aspect possible, and the supernatural

and spiritual powers dormant in man especially.

Prarthana Samaj

On the lines of Brahmo Samaj and under the inspiration of its very dynamic leader K.C.Sen, Dr.

Atmaram Pandurang founded Samaj known as Prarthana Samaj which means Community

wedded to prayerful worship of One True God. Like Sen`s Samaj, it believed in the Unity of God

and denounced idolatry as a special sin. But it did not abandon Hindu practices nor it advocated

definite exclusion of idolatry or abolition of castes. It was confined to a small group of

intellectuals who were advocates of reforms of the social system of the Hindus.

Prarthana Samaj is milder and less radical in its principles. Theistic worship comes first, followed

closely by social reform - the abandonment of caste, widow-remarriage, female education, andthe abolition of child-marriage. Many members hold the view that definite beliefs and

theological thought are not necessary for a free theistic movement. Others have produced

theological and devotional books. Though their theism is based on ancient Hindu texts, they

have practically given up the inspiration of the Vedas and belief in transmigration

Brahmo Samaj

Raja Ram Mohan RoyBrahmo Samaj was one of the most prominent religious groups in India

during the eighteenth century. The eminent Bengali educationalist and social reformer, Raja

Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha in 1828 and it became famous as Brahmo Samajlater. The Brahmo Samaj was actually a community of people, who gathered on a regular basis

to discuss or worship the Eternal, Immutable Supreme Being, Author and Preserver of the

Universe. The motto of the Brahmo Samaj was not to worship the Eternal under any name,

designation or title. The literary meaning of the word `Brahmo` is "one who worships Brahman"

and the word `Samaj` means a "community of men".


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Brahmo Samaj was established primarily because of the efforts made by Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

Ram Mohan was born into a world of diverse cultural influences, as his father was a follower of

Chaitanya and his mother worshipped the divine female power. At a very young age, Roy

questioned the orthodox beliefs of Hinduism and he published his religious views in a Persian

tract, named Tohfat al-Muwabhiddin (A Gift to Deists) in 1804. This was the first time he madepublic his criticisms of idolatry and polytheism. He strongly opposed the rite of Sati (the

immolation of Hindu widows on their husband`s funeral pyre). This practice was particularly

frequent among the higher castes in Bengal. Before the Brahmo Samaj, Roy attempted to

establish an organisational base for his ideas in 1815 by founding the Atmiya Sabha (Friendly

Association). This private society can be referred to as the predecessor of the Brahmo Samaj.

The members of Atmiya Sabha used to recite Hindu scriptures, sing hymns and hold discussions

on religions and social issues, on a regular basis. However, the society was ceased in 1819 and

there was no organisation for Roy for the next nine years.

The Brahmo Samaj has led a number of social and religious reform movements. The Samaj

actively participated in almost all social reform movements that include abolition of the caste

system and dowry system, emancipation of women and improving the educational system. The

Brahmo Samaj also reflected the ideologies of the Bengal Renaissance. The Samaj actively

opposed the religious practice of Sati in Hinduism and also supported widow remarriage

movement led by Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. In the contemporary period, the Brahmo

Samaj is concentrated on making certain social reforms. These reforms include the

denunciation of polytheism, reform of educational system, spread of knowledge by universal

access to information, legal reform especially in fields of personal and secular law, opposing

corrupting influences like intoxicants, television, etc.

Aligarh Movement

After the revolt of 1857, there was an impression that the Muslims were the arch conspirators

of the Sepoy mutiny. The Wahabi political activities of 1860`s and 1870`s had confirmed such

suspicions. However a change in the situation was perceptible during the 1870s. The Book "The

Indian Musalmans" made a vigourous plea for reconciling with the Muslims. The Muslim

community began to receive patronage of the Britishers in India. A section of the Muslim

community led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan prepared to accept favor and patronage of the British

Government. These Muslims felt that if the Muslims alienate themselves from the rest of the

society and political uprisings throughout India, they would get a rightful share in the

administrative services.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the most prominent among the Muslims reformers of 19th century. A

respectable Muslim, Sir Syed held the judicial service of the company during the revolt of 1857

and stood loyal to the Company. His loyalty earned him knighthood in 1888. As a true Muslim,


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Syed Ahmed tried to modernise the outlook of the Muslims. He tried to introduce the members

of his religion to modern scientific thoughts and British rule. Sir Syed also urged them to accept

services under the government. In this objective he had achieved great success.

