smith - mass terms, generic expresions, and plato´s theory of forms

7/24/2019 smith - Mass terms, generic expresions, and platos theory of forms

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Journal of the History of Philosophy, Volume 16, Number 2, April 1978,

pp. 141-153 (Article)

DOI: 10.1353/hph.2008.0360

For additional information about this article

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M a s s T e r m s , G e n e r i c E x p r e s s i o n s ,

a nd P la t o s T h e o r y o f F o r m s

R O B I N S M I T H

I . A F U N DA M E NT AL P U R PO S E o f P l a t o s T h e o r y o f F o r m s is t o e x p la i n w h y

t h in g s h a v e c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s ; f o r i n s t a n c e , w h y s o m e t h in g s a r e b e a u t i f u l , w h y

s o m e p e o p l e a r e j u s t , w h y s o m e o b j e c t s a r e b e d s . W e c a n ( a n d P l a t o o f t e n d o e s )

s t a te t h is p u r p o s e i n t h e f o r m a l m o d e a l s o : t h e T h e o r y e x p l a i n s w h y c e r t a i n p r e d i-

c a te s a r e t ru e o f c e r t a i n t h i n g s; f o r in s t a n c e , w h y b e a u t i f u l is t r u e o f s o m e t h i n g s ,

j u s t o f s o m e p e o p le , b e d o f s o m e o b je c t s. T h e T h e o r y p r o d u c e s e x p l an a t i o n s b y

s u p p o s i n g t h a t a t l e a s t f o r e a c h o f a c e r t a i n g r o u p o f p r e d i c a t e s t h e r e e x i s t s a

c o r r e s p o n d i n g F o r m ; t h a t t h e p re d i c a te is t r u e o f t h e F o r m , a n d i n d e e d s u p r e m e l y

t r u e o f i t; a n d t h a t i f th e p r e d i c a t e i s t r u e o f a n y t h i n g e ls e b e s id e s t h e F o r m , i t is

b e c a u s e t h a t t h i n g i s i n a c e r ta i n r e l a t io n s h i p w i t h th e F o r m ( w h i c h P l a t o m o s t o f t e n

d e s ig n a t e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n ) . S t a t e d i n t e r m s o f p r o p e r t i e s r a t h e r t h a n p r e d i c a t e s , th i s

w o u l d b e : t h e F o r m h a s t h e p r o p e r t y , a n d i n d e e d s u p r e m e l y ; a n d i f a n y t h i n g e ls e h a s

t h e p r o p e r t y , i t i s b e c a u s e t h a t t h i n g p a r t a k e s o f t h e F o r m . 1 P l a t o s o m e t i m e s s a y s

t h is a s: e a c h F o r m h a s a c e r t a i n p o w e r dunamis) w h i c h i t i m p a r t s t o i t s p a r t i c i -

p a n t s Prt. 3 3 0 , Prin. 1 3 3e ). A s a s o r t o f c o r o l l a r y , F o r m s s e r v e t o g i v e t h e m e a n i n g s

o f p r e d i c a t e t e r m s ; t h o s e t e r m s g e t t h e i r m e a n i n g s b y r e f e r r i n g i n s o m e w a y t o t h e

F o r m s t o w h i c h t h e y a p p l y p r i m a r i l y . F o r m s a l s o p l a y se v e r a l o t h e r r o l e s i n P l a t o s

p h i l o s o p h i c a l p i c t u r e . F r o m t h e la s t p o i n t , i t f o l l o w s t h a t i n o r d e r t o k n o w t h e

m e a n i n g o f a p r e d i c a t e ( o r in o r d e r t o k n o w w h a t a p r o p e r t y r e a ll y is ) o n e m u s t h a v e

k n o w l e d g e o f a F o r m . T h u s F o r m s a r e t h e c e n te r o f P l a t o s e p i s t e m o l o g y . T h e y

o c c u p y a n a n a l o g o u s m e t a p h y s i c a l p o s i t i o n , s i n ce h e r e g a r d s t h e m a s re a l i n a w a y

t h a t o t h e r t h in g s a r e n o t . I n a n u m b e r o f p la c e s , t h e y p l a y a ro l e a s p a r a d i g m s - -

p a r a d i g m s t h a t t h i n g s i n n a t u r e i m i t a t e a n d a s p i r e t o

Phd.

7 5 ,

Prin.

1 3 2 d ) , o r

p a r a d i g m s t h a t a n a r t i s a n w o u l d m a k e u s e o f

Cra.

3 8 9 ,

Rep.

5 9 7) . B o t h o f t h e s e

c o n c e p t i o n s a p p e a r i n t h e Timaeus. W e m a y a l s o n o t e t h a t F o r m s p l a y r o l e s a s

o b j e c t s o f a e s t h e t i c a n d e t h i c a l a d m i r a t i o n .

I n o r d e r t o p l a y t h e s e r o l e s, F o r m s m u s t h a v e c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r is t i c s . F i r st , t h e y

m u s t b e predicat ive ly pre-eminent: a F o r m m u s t b e t h e p r e - e m i n e n t b e a r e r o f it s

n a m e , t h e p a r a m o u n t i n s t a n c e o f i t s q u a l i t y . T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e c l a i m t h a t F o r m s

m u s t b e , i n t h e p h r a s e i n t r o d u c e d b y V l a s t o s , 2

se l f -predicat ive .

N e x t , w h a t e v e r

F o r m s a r e , t h e y a r e to b e d i s t in g u i sh e d f r o m o r d i n a r y p h y s i c a l o b je c t s . P l a t o s v ie w

' Condensed versions of this account of t he Theory o f Forms appear several times in the

P a r m e n i d e s :

130b2-5, 130e5-131a2, 132al-4.

Gregory Vlastos, The Third Man Argument in the

P a r m e n i d e s , P h i l os o p h i ca l R e v i e w

63 (1954):

319-349; reprinted, with Ad de nd um (1963), in R. E. Allen, ed.

S t u d i e s i n P l a t o ' s M e t a p h y s i c s

(London, 1965), pp. 231-263.

[141]


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142 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

h e r e u n d e r g o e s d e v e l o p m e n t a s h e b e c o m e s m o r e a w a r e o f h i s vi ew s a n d t h ei r c o n -

s e q u e n c e s , b u t a t l e a s t i n t h e Phaedo a n d l a t e r w o r k s w e f i n d d e f i n i t e c l a i m s d i s -

t i n g u i s h i n g t h e F o r m s f r o m t h o s e t h i n g s p e r c e p t i b l e t o t h e s e n s e s . W e m a y c o n v e -

n i e n t l y r e f e r t o t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f F o r m s a s

separation

( t h e t e r m i s o f c o u r s e

A r i s t o t l e ' s ) . B o t h a m o t i v e f o r a n d a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e F o r m s is

P l a t o ' s v i ew t h a t t h e y a r e e t e r n a l a n d i m m u t a b l e . F i n a l l y , e s p e c i a ll y i n l a t e r w o r k s ,

t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e e m p h a s i s o n t h e u n i t y a n d t h e i n t e ll ig i b il it y o f F o r m s .

