RACE/ETHNICITY & EDUCATIONMELANIE TANNENBAUM, PH.D. SPRING 2015 SOC 463/663

ActivityWhat is the cultural group or social class that you most strongly identify with?

Spend the next 5 minutes quietly reflecting on this identity.

We will go around and each person will mention…

Name

Group identity

Label you would like the class to use for this group

2-3 sentences about how this cultural identification may have affected your language, behavior, commitments, values, attitudes, beliefs, etc.

How has your race/ethnicity impacted your education?

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP

ACHIEVEMENT GAPS START EARLY… (JENCKS, 1998)

COLLEGE ENROLLMENT RATES OVER TIME KANE (2004) BASED ON U.S. DEPT OF EDUCATION (2000)

DIFFERENCES IN COLLEGE ENROLLMENT RATES OVER TIME KANE (2004) BASED ON U.S. DEPT OF EDUCATION (2000)

HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATION RATES

0

25

50

75

100

White African-American Hispanic/Latino(a)

MenWomen

4+ YEARS OF COLLEGE

0

10

20

30

40

50

White African-American Hispanic/Latino(a)

MenWomen

Racial Differences

HS & College Dropout Rates

Educational Attainment

Standardized Test Performance

Other Causes…DebunkedPoverty/Socioeconomic Differences

The number of affluent Black families has grown since 1960s, but the test score gap has stayed the same

Segregation

Large differences even in desegregated schools

School racial makeup does not impact scores

Inadequate Funding

Black & White districts spend same amount per pupil

Other Causes…DebunkedCulture of Poverty

Kids from rich Black families still have lower scores

Single-Parent Families

Mom’s marital status has negligible effect on scores

Genes

Racial environment matters more than genetic race

Even biological siblings raised in the same home rarely have highly correlated test scores

Does No Child Left Behind close the gap?

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): Reading scores

-- Findings inconsistent; but gap largely constant --Overall upward trend (present before NCLB) --Better results on state-specific tests than national (NAEP)

Does No Child Left Behind close the gap?

Race & Achievement

Performance for minorities under predicted by usual indicators (e.g., SAT)

“Content reflects white, middle-class culture, not culture of minority

^^ No longer applies today ^^ (lots of test testing!)

Racial gap shows on culturally charged as well as on culturally neutral tests.

Race Gap: Causes

Over-reliance on standardized testsAverage Black score = 16th percentile of White distribution

If workers are selected based on tests, Black-White difference is 1 standard deviation

If workers are not selected based on tests, Black-White difference is only 0.4 standard deviations

DQ: Achievement GapIs there a learning gap because of the curriculum that schools are teaching and the type of school that students are going to, or is it

because of the differences between cultures?

If people express the importance of the American Dream, how come we don’t give everyone an equal opportunity for the best of it?

Because of all of the inequalities that we see today, is it ever possible to have a school system where we don’t see such large

scholastic gaps between students? Will we ever reach a point in our education system where all ethnicities test equally and have similar

graduation rates?

What do you think of this?There are individual differences in intelligence

50% of variation in intelligence is passed on genetically

Racial differences in intelligence are largely genetic

Programs aimed at raising the intelligence of the poor won’t help because intelligence is largely genetic

Racial Differences: Causes?

Poverty?Low SES ! Low academic performanceSES of Blacks lower than the SES of Whites

BUT…Asian-Americans perform better, even though not higher in SESVoluntary immigrants are poor, but often excel academicallyCross-cultural perspective; poverty cannot be the only reason

Family?Parents’ educational backgroundFamily structure

Childrearing practices?

Different parental expectations?

Racial Differences: Causes?

Stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination

Language skills

Culture“Other groups pulled themselves up. Why can’t you?”Cultural values and norms

Oppositional identity

Racial Differences: Causes?

Attitude-Achievement ParadoxMickelson (1990)

Abstract attitudesMainstream optimistic ideas about education

“Education is the key to success in the future.”“School success is a clear path to a better life.”

Concrete attitudes Focus on specific obstacles, pessimistic attitudes

“Although my parents tell me to get a good education in order to get a good job, they face barriers to job success.”“Based on their experiences, my parents say people like us are paid and promoted according to our education.”

4

4.5

5

5.5

6

Abstract Attitudes Concrete Attitudes

BlackWhite

Attitude-Achievement Paradox

Types of Minority StatusVoluntary Minority

Moved voluntarily to United States

Wanted more opportunities & freedom

Ex: Chinese, Punjabi Indians

Involuntary Minority

Brought into the United States against their will

Slavery, colonization, conquest, or forced labor

Ex: Native Americans, Black Americans Ogbu, 1992

Types of Cultural Differences

Primary Cultural Differences

Existed before groups came into contact

Associated with voluntary minorities

Secondary Cultural Differences

Arose after groups came into contact

Associated with involuntary minorities

Ogbu, 1992

Fears & ConsequencesCultural Inversion

Tendency for involuntary minorities to regard certain behaviors, events, & symbols as “inappropriate” for them because they are “White” things.