The Bhoodan Movement :- Land Gift Movement was a voluntary land reform movement in

India started by Acharya Vinoba Bhave in 1951 started at Pochampally village now known as

Bhoodhan Pochampally.The mission of the movement was to persuade wealthy landowners to

voluntarily give a percentage of their land to lower castes. Vinoba Bhave walked across India on

foot, to persuade landowners to give up a piece of their land. He was followed by crowds nearly

everywhere he went. Philosophically, Vinoba Bhave was directly influenced by the Sarvodaya

movement of Gandhi of whose he was the spiritual heir The movement was started in 1951

when Telangana peasant movement on the land issue reached the peak. It was a violent

struggle launched by poor peasants against the local landlords. Bhave said that rural rich must

participate in voluntary distribution of land.Vedre Ramachandra Reddy got his title " Bhoodhan

" as he was the firstdonor and initateor of the great land donation movement in early 1950s(18

April 1951) in Andhra Pradesh at a village called Pochampally in the Nalgonda district of Andhra

Pradesh. He was a great social worker and noble man. Acharya Vinoba Bhave started the land

donation movement in Pochampally village in April 1951 with initiation of donation of 100

acres, (later on he has donated another 800 acres, ) of land from Vedre Ramachandra Reddy,

which led to a total of 1 million acres (4,000 km) of land donation and distribution among the

poor in post-independence Era in India.

Chipko Movement

Chipko Movement, started in 1970's, was a non-violent movement aimed at protection and

conservation of trees and forests from being destroyed. The name of the Chipko moment

originated from the word 'embrace' as the villagers used to hug the trees and protect them

from wood cutters from cutting them. Chipko movement was based on the Gandhian

philosophy of peaceful resistance to achieve the goals.

Chipko MovementIt was first started in the Chamoli district in the year

1973 and from there it spread to the other parts of the country. There is one very famous story

about the girl, Amrita Devi, who died while trying to save the trees grown in her village. The

village was under the rule of the local Maharaja, who desired to built a palace for his family. Heordered his servants to bring wood from the nearby village. When the wood cutters arrived the

village to cut the tress, Amrita and other women of the village jumped in front of the trees and

hugged them. She said they will have to cut her first before the trees. The servants were

helpless to follow the orders and cut the tree. Amrita Devi died on the spot. Before offering her

head to the Maharajas servants, Amrita enchanted :- seir santhe runkh raheb, to bhee

sastojan (it is till a small price to pay if at the cost of my head the tree is saved).


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The incident inspired the several other rural womens, who in 1970's launched such similar

movements in different parts of India.It is really surprising that the women of that age were

better aware about the significance of forests. The rural women in India actively participated in

the movement, who knows about deforestation and its future consequences. Some of the key

women leaders who fought for the protection of forests, whom they call it their maternalmother were Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Dev Suman, Mira Behn, Sarala Behn and

Amrita Devi.

The Chipko Movement gained momentum under Sunderlal Bahuguna, an eco

activist, who spent his whole life persuading and educating the villagers, to protest against the

destruction of the forests and the Himalayan mountains by the government. It was he, who

made appeal to the Prime Minister of India Mrs Indira Gandhi to ban the cutting of tress. He

shouted the slogan 'ecology is the permanent economy'. Another main leader of the movement

was Mr. Chandi Prasad Bhatt, who advocated the development of small scale local industries,

which were based on the sustainable use of the forests resources for the local benefits. There

were many slogans that originated during that period. For example :-

Embrace the trees and

Save then from being felled

The property of our hills,

Utopian Movement

In the same spirit as the other reform movements, more than 100,000 American men, women,and children between 1820 and 1860 searched for alternative lifestyles. They wanted to find a

utopia, or an ideal society. Disenchanted with the world around them, utopian seekers hoped

to create their perfect society by building experimental communities. Most of the communes

had short lifespans, and the utopians performed their experiments in isolation from the rest of

society, yet they all expressed the deep desire of perfectionism.

SNDP movement

The origin of the SNDP movement lies among the Izhavas (toddy-tappers) of Kerala. In the

traditional caste hierarchy the Izhavas were considered as unapproachable, so much so that

they had to maintain a distance of at least 34 feet from the Nambudri Brahmins. They suffered

from many civic and ritual disabilities.

Because of social awakening of 19th century, some of the Izhavas chose to convert themselves

while a majority remained in the fold of Hinduism and vowed of fight against their disabilities.

This was possible mainly due to the efforts of Sri Narayana Guru Swamy.


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Swamy was a charismatic leader and was responsible for a thorough transformation of the style

of life involving new religious beliefs, ritual, and outlook.

Jajmani System

In almost all the villages of this country, the Caste System predominates. Linkedwith the Caste System is the Jajmani System. Caste System in the village is based

on economic needs and structure of the society. In village people of a particular

caste take one profession. Members of the other castes are not allowed to take

the profession of a particular caste.