A r a t h e r s u r p r is i n g t h i n g a b o u t t h is T h e o r y is t h e e a se w i t h w h i c h p a r t ic i p a n t s i n

t h e d i a l o g u e s a c c e p t i t s c l a i m s . I n t h e Euthyphro, f o r i n s t a n c e , w h e n S o c r a t e s a sk s i f

t h e i m p i o u s i s n ' t a l w a y s c o n t r a r y t o a l l t h e p i o u s , b u t s i m i l a r t o it s el f , w i t h w h a t -

e v e r i s g o i n g t o b e i m p i o u s h a v i n g s o m e o n e F o r m [mian tina idean] w i t h r e s p e c t t o

i ts i m p i e t y , E u t h y p h r o , w h o is p r e s u m a b l y a p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n n o c e n t , r ep l ie s , B y

a l l m e a n s~ y e s , S o c r a t e s ( 5 d 2 - 6 ) . I n t h e s a m e w a y , i n t h e Hippias Major H i p p i a s

a n s w e r s w i t h o u t h e s i t a t i o n t h a t t h e j u s t a r e j u s t b y ju s t i ce , t h e w i s e w is e b y w i s d o m ,

t h e g o o d g o o d b y t h e g o o d , a n d a ll th e b e a u t i f u l b e a u t i f u l b y th e b e a u t i f u l , a s w e ll a s

a g r e e i n g th a t a l l t h e s e a p p a r e n t F o r m s e x i s t ( 2 8 7 c l - d 2 ) . R e s p o n s e s o f th i s s o r t a r e

a l t o g e t h e r t y p i c a l , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e a r l i e r d i a l o g u e s : o n l y i n t h e Phaedo a n d l a t e r

w o r k s , a n d t h e n o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y , i s a n y j u s t i fi c a t i o n o r e x p l a n a t i o n o f f e r e d e i th e r

f o r c l a im s t h a t F o r m s e x i s t o r f o r c l a i m s t h a t t h i n g s h a v e p r o p e r t i e s b y p a r t a k i n g i n

F o r m s . M o r e o v e r , w h e n w e d o f in d a n y a r g u m e n t o n t he s e m a t t er s , i t u s u a ll y

c o n c e r n s w h a t F o r m s m u s t b e li k e, g r a n t e d t h a t t h e y e xi st . F o r e x a m p l e , in Phaedo

7 4 a - 7 5 b , S o c r a t e s a r g u e s t h a t T h e E q u a l I t s e lf is n o t a n o b j e c t o f t h e s en s ib l e w o r l d .

H e d o e s n o t a r g u e t h a t i t e x i s ts ; h e t a k e s i t f o r g r a n t e d t h a t i t d o e s . S i m i l a r l y , t h e r e is

n o a r g u m e n t i n t h e

Republic

( 5 9 6 a ) t h a t t h e r e i s a F o r m o f b e d ; w e a r e j u s t

a c c u s t o m e d t o s u p p o s e a s in g le F o r m w h e n e v e r m a n y th i n g s s h a r e a n a m e .

T h e r o l e F o r m s p l a y i n e x p l a i n i n g p r e d i c a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d w i t h a s i m i l a r l a ck o f

c o n t r o v e r s y . I n t h e Phaedo ( 1 0 0 c - d ) , S o c r a t e s a p p a r e n t l y r e g a r d s i t a s s o o b v i o u s

t h a t t h e b e a u t i f u l a r e b e a u t i f u l b e c a u s e o f t h e b e a u t i f u l i t s e lf a s t o b e a s im p l e -

m i n d e d c o m m o n p l a c e . M o r e s u r p r i s i n g st il l, p e r h a p s , i s t h e c o m p l e t e a b s e n c e i n t h e

d i a l o g u e s o f a n y s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e p r e d i c a t i v e p r e - e m i n e n c e o f t h e F o r m s i s

a n y t h i n g i n n e e d o f e x p l a n a t i o n o r d e f e n s e . I n th e Phaedo p a s s a g e j u s t m e n t i o n e d ,

S o c r a t e s t a k e s it a s o b v i o u s t h a t i f t h e r e is a n y t h i n g e l se b e a u t i f u l besides the

beautiful itself, i t m u s t b e b y p a r t a k i n g o f t h a t F o r m ( 1 0 0 c 4 - 6 ). C e b e s s h o w s n o

s u r p r i s e a t t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e b e a u t i f u l i ts e l f i s b e a u t i f u l . L i k e w i s e , in Republic X

t h e F o r m o f b e d i s c l e a r ly ta k e n t o b e a b e d . C o n s i d e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e f o ll o w i n g :

T h e n w i ll t h e r e n o t b e t h r e e b e d s ? O n e is t h a t w h i c h is i n n a t u r e . . . ( 5 9 7 6 5 - 6 ).

N o a r g u m e n t f o r t h is p r o p o s i t i o n is f o u n d . S i m i l a r ly , t h e s h u t t le i t se l f is t a k e n t o b e

a s h u t t l e a t Cratylus 3 8 9 b . I n d e e d , e v e n t h e m o s t f a m o u s s e l f - p re d i c a t i v e c l ai m o f

a l l , t h a t a t Parmenides 1 3 2 a 6 - 8 , p a s se s w i t h o u t a h i n t o f t r o u b l e .

I t h i n k t h a t t h e r e l at i v e ly c o m m o n p l a c e m a n n e r i n w h i c h P l a t o i n t r o d u c e s l a n -

g u a g e c h a r a c t e r i s ti c o f t h e T h e o r y o f F o r m s , e s p e c ia l ly i n th e e a r l i er d i a lo g u e s ,

s h o u l d b e t a k e n a t f a c e v a l u e . T h i s l a n g u a g e s i m p l y w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n p r o b l e m a t -

i c f o r a n y o f P l a t o ' s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s o r f o r a n y o f t h o s e c h a r a c t er s p o r t r a y e d i n th e

d i a l o g u e s . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , s e ts u s a p r o b l e m i n e x e ge s is . T o m o s t m o d e r n s c h o l ar s ,

a t a n y r a t e , t h e T h e o r y o f F o r m s h a s s e e m e d a n y t h i n g b u t u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l , a n d

s o m e e l e m e n t s o f i t ( i n c l u d i n g s e l f - p r e d i c a t i o n ) h a v e o f t e n b e e n r e g a r d e d a s p a r a -

d o x i c a l o r a b s u r d . I f w e a r e to a c c e p t P l a t o ' s u n c o n c e r n e d i n t r o d u c t i o n s o f F o r m -

l a n g u a g e a s p r o p e r r e p r e s e n t a t io n s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y a t t i t u d es , t h e n w e m u s t f i n d


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PL AT O' S THE ORY OF FORMS 143

some way to interpret that Form-l anguag e that makes it at least plausibly uncontro-

versial to co mm on sense. Below, I shall try to provid e such an interpretat ion. Let us

note here a consequence of this approach. If Plato does accept some Form-la nguage

as obvious to common sense, then the purpose of Plato's Theory of Forms will be,

not to support such language as a novel way of speaking, but to explain it as a

d a t u m . Plat o's philosophical cont ributio n in developing a Theory of Forms thus lies

in his analysis of the necessary presuppositions he thinks this language makes.