Alternation Strategy

AKA “Accommodation without Assimilation”

AKA “Code-Switching”

More typical of voluntary minoritiesOgbu, 1992

Code Switching

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kO-EwelnvxU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JzprLDmdRlc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDyO4KzbuiE

DQ: “Code-Switching”Assuming that we want our schools/country to be ethnically diverse, is “assimilation” a good thing or a bad thing? Are

cultural differences a good thing or a bad thing?

Is there a way education can be taught while preserving minorities’ cultures or is having an education in and of itself

seen as conforming to the majority culture?

How can we change the way involuntary minority groups view education?

Secondary StrategiesStrategies used by involuntary minority youths who want to succeed academically

Shields them from peer pressures and other detracting community forces

Context in which students can practice the “conventional strategies” of hard work, effort, etc.

Ogbu, 1992

Secondary Strategies1. Cultural Passing (“Acting White”)

2. Accommodation without Assimilation (Code-Switching)

3. Camouflage (e.g., being the “class clown” in public)

4. Involvement in Church

5. Private Schooling

6. Mentorship

7. Protection

8. Remedial/Intervention Programs

9. Encapsulation Ogbu, 1992

DQ: Changing Cultural ViewsHow do we change the culture of schools to not be indicative of a

"White-washing" process? How can we create culturally-aware schooling that doesn't fall into the pitfalls that Ogbu describes in the

core curriculum and multicultural education movements?

If foreign-language courses, along with activities that encourage students to work together & don’t necessarily need a shared language

(sports, music, etc.) are the first programs to lose funding when cuts are made, how can we expect to make a meaningful change?

I could not figure out why Ogbu did not value the benefits of multicultural education. He seemed to have discounted all of its benefits by saying that it’s “not an adequate strategy to enhance

academic performance.” While I understand that it may not effectively target academic performance, why not incorporate those aspects into

the education system? Would it not benefit a lot of people?

HISPANIC/LATINO(A) ISSUES

Complicating FactorsDiminished expectations from teachers

Different expectations of the role of “school”

Lack of rigor/standards

Different kind of parent-teacher relationship

Language/Cultural barriers

Parents often feel unwelcome/misunderstood

DQ: Latino IssuesWould there be a way to formally educate Latino children

while remaining culturally sensitive? If we are able to teach in a culturally sensitive way, can we also do this without

segregating Latino children from other American children? What might be the repercussions of Latino children learning

two completely different styles of identity? Would a child likely have to choose one or the other and then dissociate

from the one deemed as less important?

How do we effectively prevent Latino students from being erroneously put on vocational tracks closing opportunities

for their college aspirations and readiness?

Complicating Factors

Educación

Being moral, responsible, respectful, well-behaved

Values

Individual rights/liberties vs. community focus

US: Self-confidence, self-esteem, questioning authority

Latino(a): Cooperation, interdependence, respect

DQ: Educational Values

What would it look like if Americans embraced the system of educación, which is not only comprised of academic

components, but also encompasses being moral, responsible, respectful, and well behaved? How would our

academic system be better/worse?

DQ: Latino IssuesMight immigration status also play a role? If relevant to a given

family, are undocumented parents nervous about being too involved in the community? Can public schools integrate students and parents who are new to the United States without imposing

on their cultures and beliefs?

I think the author (Reyna) loses sight of the bigger picture when she groups everyone that is Latino into a category in which

parents are immigrants and are not that involved in school are their white counterparts. She fails to mention that stigma that

comes with being "physically" Latino, which is a stereotype in and of itself. Racism and classism play a predominant factor that

might deter parents from being as involved as they would like. At what point should "divide and conquer" cease to be used to

explain or rationalize different ways of life? 

DQ: Other Issues

Do minorities of different ethnicities suffer more than lower income white families in the education system? If there

were a mix of African American and White Americans living under the same roof in a low-income neighborhood, would

all of the kids suffer academically?

“MODEL MINORITIES”

Racial Achievement Gap

Asian Americans outscore all other ethnic groups

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NEAP)

Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)

Race/Ethnicity in College Admissions

California

1995: UC Board of Regents votes to stop considering race/ethnicity

1996: Proposition 209 passed by California electorate

1997: Following legal disputes courts resolve that Proposition 209 is lawful

1998: Proposition 209 implemented

The Pool

24%

1%6%

9%60%

WhiteAsianBlackNative AmericanLatino

Ethnic-Racial Composition of California, 2000

Source: http://www.census.gov/popest/states/asrh/tables/SC-EST2003-03/SC-EST2003-03-06.xls

The Pool

19%1%

6%

23%

51%

WhiteAsianBlackNative AmericanLatino

Composition of 1997 California high school graduates eligible for admission to the UC system

Source: S. Herzog (2002). Chronicle of Higher Education

Prior to Proposition 209

15%1%

8%

45%

31% WhiteAsianBlackNative AmericanLatino

Composition of Fall 1997 admits to the University of California Berkeley

19%1%

6%

23%

51%

High school pool

Source: S. Herzog (2002). Chronicle of Higher Education

UC Berkeley admits less than 25% of all applicants.