In a village the carpenter does the wood-work, the blacksmith do the things

pertaining to the iron implements of the people of the village. The washer man

washes clothes, the barber shaves them. These belong to different castes andthus carry out these provisions on the basis of the age old customs. There are

certain classes or castes that are entitled to these services. Those who serve are

known as Praja or Kamin while those who get these services are known as

jajman.

According to Oscar Lewis Under Jajmani System each caste group within a village

is accepted to give certain standardized services to the families of other castes. A

Khati (carpenter) repairs tools for example, a Nai (barber) cuts hair, but they do

not necessarily perform these services for every one and each man works for a

particular family or a group of families with which he has hereditary ties.

N.S. Reddy observes, These service relations which are governed by hereditary

tenure are called jajman-parja relations.

Thus according to Jajmani System there is standardised and well-organised

arrangement for different types of economics services. There is a system for

payment to those, who provide these services. In this arrangement, the relationsare not like that of the employer and employee or that of the master and a

servant. In its original form the services provided by the Praja of Kamin would

have been looked services provided by the Praja of Kamin would have been

looked upon and treated as something respectable.


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In order to avoid over loading the groups who offer services made such

arrangement that they did not disturb the Jajmani of the others. Because of the

arrangement, these services became traditional. Normally in the villages it is seen

that a family has a barber for severs generations. The barber who has Jajmani of

family would find that his father and of that family. It means that the son will

perform the same kind of deed the specified families as his father and grand

father did.

The term of Kamin or Praja is used in different place. Although the term Kamin

is not very respectable term, but it does not mean that the people who do all

these things are less respectable. It is the economic condition that has changed

their status. Oscar Lewis has made an elaborate study of the Jajmani System in

India.

The studies that were carried out in different states and provinces shows that this

institutions was to be found in various states of the country. This system was

established as a result of provisional relationship between various castes. It was

the division of labour amongst castes which has been sanctioned by religious and

social tradition and customs.

This institution is to be found in India only because the division of the professions

and occupations is hereditary here only. There has been division form the

hereditary professions and this Jajmani System has continued in this country for

all these years. It has now become an accepted part of the social life. Sometimes

the term Jajmani is used only in relevance to relationship between a Brahmin and

the members of the other caste. But really speaking it is not the case. Anybody is

entitled to particular services of particular members of the other cases called

jajman.

Etymological meaning of Jajmani:

The Jajmani has been derived from the term jajman which has been form the

Sanskrit term Yajman. According to Sanskrit terminology, yajman means a

person who performs a yajna of hires the services of a Brahmin to do it. With the

passage of time this term came to be applied to every one who hired services of a


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person who was prepared to offer those services. As a custom any body that

carried the services is known as jajman. But that was why a farmer who engaged

a carpenter of the blacksmith was known as yajman.

The carpenter or the blacksmith who offered the services was known as Praja orKamin. The relationship between the Praja of Kamin and the yajman is hereditary

and traditional. The jajman is expected to secure a variety of services by various

categories of Praja of Kamin and the jajman is hereditary and traditional. The

jajman is expected to secure a variety of services categories of Praja or Kamin and

reward their services by making payments.

In villages these Kamin and Prajas are paid in form of grain and othercommodities. Now it is the currency that has replaced the grains or other

commodities. Now it is the currency that has replaced the grayness or other

commodities. Normally in Jajmani System the jajman is given a place of respect.

Members of the lower caste treat him like a Raja.

The study of the Jajmani System as it is prevalent in this country was made for the

first time in the year when in 1934. Darling made study of this institution, it was

prevalent in Punjab. Since then different scholars have made study of thisinstitution and on the basis of these studies certain conclusion have been drawn.

These conclusions throw light on the rural life of this country.

Economic basis of Jajmani System:

Though Jajmani System is basically linked with the Caste System in this country, it

has also economic basis. It is a method through with the division of labour takes

place and needs of various groups of the society are fulfilled. Those who are

economically well off and have required the services of those who are landlessand for their services they pay them in form of grains and agricultural yields so

that they many be able to satisfy their needs. It is also method of keeping the

village economy in balanced state.


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In agricultural economy it was a good method for providing employment. If the

father has done a job his son was assured of the same job. This means that there

was no livelihood of competition which would disturb the economic arrangement.

Normally it was the members of the lower caste which now known as backward

caste who acted as Praja of Prajajan or Kamin.

Since the members of the Scheduled caste are not to be touched and it was the

members of these backward classes who had to render various types of services.

In short, the Jajmani System was an attempt to regulate the village economy. It

had a caste no doubt but really speaking it was based on economic need and

requirements.