Consequently, another object of my investigations is to sketch the increasing sophis-

tication with which Plato approached this

d a t u m

and the changing conclusions

concerning the nature of the Forms (whose existence is never in doubt until the

P a r m e n i d e s )

and of their relationship with sensible particulars.

II. A survey of the sorts of expression Plat o uses to name Forms will be useful in

clarifying both these difficulties. We may most easily classify these by keeping in

mind that there is associated with each Form a predicate term that is true of that

Form and of its participants: let us call this the

a s s o c i a t e d p r e d i c a t e

of the Form.

Three sorts of names are common:

(1) definite article + associated predicate in the singular, often with 'itse lf': 'th e

equal itself', 'the pious', 'the bed itself';

(2) abstra ct singular term corre spond ing to the associated predicate, often with

'itself': 'equality itself', 'piety itself';

(3) h o e s t i ('that which is') or a u t o h o e s t i ('t hat itself which is') associated

predicate: a u t o h o e s t i is o n , h o e s t i k l in ~ . 3

Certain other names- -perh aps one should say descriptions-- do occur, most notably

locutions involving 'Form of'

e i d o s

or

i d e a

with genitive): 'Form of bed'

i d e a

k l inOs) ,

'Form of size'

e i d o s m e g e t h o u s ) .

For the present, however, let us restrict

our attention to the three categories above. We may first observe that virtually every

Form has a name in class (1) or class (3)--indeed, Plato's usage suggests that either

of these procedures invariably can be used. In one place P h d . 75dl-3), he specifies

the Forms as those things to which we set the seal

a u t o h o e s t i

both in asking our

questions and in answering our answer s. Names of class (2), however, are limited

to those Forms for which there is an appropriate abstract singular term. As we shall

see, this is not an insignificant distinction. We should also note that the use of the

intensive pronoun

a u t o

with any of these sorts of Form-names is frequently a mark

of Form-language. 4

Form-n ame s of these three classes are not similarly distributed in all the dialogues.

Names of class (3) occur only in the

P h a e d o

and later wo rks, s and in many cases the

same Form is named interchangeably by names from each of these classes, some-

times within the same sentence. There is, however, as noted above, an important

restriction on names of class (2): they can be formed only when an appropriate

abstract singular term is available. In order to see the implications of this, we must

make a distinction between the associated predicates of Forms. Virtually all of the

Forms mentioned in the earlier dialogues, and most of those mentioned in the later

3 I do not discuss the interpretation of these problematic phrases in this paper.

4 Interestingly, in Aristotle and in later Peripatetic and Neoplatonic writers, we find a profusion of

compounds (about eighty are listed in L & S s.v.

auto-)

formed from

autos

and apparently designating

Forms, including autoagathon, autoanthr6pos, autokerkis, automegethos, even autos6krat~s. Since a

number of such terms .appear in the Topics, this sort of terminology is probably Academic.

I assume here that the

Cratylus

is later than the

Phaedo,

a dating that is at least possible.


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1 4 4 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

o n e s , h a v e a d j e c t i v a l a s s o c i a t e d p re d i c a te s : ' j u s t ' , ' p i o u s ' , ' l a r g e ' , ' e q u a l ' , ' g o o d ' .

S o m e F o r m s , h o w e v e r , h a v e a s s o c i a t e d p r e d i c a t e t e r m s t h a t a r e n o u n s : ' s h u t t l e ' ,

' b e d ' , ' m a n ' , ' o x ' , ' l i v in g c r e a t u r e ' . W i t h o n e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n , n o n a m e s f o r t h e se

F o r m s f r o m c l a s s ( 2) o c c u r , o b v i o u s l y b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e n o a s s o c i a t e d a b s t r a c t

s i n g u l a r t e r m s f o r t h e s e n o u n - p r e d i c a t e s i n G r e e k . T h a t i n i t se l f m i g h t s e e m a n a r b i -

t r a r y m a t t e r , s i n ce w e c a n d i s c o v e r t h e r e q u is i t e t e r m s i n E n g l i s h , o r a t l e a s t in v e n t

t h e m : ' h u m a n i t y ' , ' b e d n e s s ' , a n d s o o n . H o w e v e r , t h i s d is t i n c t i o n p a r a l l e l s a m o r e

f u n d a m e n t a l o n e . E a c h o f t h e se n o u n p r e d i c a te s is

c o u n t a b l e :

w h a t i t a p p l i e s t o , i t

a p p l i e s t o a c c o r d i n g t o d i sc r e t e u n i t s (i n Q u i n e ' s p h r a s e , e a c h d i v i d e s i ts r e f er -

e n c e ) . 6 A c c o r d i n g l y , l e t u s t a k e n o t e o f t h is d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o u n t a b l e a n d

u n c o u n t a b l e p r e d i c a t e s a n d n o t e t h a t F o r m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e f o r m e r o c c u r

i n c r e a s i n g l y in l a t e r d i a l o g u e s a n d a r e a l m o s t n e v e r 7 n a m e d b y a b s t r a c t s i n g u l a r

t e r m s . T h e u n c o u n t a b l e p r e d i c a t e s i n c l u d e m o s t l y a d j e c t iv e s a s c r i b i n g m o r a l , a es -

t h e t ic , o r re l a t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s ; b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e n o u n p r e d i c a t e s , n a m e l y , ' w a t e r ' ,

' e a r t h ' , ' a i r ' , a n d ' f i r e ' i n t h e

T i m a e u s

a n d ( p o s s i b l y ) ' f i r e ' a n d ' s n o w ' i n t h e

P h a e d o .

T h e s e a r e a l l

m a s s

t e r m s : n o u n s t h a t d o n o t d i v i d e t h e ir r e f e r e n c e . ~ T h e y

a r e u n c o u n t a b l e i n t h e s en s e t h a t t h e y r e je c t p l u r a l i z a t i o n a n d n u m e r a l q u a n t i f i c a -

t i o n ( o n e c a n n o t s a y ' s e v e n w a t e r s ' i n t h e s a m e s e n s e th a t o n e c a n s a y ' s e v e n m e n ' ) .