After Proposition 209

9%1%

4%

51%

35% WhiteAsianBlackNative AmericanLatino

Composition of Fall 1998 admits to the University of California system

19%1%

6%

23%

51%

High school pool

Source: S. Herzog (2002). Chronicle of Higher Education

Asian AmericansEducational success story

Immigration to the U.S. Involuntary Minorities (Ogbu)

PrejudicesRestriction of immigrationInternment of Japanese Americans, WWII

StereotypesAchievement domain“Model minority”

Why are Asian Americans so successful?

Socioeconomic Status / Social Class

“Immigrant mentality”…sometimes achievement in 2nd generation drops“Americanization”

Genes / Innate Intelligence??…..?(Probably not.)

Why are Asian Americans so successful?Cultural beliefs

Folk theories of “intelligence”

“It’s all effort.”

Compliance with authority in school

Homework

Parenting styles

Firm/authoritarian vs. permissive

Parental expectations (Thernstroms)

When are you in trouble?

Why are Asian Americans so successful?

Belief in educational payoff

“If I study hard, I can be successful in life because education is key.”

Relative functionalism

Opportunity structure determines which paths are viewed as successful

Insufficient knowledge of English ! focus on ‘language free’ fields of study

Limited opportunity in non-educational fields

Restricted mobility (e.g., prejudice) ! having to be extremely qualified

DQ: Miscellaneous

There was a quote I read that stated, "the only way to stop racism is to stop talking about it." Do you think this is true? If something is talked about constantly it's clearly still going

to be an issue, so if everyone just stopped making it an issue, would it just end?

Would more positive minority role models help children brush off some of the expectations placed on them?

STEREOTYPES & ATTRIBUTIONS

DQ: Moving ForwardShould we focus on avoiding stereotype threat or on

teaching teachers how to properly offer help to children?

There was a quote I read that stated, "the only way to stop racism is to stop talking about it." Do you think this is true? If something is talked about constantly it's clearly still going

to be an issue, so if everyone just stopped making it an issue, would it just end?

InternalStable

Controllable

GuiltAnger from others

PrideCompetence beliefs

Trust from others

Punishment from others; denial of help/resources from others; frustration

& task withdrawal

Rewards from others; access to help/

resources from others; motivation & task

valuation

Negative Outcome

Positive Outcome

Emotions Behaviors

Emotions Behaviors

InternalStable

Uncontrollable

ShameEmbarrassmentLow self-esteemPity from others

PrideCompetence beliefs

Trust from others

Short-term help/long-term denial of resources

from others; lower confidence; task

withdrawal

Rewards from others; access to help/

resources from others; motivation & task

valuation

Negative Outcome

Positive Outcome

Emotions Behaviors

Emotions Behaviors

ExternalStable

Uncontrollable

AngerSelf-esteem maintainedSympathy from others

Trust environment

No credit from others for achievements

Receives support/avoids blame from others; may

withdraw from task; perceives environment

as harmful

Greater involvement in trustworthy

environment; no particular social consequences

Negative Outcome

Positive Outcome

Emotions Behaviors

Emotions Behaviors

Effects of Racial CompositionConditional effects of the proportion of

Latinos in the classroom

If % low (less than 1/3), presence of Latinos lowers everybody’s

achievement

If % high (greater than 2/3), presence of Latinos increases everybody’s

achievement

DQ: Cross-Race FeedbackHow can we encourage useful cross-race feedback?

Ruscher explains that this leads to minority students being unable to distinguish between actual, helpful criticism/

praise and unhelpful criticism/praise, leading to a uniform suspicion of critique from the majority. This seems a much more deeply-engrained tradition to fix, for there are issues

on both parties – when there is a difference between power and status in a majority teacher and minority student, there is likely some suspicion (whether conscious or unconscious) on the part of the student. Is it on teachers, then, to create a

culturally-aware classroom and give background-free, helpful criticism?

DQ: Handling StereotypesShould teachers be educated about the importance of

stereotypes and how much they can affect a child’s outcome?

Do you think once a stereotype has been formed, it is hard for a teacher to view the student any other way, even if the

student has proved that stereotype to be false?

It seems that the biggest lesson and the easiest action we can take out of the research is to teach children that

whatever they do is unstable…what if we consistently told parents & teachers this one action is very important every

chance we got?

DQ: Handling Stereotypes

Can teachers be trained to ignore stereotypes when teaching?