Characteristics of the Jajmani System:

The main characteristics or features of the Jajmani System on the basis of various

studies that are carried out in this respect in different parts of country are:

1) Permanent relationship; 2) Relationship based on hereditary or hereditary

relationship; 3) Protection of hereditary occupation; 4) Payment for the services

rendered; 5) Peace and security ;6) Difference in scope of work.

1) Permanent relationship:

The relationship between Jajman and Praja are permanent. It is a unique feature

of the village economy. Through this system the farmers and those who had

landed property were assured of required essential services and on the other

hand those who did not have it were assured of livelihood. In this manner, the

village economy was maintained in a balanced manner. The village would also be

allowed to function as a self-sufficient unit so that its economy could be

maintained.

It so happened that a jajman could not employ another Praja or Kamin except the

one whose family had been rendering their service to the family of jajman for

generations. If any one tried to do it no other person would take up that job and if

unfortunately some one took up, the caste Panchayat of that particular person

should penalise him. This is in fact gave a permanent structure to the economy of


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the country. In this respect Dr.D.C. Dube made a study of the system has

remarked.

It is not easy for an agriculturalist to remove a family attached to his household

and secure the service of another. For example a barber, is attached to the familyof B. If for any reason B is greatly dissatisfied with the services of A and wants

those of another, he cannot abruptly dismiss A. His difficulty will not be in

dismissing A, but finding a substitute. Each of these castes has its own inter-village

council. Occupational castes have a developed trade unionism; no one else would

be willing to Act as a substitute for fear of being penalised by caste Panchayat.

2) Relationship based on hereditary or hereditary relationship:

In Jajmani System there is a hereditary relationship. If fathered has done a job in aparticular family son would also do it. On the other hand if a family has been

served by the father it would be obligatory for the family to employ the son for

that job. If there is a separation or division of the family these laborers are also

divided. When a person has no son and only a daughter, then the rights is passed

to the husband of the daughter.

Jajamani rights are in fact equally distributed, in the village. When the male

member in a family of Praja increases the rights get splitter. The quantum grownwhen there is increase in the members of the family of jajman and all these things

go on in a here dietary manner that is from father to the son and so on.

According to N.S.Reddy, the right to Jajmani work is treated as any other right of

property. It passes from father to son and is equally proportioned among brothers

when they separate. In the case of a family with an only daughter, her husband

succeeds to her father rights.

3) Protection of hereditary occupations:

The system of Jajmani System provides a protection to the hereditary occupation.

Members of a particular caste continue to perform their occupation. They are


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paid for their services. Because of these payments they are able to earn their

livelihood and so their hereditary occupation is preserved.

4) Payment for the services rendered:

In Jajmani System, there is an arrangement for payment for services rendered by

Praja or Kamin. The jajman in the past used to pay them in form of grains and

other agricultural yields. Now with the introduction of currency they are paid

sometimes in cash and sometimes in kind. Through this payment the interest of

the Praja were maintained. The studies that are carried out by the scholars in

regard to Jajmani System of various villages yielded the results that the payment

made in form of kinds was quite sufficient for them.

For example a carpenter who repaired the agricultural implements of the farmerin a Rajput village of Madhya Pradesh got one mound of food grains in a year and

2 1/2 seers of food at the time of harvesting. It means that if he had 10 familiar as

his jajman he could think of getting 10 mounds of food grains in the year and 25

seers food at the time of harvesting.

5) Peace and security:

As a result of Jajmani System, the farmers were assured of the services while the

Prajajana were secured of their livelihood. This kept them free from worrying

about employment. Since the jobs that were secured were of a specialised nature

the farmers got their requirements while the Kamins secured the livelihood. The

old age customs and traditions had made these adjustments smooth and nobody

had to bother.

This does not mean that everything was very smooth, nice and rosy. There were

lot of differences and problems and these differences and problems cropped from

village to village.

6) Differences in scope of work:

The work of the Kamins was not confined to one family if it were so, they would

actually starve. Most of these Kamins had such a job to do that they could do it

for a large member of families. This made their livelihood possible. Sometimes


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some of these families Prajajan or Kamin had their Jajmani in more that one

village.

In fact the range and the scope of activity of these Praja were determined by their

activity. A sweeper would attend to 10 to 15 families while a barber could shaveabout 50 to 60 persons. Apart from it if a village was prosperous or had large

number of persons these Prajajana or Kamins shall have good business. On the

other hand if village was not prosperous and there were very few people they

would not get much.

Social change

Social change refers to an alteration in the social

order of a society. It may refer to the notion of social progress or sociocultural

evolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or

evolutionary means. It may refer to a paradigmatic change in the socio-economic

structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism and towards capitalism.