W e s h o u l d a l s o t a k e n o t e o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h P l a t o d e s c r i b e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f

F o r m s t o s e n s i b l e p a r t i c u l a r s . I n t h e e a r l y d i a l o g u e s , a s R o s s n o t e s , 9 t h e t e r m s f o r

t h is r e l a t i o n s h i p a ll s u g g e s t ' i m m a n e n c e ' r a t h e r t h a n ' t r a n s c e n d e n c e ' : p a r t i c u l a r s

' p a r t a k e ' o f

( m e t e c h e i n , m e t a l a m b a n e i n ) ,

' p o s s e s s '

( k e k t b s t h a i , e c h e i n ) ,

o r ' r e c e i v e '

( d e c h e s t h a t ) F o r m s ; F o r m s a r e sa i d t o ' b e in ' ( e n e i n a i , e i n a i e n , e n g i g n e s t h a O o r ' b e

p r e s e n t t o '

( p a r a g i g n e s t h a i , p a r e i n a t )

p a r t i c u l a r s . H o w e v e r , a s w e m o v e t o th e l a t e r

d i a l o g u e s , w e f i n d a n i n c r e a s i n g u s e o f w h a t R o s s c a l l s t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f ' t r a n -

s c e n d e n c e ' : F o r m s a r e ' p a r a d i g m s '

( p a r a d e i g m a t a ) ,

w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r s ' r e s e m b l e '

( e o i k e n a O ,

' i m i t a t e '

( m i m e i s t h a t ) ,

o r ' s t r i v e f o r '

( o r e g e s t h a t ) .

A s w e s h a l l s e e , t h e

l a n g u a g e o f i m m a n e n c e o c c u r s a l m o s t a l w a y s w i t h F o r m s w h o s e p r e d i c a t e s a r e

u n c o u n t a b l e , w h i l e F o r m s o f c o u n t a b l e p r e d i c a te s u s u a l l y a r e d e s c r i b e d w i t h th e

l a n g u a g e o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e .

T h e f a c t t h a t t h e F o r m s w i t h w h i c h P l a t o d e a l s in th e e a r l i e r w o r k s a r e m o s t l y

F o r m s o f u n c o u n t a b l e p r e d i c a t e s s u gg e s ts a p o s s i b l e a c c o u n t o f w h a t F o r m s m i g h t

b e t h a t e x p la i n s t o s o m e e x t e n t t h e c o m m o n p l a c e c h a r a c t e r o f F o r m - l a n g u a g e . A s a

v a r i e t y o f p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e n o t e d , ~~ t h e r e a r e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e t h i n g s t o

w h i c h m a s s t e r m s p u p o r t t o r e fe r ( le t u s ca l l t h e m

s t u f f s )

a n d t h e a b s t r a c t o b j e c t s

t h a t m i g h t b e se e n as th e d e s i g n a t a o f a b s t r a c t t e r m s . I n d e e d , w h a t e v e r o u r o n -

t o l o g i c a l s e n t im e n t s , w e o f t e n t a l k a s i f w e s u p p o s e d c e r t a i n a b s t r a c t t e r m s t o r e fe r

I use 'co unt abl e ' as equivalent to C hom sky 's 'coun t + ' . Fo r Qu ine's expression 'divid ed reference',

see W. V. Quine, Wo rd and Object (Cam bridge, M ass., 1960). pp. 90-100.

7 An exception seems to occur at

Parmenides

133d-e, where the sam e Form is named by

autos despotOs

ho est i despot ,s

and

aut~ despoteia,

and a lso by

autos doulos ho esti doulos

an d

aut~ douleia.

I discuss

this below.

8 1 use the expression 'ma ss term ' in Quin e's sense: I do not reg ard abstrac t singular terms as mass

terms. Jespersen introduced the expression 'mass word ' in a broader sense, so as to include abstract

singular terms among mass terms (Otto Jespersen, The Phi losophy o f Grammar [Lon don, 1924], pp.

198-201. Q uine 's use has becom e standard in the philosop hical l i terature.

9 Sir D avid Ross,

Pl a t o s Theory o f l de a s

(Oxfo rd, 1951), R etro sp ect (pp. 225-245).

~o Two diverse examples: M ax MO iler , Th e O riginal Intentio n of Collective and A bstra ct Ter ms ,

M i n d o.s. 1 (1876):345-351; Quine, Word and Object , pp. 120-121.


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P L A T O ' S T H E O R Y O F F O R M S 145

t o s t u f f s ( ev e n i f a b s t r a c t o n e s ) . W e t a l k a b o u t l o v e a n d h a t e s p r e a d i n g t h e m s e l v e s

t h r o u g h g r o u p s o f p e o p l e j u s t a s w e s p e a k o f w a t e r s p r e a d i n g o v e r th e g r o u n d .

T h e r e i s a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e s i m i l a r i t y in th e i r s y n t a c t i c a l b e h a v i o r . I n s u b j e c t p o s i -

t i o n , m a s s t e r m s a n d a b s t r a c t s i n g u l a r t e r m s b o t h r e s i st p lu r a l i z a t i o n a n d a r t ic l es . I n

p r e d i c a t e p o s i t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e y a r e d i s ti n ct i n f u n c t i o n . M a s s t e r m s f u n c t i o n a l s o

a s p re d i c a te s , w h e r e a s a b s t r a c t t e r m s r e q u ir e ' h a s ' o r a n e q u i v a l e n t t o f u n c t i o n

p r e d i c a t i v e l y : t h i s o b j e c t i s g o l d , b u t i t h a s b e a u t y ; t h i s t h i n g i s w a t e r , b u t i t h a s

c l a r i t y . I t is s i g n i f i c a n t h e r e t h a t c e r t a i n t e r m s s e e m t o h a v e a n u n c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n

b e t w e e n m a s s t e r m a n d a b s t r a c t t e r m ( a g o o d e x a m p l e is ' h e a t ' ) . O f c o u rs e , t o b e

a b l e to d i f f e r e n t i a te b e t w e e n m a s s t e r m s a n d a b s t r a c t s i n g u l a r t e r m s o n t h e b a si s o f

t h e i r p u r p o r t e d r e f e r e n t s r e q u i r e s t h e a b i l i t y t o m a k e o n t o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s o f

s o m e s o p h i s t ic a t i o n . O r d i n a r y u s a g e i s c o n t e n t t o t r e a t th e t w o c l as s es o f t e r m s

s i m i l a r ly i n m a n y c i r c u m s t a n c e s , l e a v in g i t t o p h i l o s o p h e r s t o d e c i d e w h e t h e r t h e

s t u f f - l a n g u a g e i s t o b e t a k e n s e r i o u s l y i n a n y g i v e n i n s t a n c e .

T h e r e l ev a n c e o f a ll t h is t o t h e T h e o r y o f F o r m s i s t h a t w e c a n c o n s t r u c t a n i n t e r-

p r e t a t i o n f o r t h a t T h e o r y , a t l e a st as i t a p p e a r s in t h e e a r l y d i a l o g u e s , t h a t p r e s e r v e s

t h e c o m m o n p l a c e c h a r a c t e r o f F o r m - l a n g u a g e b y u n d e r s t a n d i n g F o r m s t o b e

s o m e t h i n g l ik e s t u f fs . W e n e e d o n l y n o t e t h e f o l lo w i n g p o i n t s . F i r st , t h e l a n g u a g e o f

i m m a n e n c e i s a ll a p p r o p r i a t e t o d e s c r ib e t h e r e la t i o n s h i p o f a s t u f f to a n o b j e c t i n

w h i c h i t i s a n i n g r e d i e n t . G o l d , f o r i n s t a n c e , i s i n o r p r e s e n t t o g o l d e n o b j e c t s , a n d

g o l d e n o b j e c t s c o n t a i n , p o s s e s s , o r h a v e a s h a r e o f g o l d i n t h e m . S e c o n d , i t is a t le a s t

p l a u s i b l e t o s ee e a c h s o r t o f s t u f f a s h a v i n g a c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r t h a t i t i m p a r t s t o t h e

t h i n g c o n t a i n i n g i t. G o l d i m p a r t s i ts p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r - - i t s c o l o r , i ts l u s t re , i ts

i n c o r r u p t i b i l i t y - - t o t h o s e t h i n g s t h a t c o n t a i n i t . W e m i g h t n o t e h e r e t h a t t h i s r e l a -

t i o n a d m i t s o f d e g r ee s : t h e m o r e g o l d s o m e t h i n g h a s i n it , t h e m o r e i t e x h i bi t s th e

c h a r a c t e r o f g o l d . T h i r d , it is p e r f e c t l y n a t u r a l t o s a y t h a t g o l d i t s e lf h as t h a t c h a r a c -

t e r w h i c h i t i m p a r t s t o g o l d e n t h i n g s , a n d h a s it s u p r e m e l y . T h a t t h e r e i s s u c h a t h i n g

a s g o l d is e v e n m o r e c o m m o n p l a c e . I f , t h e n , w e c a n p l a u s i b ly c o n s t r u e P l a t o ' s l a n -

g u a g e a b o u t F o r m s a s r e s e m b l i n g l a n g u a g e a b o u t s t u f f s i n t h e s e r e s p e c t s , w e s h a l l

b o t h e x p l a i n i ts u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l c h a r a c t e r a n d h a v e s o m e b e t t e r i de a w h a t m o t i v a t e s

P l a t o t o s u p p o s e t h a t F o r m s e x i st . 11

T h e r e i s , in f a c t , a h is t o r ic a l a n t e c e d e n t t o P l a t o ' s T h e o r y t h a t p r o v i d e s u s w i th

' s t u f f s ' h a v i n g m a n y o f t h e s e c h a r a c te r i s ti c s . I n n u m e r o u s c o s m o l o g i c a l w r i te r s o f

t h e f i f th a n d f o u r t h c e n t u r ie s B . C . w e f i n d u s e b e in g m a d e o f p r i m a r y s u b s t a n c e s

w h o s e n a m e s a r e e x p r e s s io n s li k e ' t h e h o t ' , ' t h e c o l d ' , ' t h e d r y ' , a n d ' t h e w e t ' . S u c h

c o s m o l o g i c a l p r i m a r i e s a r e c l e a rl y m a s s o b j e c t s , a n d e a c h o f t h e m is i d e n ti f ie d a s th e

u n i q u e o b j e c t t h a t h a s a c e r t a i n p r o p e r t y o r p o w e r ( h o t n e s s , w e t n e s s , e t c . ) . A n y

o t h e r o b j e c t i s, f o r i n s t a n c e , h o t b e c a u s e , a n d o n l y b e c a u s e , i t h a s s o m e o f t h e h o t i n

i t - - t h a t is , b e c a u s e i t p a r t a k e s o f t h e h o t . O f c o u r s e , t h e h o t i t se l f is h o t ; i n d e ed , i t

m u s t b e , f o r h o w e ls e c o u l d i t m a k e a n y t h i n g e l s e h o t ? H o w e ls e c o u l d t h e p r e s e n c e

o f g o l d m a k e t h i n g s y e l l o w , i f g o l d w e r e n o t i t s e lf y e l l o w ? T h i s l a s t c l a i m i s a n

1~ Thomas G. Rosenm eyer, in Pla to and M ass W ords, T r a n s a c t i o n s a n d P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e

m e r i c a n P h i l o l o g i c a l s s o c i a t i o n 88 (1957): 88-102, also construes P lato 's Form -language in such a

way as to m ake the existence of Forms comm onplace; and his account resembles min e in that he sees

Form-names as m ass words in many cases. How ever, although I have profited from his arguments, his

perspective s quite different from mine. In particular, he uses the expression m ass wo rd' in such a way as

to include abstract singular terms.


7/14


i n s t a n c e o f w h a t H e n r y T e l o h '2 h a s c a l le d t h e c a u s a l p r i n c i p l e : a c a u s e m u s t

h a v e t h e q u a l i t y w h i c h i t p r o d u c e s i n s o m e t h i n g e l s e . T e l o h f i n d s t h e r o o t o f t h is

p r i n c i p l e i n A n a x a g o r a s ' s v i e w t h a t i n e v e r y t h i n g t h e r e is a p o r t i o n o f e v e r y t h i n g ,

a n d i n d e e d i t d o e s s e e m t o b e a n a t u r a l a s s u m p t i o n o f m a n y p r e - S o c r a t i c ( a n d la t e r)

c o s m o l o g i s t s . M o r e i m p o r t a n t , T e l o h a r g u e s t h a t i t i s i m p l i c i t i n m a n y p l a c e s i n

P l a t o ' s d i a l o g u e s . O n h is v ie w , p r e d i c a t i v e p r e - e m i n e n c e re s u l ts f r o m P l a t o ' s a c c e p -

t a n c e o f t h e c a u s a l p r in c i p l e a n d f r o m h i s v i ew t h a t F o r m s c a u s e t h i n g s to h a v e

p r o p e r t i e s . I f a F o r m c a u s e s a t h i n g t o h a v e a p r o p e r t y , t h e n ( b y t h e c au s a l p r i n c ip l e )

t h e F o r m m u s t h a v e t h a t p r o p e r t y .

T e l o h p r e s e n t s a g r e a t d e a l o f c i r c u m s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e th a t P l a t o d o e s i n f a c t ac -

c e p t t h e c a u s a l p r i n c i p l e . T h i s c l a r i f i e s t h e s o m e w h a t p e r p l e x i n g a r g u m e n t i n t h e

P ro t a go r a s

c o n c e r n i n g t h e u n i t y o f t h e v i r t u e s ( 3 2 9 c - 3 3 3 e , 3 4 9 b - 3 6 0 e ) . S o c r a t e s

a r g u e s t h a t w i s d o m , t e m p e r a n c e , c o u r a g e , j u s t i c e a n d p i e t y , t h e p a r t s o f v ir t u e , a r e

n o t p a r t s l i k e t h e p a r t s o f a f a c e . . , b u t , l ik e t h e p a r t s o f g o l d , t h e y d o n o t d i f f e r

a t al l f r o m e a c h o t h e r o r f r o m t h e w h o l e e x c e p t i n g r e a t n e s s a n d s m a l l n e s s ( 3 2 9 d 5 -