Accordingly it may also refer to social revolution, such as the Socialist revolution

presented in Marxism, or to other social movements, such as Women's suffrage

or the Civil rights movement. Social change may be driven by cultural, religious,

economic, scientific or technological forces.

If comes to change there are sources which are greatly responsible for change.

The first source is unsystematic and unique factors day or night, climate,

existence of people or groups. The second source is systematic factors like if we

need sound development there must be a stable and flexible government andsystem as well as different social organization.

Definition of Social Change

There are some definitions by well-known sociologists


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According to Mr. Mohammad Iqbal Chaudhry, It is the reorganization of society in

terms of time and place.

Majumdar defined it as a mode or fashion either modified or replacing previous

one in the life of individuals or in society.

Horton and Hunt defined it as a change in overall societal structure and

relationship of a society.

Social change is the alternation or modification that takes place in a social

structure or function of a society. It is the change in both material and non-

material culture.

Social Problems

Social problems, also called social issues, affect every society, great and small.

Even in relatively isolated, sparsely populated areas, a group will encounter social

problems. Part of this is due to the fact that any members of a society living close

enough together will have conflicts. Its virtually impossible to avoid them, and

even people who live together in the same house dont always get along

seamlessly. On the whole though, when social problems are mentioned they tendto refer to the problems that affect people living together in a society.The list of

social problems is huge and not identical from area to area.

What is socil problem

A condition (e.g., poverty)

A pattern of behaviour (e.g., violence)

That people believe warrants public concern and collective action to bring aboutchange

Social problems are conditions that:


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Affect the quality of life of a large number of people affect cherished values

Poverty

Poverty is one of the main problems which have attracted attention of

sociologists and economists. It indicates a condition in which a person fails to

maintain a living standard adequate for his physical and mental efficiency. It is a

situation people want to escape. It gives rise to a feeling of a discrepancy

between what one has and what one should have. The term poverty is a relative

concept. It is very difficult to draw a demarcation line between affluence and

poverty. According to Adam Smith - Man is rich or poor according to the degree in

which he can afford to enjoy the necessaries, the conveniences and the

amusements of human life.

According to the new measure called the Multi-dimensional Poverty Index (MPI)

developed by UNDP acute poverty prevails in eight Indian states which includes

Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. They account for more poor people than in

the 26 poorest African nations combined.

The new measure called the Multidimensional Poverty Index was developed and

applied by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative with UNDP

support. The measure reveals the nature and extent of poverty at different levels:from household up to regional, national and international level.

An analysis by its creators reveal that there are more than MPI poor people in 8

Indian states (421 million in Bihar, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, MP, Orissa, Rajasthan,

UP and West Bengal) than in the 26 poorest African countries combined (410

million).The MPI supplants the Human Poverty Index which had been included in

the Annual Human Development Reports since 1997.

India is currently home to about 1.21 billion people, representing a full 17% of theearths population. India's 2011 census showed that the country's population had

grown by 181 million people in the prior decade.


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Population Growth

When India gained independence from the United Kingdom sixty years ago, the

country's population was a mere 350 million. Since 1947, the population of India

has more than tripled.

In 1950, India's total fertility rate was approximately 6 (children per woman).

Nonetheless, since 1952 India has worked to control its population growth. In

1983, the goal of the countrys National Health Policy was to have a replacement

value total fertility rate of 2.1 by the year 2000. That did not occur.

In 2000, the country established a new National Population Policy to stem the

growth of the countrys population. One of the primary goals of the policy was to

reduce the total fertility rate to 2.1 by 2010. One of the steps along the pathtoward the goal in 2010 was a total fertility rate of 2.6 by 2002.

As the total fertility rate in India remains at the high number of 2.8, that goal was

not achieved so it is highly unlikely that the total fertility rate will be 2.1 by 2010.

Thus, Indias population will continue to grow at a rapid rate. The U.S. Census

Bureau does predict a near-replacement total fertility rate of 2.2 to be achieved in

India in the year 2050.

Unemployment

The problem of unemployment means the problem of providing work to those

who are willing to work. A large number of educated and uneducated people,

who are capable of work and are also willing to do it, roam here and there

without any job. So the problem has assumed an acute form.

There is a large number of people who are either partly employed or wholly

unemployed. The lives of such people, as well as of their families, are extremely

miserable. India cannot claim to be a welfare state so long as this problem

remains unsolved. Before discussing the ways and means of solving this problem,

let us first examine the causes which have created it.