8 ). T o p r o v e t h i s , S o c r a t e s u n d e r t a k e s t o s h o w s u c h t h in g s a s t h a t j u s t i c e is p i o u s o r

t h a t p i e t y i s j u s t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , h e a r g u e s t h a t o n e v i r t u e

has

a n o t h e r . T e l o h p o i n ts

o u t t h a t t h e a r g u m e n t s e e m s t o r es t o n s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h e c a u s a l p r i n c ip l e . S o c r a t e s

a r g u e s t h a t a n y o n e w h o h a s a c e r t a i n v i r t u e w ill n e c es s a r il y h a v e a n o t h e r : t h a t i s, h e

a r g u e s t h a t h a v i n g o n e v i r t u e m a k e s o n e h a v e a n o t h e r . B u t t h e n , b y t h e c a u sa l p ri n -

c i p l e , t h e f i r s t v i r t u e m u s t

have

t h e s e c o n d , i n o r d e r t o c a u s e i t i n s o m e o n e . T h u s , i f

b e i n g j u s t m a k e s o n e p i o u s - - i n l a n g u a g e u s e d in t h e

P ro t a go r a s

i f p a r t a k i n g o f ju s -

t ic e m a k e s o n e p i o u s - - t h e n j u s t ic e m u s t i t se l f b e p io u s . O n a m a s s - o b j e c t i n t e r p r e ta -

t i o n o f F o r m s , t h is t h e si s o f t h e u n i t y o f t h e v i r t u e s a m o u n t s t o t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e

t e r m s ' w i s d o m ' , ' t e m p e r e n c e ' , ' c o u r a g e ' , ' j u st i c e ', a n d ' p i e ty ' a r e a ll n a m e s o f th e

s a m e t h i n g , n a m e l y v i r t u e ; t h a t t h is o n e o b j e c t i s i t se l f w i se , t e m p e r a t e , c o u r a g e o u s ,

j u s t , a n d p i o u s ( a n d o f c o u r s e v i r t u o u s ) ; a n d t h a t i t m a k e s w h a t e v e r i t is p r e s e n t t o

v i r t u o u s i n a l l t h e s e w a y s . I t i s c u r i o u s l y a p p r o p r i a t e o f S o c r a t e s t o c o m p a r e t h e

p a r t s o f v i r t u e t o t h e p a r ts o f a n u n d i s p u t a b l e m a s s o b j e c t , g o l d .

O b v i o u s l y , t h e r e a r e s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e s in t h e w a y o f i d e n t i f y in g F o r m s w i t h s t u f f,

e v e n w i t h t h e p e c u l ia r s o r ts o f s t u f f s t h a t w e h a v e b e e n t a lk i n g a b o u t . H o w e v e r , I

t h i n k t h a t t h i s is a s m u c h a s t r e n g t h a s a w e a k n e s s o f m y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . M y v ie w is

t h a t P l a t o w a s i n c l i n e d t o t a k e a b s t r a c t s i n g u l a r t e r m s a s r e f e r e n t i a l b e c a u s e t h e y

s e e m e d i n m a n y w a y s t o b e h a v e l ik e r e f e r ri n g e x p r e s s io n s in o r d i n a r y l a n g u a g e . H e

d i d n o t a r g u e t h a t t h e r e w e r e q u a l i t y - s t u f f s : r a t h e r , h e t e n d e d t o a c c e p t s o m e s u c h

v i ew w i t h o u t a r g u m e n t . W h a t h e d id e v e n t u a l l y c o m e t o a rg u e f o r w a s t h e di st in c -

t i o n b e t w e e n F o r m s a n d s e n si b le o b j e c t s o f a n y s o r t , i n c l u d i n g q u a l i ty - s t u f f s . I n

o t h e r w o r d s , a s P l a t o c a m e t o a p p r e c i a t e c l e a rl y w h a t a q u a l i t y - s t u f f m i g h t b e , h e

a l s o c a m e t o a d o p t t h e v i ew t h a t F o r m s w e r e n o t l ik e t h a t . W e s ee t h is i n e v id e n c e i n

P l a t o ' s i n c r e a s i n g i n s i s t e n c e o n t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f F o r m s f r o m s e n s i b l e p a r t i c u l a r s .

S t a t e m e n t s s u g g e s t in g s e p a r a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e p a r t o f c o m m o n s en s e. W e d i st in g u i sh

g o l d i t s e l f f r o m g o l d e n o b j e c t s , a n d w e c a n e v e n a g r e e th a t g o l d i t s e lf i s n o t s u b j e c t

t o t h e s a m e s o r t s o f c h a n g e s a s o r d i n a r y p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s : i n a c e r t a i n s e n s e , g o l d i s

i m m u t a b l e ( i t a l w a y s h a s t h e s a m e c h a r a c t e r ) . A g a i n , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e e g o l d i t s e l f

a s a so r t o f p a r a d i g m t h a t a l l g o l d e n o b j e c t s a i m a t a n d f a ll s h o r t o f : n o n e o f t h e m

h a s j u s t t h e c h a r a c t e r o f g o l d i ts e l f ( o f p u r e g o l d , w e m i g h t s a y ) , a l t h o u g h t h e m o r e

,2 Self-Predication or Anaxago rean Causation in Pla to,

Apeiron

9 (1975): 15-23.


8/14

PL ATO 'S THE ORY OF FORMS 147

golden among them come closer. However, the parallel cannot be maintained for

long in the face of serious philosophical analysis. For one thing, the question is

bound to come up eventually whether a quality-stuff has its character in the same

way that its participants have that character. If so, can we distinguish the character

from the stuff? Will we then need to appeal to this character, separate both from the

quality -stuf f and the things that par take of it, to explain why things have that char -

acter? If so, then we are dealing no longer with a simple mass object but with an ab-

stract object, and we must ask serious questions about what such an object can be

like. ,3 Ano the r s ort of diffic ulty, perhaps intensified by these last prob lems, is the

failure of any simple concept of participation based on a quality-stuff model to

stand up unde r analysis. I think tha t Plat o consc iously investigates difficulties of

both these sorts in dialogues after the

P h a e d o

and I will try to sketch the thread of

this development below. However, first I want to consider another inadequacy of

the quality-stuff interpretation: it does not even account for all of Plato's Form-

language at the common-sense level.

III . As we noted above, Forms whose associated predicates are count -noun s do

not have abstract singular terms as names. If we try to analyze such Forms as

quality-stuffs, therefore, we encounter one difficulty at once: there is no convenient

name for the mass-object. This in itself might not seem to be of any consequence,

since we can easily suppose that the other name of the For m, the name consisting of

singular predicate term with definite article, could name a quality-stuff having as its

characteristic power just the prop erty ascribed by that predicate. However, when we

try this out with particular count-noun predicates, it is hard to countenance the ap-

propriate sorts of quality-stuffs even with the most sympathetic of hearts. We must,

for instance, imagine that the bed itself--a Form whose Platonic credentials are

beyond suspicion--is some sort of reified quality (bedness? bedsteadity?) which

various particulars partake of, that it imparts its proper character to those partici-

pants, more so as they partake of it more; and that it somehow has this character

pre-eminently. Since the character in question is the property of being a bed, we are

to imagine an object that is at once a bed--and a very fine one--and also stuff-like.