It is a well-known fact that ours is a thickly populated country. The population is

increasing by leaps and bounds. But jobs and gainful avenues cannot be created in


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the same proportion. So, naturally, a large section of the people is left

unemployed. Moreover, our education system is also responsible for this

problem. The problem of educated unemployment is peculiar to India. India is

only country in the world where even highly educated persons fail to to get

employment. Every year thousands and thousands of graduates pass out of

schools and colleges. They are unfit for any work, except office work. All of them

cannot be absorbed in services. This increases employment.

The problem of unemployment is mainly an economic one. It is essential,

therefore, that the economic policy of the country be overhauled. In our country,

labor is available in abundance. We should provide avenues for employment for

them through cottage and small-scale industries. besides this, stress must be laid

on family planning. Every effort must be made to check the rapid rise inpopulation. This will help a great deal in the solution of this problem.

Illiteracy

Illiteracy is another major problem before the society. Its a sad state of affairs

that a country which had higher level of literacy (than British) at a time when

British came twocenturies ago is now facing the challenge of a huge number of

people who are illiterate andcannot read or write. The lack of these skills renders

them deprived of the opportunitiesfor upward social mobility. Such people have

to depend on others for various things and are exploited in various ways. For

example the poor rural people are asked to put their thumb impression of various

legal documents and are subjected to exploitations and legal hassles. Keeping

these negative consequences in view the government is trying to universalize

primary education. The lack of reading and writing skills makes a person incapable

of availing the various opportunities to help themselves. Each and every educated

person, therefore, is expected to contribute to the literacy mission and making it

a success.

Pollution

The environmental problems in India are growing rapidly. The increasing

economic development and a rapidly growing population that has taken the


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country from 300 million people in 1947 to more than one billion people today is

putting a strain on the environment, infrastructure, and the countrys natural

resources. Industrial pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, rapid industrialization,

urbanization, and land degradation are all worsening problems. Overexploitation

of the country's resources be it land or water and the industrialization process has

resulted environmental degradation of resources. Environmental pollution is one

of the most serious problems facing humanity and other life forms on our planet

today.

India has been ranked as seventh most environmentally hazardous country in the

world by a new ranking released recently. The study is based on evaluation of

absolute environment impact of 179 countries, whose data was available and

has been done by researchers in Harvard, Princeton, Adelaide University andUniversity of Singapore 0n January 12, 2011. Brazil was found to be worst on

environmental indicators whereas Singapore was the best. United States was

rated second worst and China was ranked third.

Gender Discrimination

Women and men are equally important for the growth and development of

individual andsocial lives. The women play the important role as mother and the

same makes it unique. However, careful analysis of Indian society indicates that

the situation is not good forwomen folk. The sex ratio of male and female in the

India population has been changingand becoming unfavourable towards women.

In the Indian society women are considered major contributors to family and

society. We have gods and goddesses both and one of the incarnation of lord

Shiva is Ardhanareeshwar, which is made of half male and halfthe incarnation of

lord Shiva is Ardhanareeshwar, which is made of half male and half the

incarnation of lord Shiva is Ardhanareeshwar, which is made of half male and

halffact. The women are also subjected to discrimination in learning, dowry

deaths and exploitations of various kinds which are very common. In fact the

women are becomingtargets of atrocities of many types. The same is manifested

in discrimination against themfrom very early period. The incident of infanticide,

early marriage, emphasis on domesticactivities and lessor emphasis on education


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and career have made womens lives full of problems. They are discriminated

against from early childhood. The Indian dependence on others (e.g. parents,

husbands) becomes fate of the majority of the women folk. The pattern of

discrimination against women varies across rural, urban and tribal areas. Theyare

assigned diverse responsibilities and treated as relatively weaker and less

competent this image is still prevailing in various sections of the society. It is

reflected in thediscriminatory practices in the family such as distribution of work,

food and social activities the girl child is usually burdened with responsibilities

that are beyond her capacity. Such exploitations function as obstacles in the

process of development and growth of the girl child.

Corruption

Corruption refers to those transactions which involve undue benefits to some

people who dont deserve or are not entitled for them. Such transactions make

some people recipients of financial benefits, physical and social resources that

make these people capable ofof financial benefits, physical and social resources

that make these people capable offinancial benefits, physical and social resources

that make these people capable ofis often reflected in the formation of a nexus

between politicians and criminals. Use of money to bribe and drawing benefits

that are not feasible under the law of the land. Misuse and misappropriation ofresources for personal benefits is creating a gulf between havesand have not.

The use of black money and scams of various types that have been discovered in

recent years clearly tell that corruption is adversely influencing the growth and

development of Indian society.

Urbanization

Urbanization is another problem that deserves serious attention. There is

increasingly greater migration from villages to cities. This situation is generatingpressures on cities which weremeant for a definite size of population. The limited

civic facilities, civilian organizations and structures are facing difficulties in

meeting the demands of the people. The mega cities like Mumbai, Kolkata

Chennai and Delhi have crossed the limits for which they are capable of. This

situation creates a number of problems such as unauthorized and illegal activities,


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emergence of slums, problem of waste disposal creation of foles, crime and

health related problems. The social organization, economy and environmental

planning in many cities are problems. The social organization, economy and

environmental planning in many cities are

problems. The social organization, economy and environmental planning in many

cities areconsumerism and individualism. Consumerism emphasizes on

exploitation of resources for personal consumption without any concern for

society and environment. This attitude isresponsible for the ecological imbalance

that is widely experienced in todays world. Similarly the individualistic attitude

favours the view that the individual is the ultimate reality and all processes need

to be explained at individual level. The individual is free and responsible to his or

her self only

Each perspective involves different assumptions and thus provides a different

analysis of social problems, and it is our responsibility to work together for a

better world.

Unity in diversity

India is a country of many ethnic groups, over 1,650 spoken languages, dialects,

regional variationsa land of myriad tonguesnumerous modes of apparel and

countless mannerisms. For the most part, the continental size of the country

accounts for the variations and diversities.

Besides, there are many religions, sects and beliefs. At times the wide differences

seem to predominate, and the resultant disharmony is regarded by many as

irremediable, a phenomenon that the 106 core people (ours is the second most

populous country) have to live with, whether they like it or not.

The cynics even regard the Indian people as quarrelsome, often at each other's

throat, denouncing others as if they were inveterate enemies holding

irreconcilable ideas and subscribing to ideals totally different from theirs.


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But those who stick to this impression ignore a vital factor there is a basic unity

which runs through the Indian mainstream of life and thought. There is a

traditional culture which is truly oriental and which conforms to the teachings and

precepts of our saints and sages.

Culture and civilisation are admittedly difficult to define, though both these

signify certain identifiable trends and traits of character, especially restraint,

consideration for others and a high degree of tolerance.

The lack of culture becomes evident even from the language and the dialect one

uses, the conduct and manner of living, one's gestures in social life, the tendency

to have a closed mind, with doors and windows shut as if to disallow the inflow of

fresh ideas and other viewpoints.

Every process of exclusion betrays lack of culture, just as every trend indicating a

willingness to broaden one's outlook shows a commendable cultural trait. The

same idea is often put in different words: static culture envisages decay, just as

dynamism ensures survival.

It is the dynamism and the flexibility that have enabled Indian culture to survive

despite its many diversities and heavy odds. Through these diversities runs a

common stream, as it were, and the similarity and unity of outlook can be noticedfrom North to South and East to West. Indian culture is actually a continuous

synthesis, and has absorbed many external influences in the course of history.

A significant recognition of the fusion of cultural trends comes through t he

Constitution (Article 51-A), which says, interalia, that it shall be the duty of every

citizen of India to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.

Among the other Fundamental Duties mentioned in that Article is "to promote

harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India,transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities, to renounce

practices derogatory to women..." All these are indicative of cultural

development.


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Calm reflection will show that attempts to enforce complete unity and disallow

any differences of thought and approach in a large country like India would prove

counter-productive and self-defeating. People can hold different views on life,

religion, social, economic and political systems and yet they can be cultured.

Who, can deny that the people of India have throughout history honoured saints,

sages, religious preachers and philosophers, seldom showing veneration for

military heroes, triumphant warriors and commanders, except transitory praise

and adulation. Those who have fought for cultural freedoms and political

independence, which ensures such freedom and the implicit liberties to pursue

cultural pursuits, have commanded large and loyal following.

Had it not been for the tolerance shown by the people of India during the rule of

the Mughals and other outsiders, who brought in their own traditions and sought

to impose them on this country, the amorphous, flexible Indian culture would

have lost its moorings.

The Indian mind has assimilated much of the thinking of other cultures, thus

enriching itself and making itself durable and virtually indestructible. The Western

concepts and modes of dress, the English language, the study of English classics

and European philosophers' works, even though they emphasised thoughts and

beliefs different from those of the Indian people, have not been spurned. Rather,

a good part of these has become almost a part of the Indian way of living and

thinking, especially in the urban areas.

The English-knowing elite exist alongside the Indian language enthusiasts, without

tensions. The Western culture has always laid stress on materialism, while the

Eastern, especially Indian, culture has been closely linked with spiritualism,

simplicity, filial duty and affection, austerity, tolerance and harmony. Both are

tolerated in this country.