This seems to be nonsense. In fact, whatever one takes Forms to be, pre-eminence

seems to be nonsense when count-noun predicates are in question. What could it

possibly mean t o say that a u t o h o e s t i z 6 i o n is an animal or that a u t o h o e s t i k l i n ~ is a

bed? But if this fails, so does any of the explanato ry power that idioms concerning

participation have. The explanatory force of the Theory of Forms, according to the

interpretation of the previous section, is dependent on the Causal Principle, which

requires that Fo rms be pre-eminent in a fairly literal sense. Conseq uently, in the case

of count-noun Forms, we seem to have either an absurd Theory (if we accept pre-

eminence) or a useless one (if we reject it). Plato, as we have seen, presents us with

,3 Even the status of simple mass objects has provoked considerable discussion among recent philos-

ophers, and a central question has been whether mass terms are to be treated as referential. Among he

extensive literature on the subject, we might note: Helen M. Carlwright, Heraclitus and the Bath

Water, Philosophical Review 74 (1965):466-485; Terence Parsons, An Analysis of Mass Terms and

Amount Terms, Foundat ions o f Language 6 (1970):363-388; Henry Laycock, Some Questions of

Ontology,

Philosophical Review

81 (1972):3-42; Julius Moravcsik, Mass Terms in English, in Hin-

tikka, Moravcsik, and Suppes, eds., Approach es to N atura l Language (Dordrecht, 1973), pp. 263-285;

F. J. Pelletier, On Some Proposals for the Semantics of Mass Nouns, Journa l o f Ph ilosophica l Log ic 3

(1974) : 87-108.


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148 HISTORY OF PH IL OS OPH Y

what look like unquestionable assumptions of pre-eminence for these count-noun

Forms also. Must we then suppose that he has tried to preserve the usefulness of his

The ory while ignoring a paten t absurdity'?. Moreover, he presents this with no indica-

tion that pre-eminence is a problem, either to understand or to accept. Is this to be

taken at face value, or is Plato so enamored of his Theory that he does not see fit to

defend it?

In order to make sense of this situation, let us first note that we ordinarily accept

language very much like that with which Plato expresses pre-eminence, even in the

case of count-noun predicates, without ontological qualms. We are perfectly willing

to say that the cat has four feet, that it is a mammal, that it eats meat. We are even

willing to distinguish the cat itself from individual cats, saying, for example, that the

cat itself is carnivorous though some cats might refuse meat. Expressions like 'the

cat', 'the bed', 'the animal', 'man' can all function as what linguists call

generic

expressions; '4 roughly , as universally quanti fied terms in which explicit words indi-

cating quantification (' all ', 'every' ) do not occur. There are, in fact, quite a number

of expressions in English that have generic uses. We have just noted one class:

count-nouns in the singular with the definite article. We also use adjectives in the

singular with the article (only of inanima te objects: Th e beautiful is preci ous ),

plural adjectives similarly (only with terms applying to persons: Th e go od die

young ), abstract singular terms with no article ( Justice is impartial ), and plural

nouns with no article ( Cats are carnivorous ). Perhaps we should also classify

mass nouns in subject position (without the article) as generic ( Gold does not

dissolve in most aci ds ). 1~

I will be concerned in what follows only with generic expressions that are gram-

matically singular, since only such expressions functi on as names of Forms. '+ More-

over, since our concern is Plato's language more than our own, let us take note of

some differences between the various singular expresions used generically (I will call

them generic singulars in the two languages. The first difference is that in Greek,

adjectives applying t o perso ns ca n be used as generic singulars: whereas we must say,

for example, Th e just are piou s, Greek syntax permits

ho dikaios esti hosios.

Next, while English distinguishes between those generic singulars that require an

article and those that do not, in Greek all adjectives and nouns that can be used ge-

nerically can be used with the definite article. Thus, the Greek equivalents to 'Fire is

hot', 'Justice is pious', 'Man is mortal' are (at least superficially) grammatically

similar:

to pu r esti thermon , h~ dikaiosun~ esti hosia, ho an thr6 pos esti thnEtos.

We

might also note that the use of the indefinite article with predicate nominatives,

required in English, is unnecessa ry in Greek: we must say Ma n is an animal, but

Greek prefers

ho anthrfpos esti z6ion.

It is possible, of course, to regard generic singular expressions as simple alterna-

tive forms of universal quantification; that is, they can be seen as equivalent to

locutions containing explicit quantificationai words such as 'every' and 'all '. Under

'+ See Jespersen,

Philosophy of Grammar,

pp. 203-205, for a brief discussion of generic expressions.

So far as I know, the term is Jespersen's coinage.

,s In English, the two count-nouns man' and 'woman' are peculiar in that they are used generically in

the singular without an article ( Man is mortal ). Might this oddity have influenced some of what has

been written about the third man argument?

'+ I ignore the problematicauta ta isaat Phaedo74cl; if this is indeed a name of auto to ison, its precise

explanation is a difficulty for any other interpretation no less than for mine.


10/14

PL AT O' S THE ORY OF FORMS 149

some circumstances that is no doubt the correct interpretation. However, in many

cases we distinguish between the generic expression and its explicitly quantified al-

ternative. 17 Suppose that it should happ en that every cat alive at some mo me nt

should have exactly three feet. Under such circumstances it would be true that every

cat has three feet. However, we might still resist the claim that, under those circum-

stances, the cat would have three feet. To make the distinction clearer, we might say

that, although it would be true in such a case that every cat has three feet, neverthe-

less, the cat i t s e l f would not have three feet. Whatever series of accidents caused

each of the various cats to be missing one of its normal number of legs would not

cause the cat itself to become a three-legged animal.

This sort of language resembles what Plato says about Forms, including count-

noun Forms, in several ways. First, it is quite natural to talk about the cat itself (or

similarly about the bed itself, or man himself, or the animal itself) and apply to it the

same sorts of predicates that one applies to individual cats (or beds or men or ani-

mals). Second, it is possible to se pa ra te the cat itself from individual cats: things

can be true of it that are not true of some, or of any, individual cats. Third, as in the

case of mass terms and abstract singular terms, these expressions have the appear-

ance of referring expressions. This appearance of referentiality is enhanced in Greek

by the absence of those superficial differences of syntax distinguishing various

species of generic singulars from one another: the mass-term case, at least plausibly

referential, is similar to the count-noun case.18

That this appearance is not entirely absent even in cases when we know that it is

not to be taken seriously forms the basis of nume rous jokes. It also perhaps provides

the motive by means of which we pass from talking about, for instance, the cat itself

to providing a detailed description of it. Such a description, in detail, might resem-

ble a description of a specific animal: Th e cat has four feet, is covered with fur, has

a long tail, eyes with vertical pupils especially adap ted to night visi on, and so on.

Obviously, this sort of language enhances the apparent referentiality of 'the cat'

here. I f we wish to avoid this appear ance of referentiality, we might have recours e to

explicit quantificational idioms. However, we might also explain, I d on 't mean any

particular cat--I'm talking about the typical cat, or the perfect cat, or the standard

ca t. These latter idioms, quite as natural as the rest o f this language, suggest refer-

entiality even more strongly, and they suggest in addition a paradigmatic function,

to which we should turn next.