It is, however, a pity that in recent years the communal clashes, the increasing

evidence of intolerance and disharmony, the apparently endless discord, the open

clashes at public meetings, and the all-too-frequent denunciation of each other

have increased so much as to indicate that the people are forgetting their, true


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culture, and are allowing themselves to be exploited by selfish, uncultured people

who seek to disrupt and destroy rather than build and consolidate.

The real strength of Indian culture lies in basic unity, vigour and the ability to

contain an amazing diversity within itself. In this country there are people whobelong to opposite schools of thought and who never seem to agree on anything.

And yet, the concepts of one basic culture and one nation have continued.

Another notable characteristic of Indian culture is that it has always been based

on moral and religious values; on these values the outlook shows an amazing

similarity, almost throughout the country. Of course, there are groups which

seem to be always on the war-path, and there are dissidents who question the

basic framework on which the Indian polity is based, but they constitute a very

small fraction of the total population.

Moreover, in every large country there are always people who are virtual rebels in

thought and deed, and who wish to demolish rather than construct. Even in the

advanced countries, such as the U.S.A., there are people who are outside the pale

of law, who do not subscribe to the distinct American way of life. The same holds

good of the British people.

Some Britons are opposed to the centuries old institution of monarchy and regardit as superfluous and an anachronism in the modem age of democracy. But they

are as loyal to their country as the others, and they not only stick to the British

culture, but are proud of it.

India is a secular State, and the people, with a few exceptions,

have reverence for every faith; there is no effort to impose one religion on other.

The Constitution itself, framed with the full consent of the people, guarantees

the freedom of thought and expression. The Constitution does not recognise

distinctions based on religion, sex or caste, or any other factor.

Modernism co-exists with orthodoxy, as does progressive thought with

conservatism, and even reactionary trends. The broad features of the Hindu

culture, (which is not linked to the Hindu religion but is broadly Indian culture). It

is not fixed or static but is constantly adapting itself to changed conditions, thus


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responding favourably to new challenges; tolerance of conflicting beliefs,

liberalism and broadmindedness; emphasis on ethical conduct and spiritualism;

control of passions and temper; justice and truth, and disdain of wealth and the

pleasures of the senses.

Spiritual perfection is eagerly sought and preached; moral principles, duty and

"dharma" are assiduously propagated, especially at pilgrim centers.

Indian culture, in fact, represents a synthesis on many strains. It contains the best

features of many traditions of other lands. Undoubtedly, certain corrupt

influences and distortions have crept in, but these aberrations have not affected

the basis, which is solid, not shaky in any sense.

Absorption and assimilation have been responsible for the lasting qualities ofIndian culture; the diversities seem to disappear in course of time, leaving behind

the basic beliefs very much intact.

Mahatma Gandhi's view that veneration for other faiths is a part of our own

system holds well because of the recognition that each religion has truth and

honesty as its basis. Most people have a wide, universal outlook. All these factors

account for the unity in diversity that is an outstanding feature of this country.

It is often said that there is unity in diversity in India. The people of India are

united with a common cultural heritage have a feeling of unity in spite of having

external differences. From ancient times it is been seen that India is divided into

various castes, creed , religions, regions but then too they are united as one

whole nation. Nothing in the past have made them broken into pieces. It is an

whole of a nation with a huge population , and will remain united in whatever

condition they may put to.

India is a land of diverse physical features. There are snow capped mountains,hilly terrains, plains, plateaus, and coastal areas. There are deserts and places

with extreme and scanty rainfall. There are regions with extreme and moderate

climate.


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People of India follow different religions and castes. They follow different

customs, traditions and speak different languages. They also differ in dress and

food.inspite of so many differences; people have a feeling of oneness .they are

bound by common cultural heritage and they share basic human values. When

Indians go abroad, they call themselves Indians and they are known as Indians.

Indian culture is dynamic and tolerant.indian culture is more varied and richer.

Though the foreign cultures retained their basic character, they became a part of

the Indian culture with the passage of time. The diversity of the Indians

contributes to the variety and richness of Indian culture and strengthens national

unity.

But intolerance and narrow mindedness may weaken national unity. We should

therefore create conditions in which people should become conscious of the

similarities which make them Indians rather than the dissimilarities which

distinguish them from others. People must be encouraged to feel proud of Indias

cultural heritage, of being called Indians while retaining their distinct features.

India is a live example to the world to show them that they have Unity In

Diversity. This country not only remains together in an emergency but also they

remain together in natural calamities such as famines, floods and earthquakes.

This country has become quite inspirational for the countries who have heavilybeen divided racially.

social movements are a type of group action

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