In talking about the cat, or the bed, or anything else involving this sort of generic

singular expression, we frequently run into difficulties that do not arise, or at least

that do not so obviously arise, in the case of quality-stuffs. Every cat has a color--

except, of course, for the cat itself; we would all agree that the cat itself is neither

black, nor white, nor tabby, nor any other particular shade or coloration. If we in-

cline to treat the generic expression here as in some way referential and as referring

to some paradigm cat, then we must somehow make sense of this oddity, which

arises with any count-noun Form: such Forms are somehow not determinate in the

ways that particulars are. The problems to which this gives rise are familiar, and

,7 For technical discussions of some of these problems, see John Bacon, Do Generic Descriptions

Denote?

M i n d

n.s. 82 (1973) : 331-347; and The Semantics of Generic

Th e, Journal o f Philosophical

Logic

2 (1973):323-339.

Ls Rosenmeyer argues for a point something like this, although along different lines. See Plato and

Mass Words, pp. 93-94.


11/14


t h e y a r e p r o b a b l y t h e p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n m o s t o f u s r ej e c t th e i d e a t h a t t h e r e a r e s uc h

o b j e c t s . H o w e v e r , t h e i n i ti a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e o b j e c ts d o e s n o t a r i s e in th e

c o n t e x t o f a n a r c a n e t h e o r y b u t , a s I h a v e t r i e d t o i l l u s t r a t e , w i t h i n o r d i n a r y d i s -

c o u r s e . S i m i l a r ly , P l a t o ' s t r e a t m e n t o f F o r m s a s p a r a d i g m s c a n b e se e n a s o nl y a n

e x t e n s i o n o f o r d i n a r y d i s c o u r s e . I f a s k e d t o e x p l a i n w h y t h e c a t i ts e l f i s o f n o p a r t i c -

u l a r c o l o r , w e m i g h t a n s w e r t h a t w e h a v e i n m i n d a p e r f e c t c a t, a m o d e l c a t w h i c h al l

o t h e r c a t s a r e c o p i e s o r i m i t a t i o n s o f , i n s o m e s e n s e . P a r a d i g m a t i c l a n g u a g e

b e c o m e s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e w h e n i t is p o s s ib l e to i m a g i n e a n i n d i v id u a l m e m -

b e r o f a sp e c i es a c t u a l l y s e r v i n g as a p a r a d i g m o r p e r f e c t e x e m p l a r , a n d i n m a n y s it u -

a t i o n s w e h a v e n o d i f f ic u l t y d o i n g j u s t t h a t ( c o n s id e r t h e s t a n d a r d s o f d o g - a n d

c a t - s h o w j u d g e s , w h i c h a m o u n t t o d e s c r ip t i o n s t h a t , t h o u g h t h e y m i g h t b e s a ti s fi e d

b y n o p a r t i c u l a r a n i m a l , n e v e r th e l e ss c o u l d b e c o n s t r u e d a s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a p e r f e c t

i n s t a n c e o f t he s p ec i es ). I t h i n k s o m e o f P l a t o ' s l a n g u a g e a b o u t F o r m s t r e a t e d a s

p a r a d i g m s i n v o l v e s j u s t s u c h a v ie w . I n f a c t , t h e t h r e e m o s t e x t e n d e d i n s t a n c e s o f

s u ch l a n g u a g e - - i n t h e C r a t y l u s , R e p u b l i c X , a n d t h e T i m a e u s - - q u i t e c l e a r l y t r e a t

t h e F o r m a s a p e r f e c t in s t a n c e to b e i m i t a t e d b y p a r ti c u l a r s . W h a t m a k e s P l a t o ' s

T h e o r y o f F o r m s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e ll e c t u a l c r e a t i o n i s n o t h i s a c c e p t a n c e o f t h is

l a n g u a g e b u t t h e f a c t t h a t h e t a k e s q u i t e s e r io u s l y it s a p p a r e n t r e f e r e n t i a l it y . T h e

T h e o r y o f F o r m s is t h e n l a r g e ly P l a t o ' s a t t e m p t t o i n t e r p r e t t h a t r e f e r en t i a li t y b y e x-

p l a in i n g w h a t s o r t s o f t h i ng s F o r m s c a n b e .

I V . I h a v e a r g u e d th a t t h e a p p a r e n t l y r e f e r e n ti a l c h a r a c t e r o f c e r t a in e x p r e ss i o n s

w a s i m p o r t a n t i n m o t i v a t i n g P l a t o t o d e v e l o p h is T h e o r y o f F o r m s . H e t a k e s g en e ri c

s i n g u l a r s a s c l e ar l y d e n o t i n g a n d t h e n c o n c e r n s h i m s e l f w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e i r

d e n o t a t a . A n e a r li e r f o r m o f t hi s a n a ly s i s r e s e m b l e s in s o m e r e s p e ct s th e p r e-

S o c r a t ic c o s m o l o g y o f q u a l i t y - s t u f f s , w h e r e a s l a t e r P l a t o i n c re a s in g l y r e co g n i ze s t h e

i n a d e q u a c y o f s u ch a m o d e l a n d r e p la c e s it b y c o n s t r u i n g F o r m s a s p a r a d i g m s . I n

e i t h e r c a s e , p r e d i c a t i v e p r e - e m i n e n c e i s a n e s s e n t i al e l e m e n t i n t h e T h e o r y : i m m a -

n e n t F o r m s m u s t b e p r e - e m i n e n t i f t h e y a r e t o c a u s e th e i r c h a r a c t e r s in p a r ti c u l a rs

( b y t h e C a u s a l P r i n c i p l e ), a n d p a r a d i g m a t i c F o r m s m u s t b e p r e - e m i n e n t in o r d er to

b e p a r a d i g m s . I h a v e n o t a r g u e d t h a t p r e d i c a t i v e p r e - e m i n e n c e i t se l f, a n d in p a r -

t i c u l a r s e l f - p r e d i c a t i o n , m e e t s w i t h P l a t o ' s a c c e p t a n c e o n l y b e c a u s e h e fa il s t o

r e al iz e t h a t g e n e ri c e x p re s s i o n s n e e d n o t b e c o n s t r u e d a s p r o p e r n a m e s . S o m e t h i n g

r a t h e r l i k e t h is v i e w , h o w e v e r , h a s b e e n a d v a n c e d i n s ev e r a l r e c e n t p a p e r s b y

G r e g o r y V l a s t o s , ' 9 a n d i n f a c t it w a s l a r g e l y re f l e c t i o n o n V l a s t o s ' s p o s i t i o n t h a t l e d

m e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h is p a p e r . C o n s e q u e n t l y , I s h o u l d m a k e c l e a r th e d i st in c -

t i o n b e t w e e n h is v ie w a n d m y o w n .

V l a s t o s c l a i m s t h a t P l a t o ' s s e l f -p r e d i c a ti v e la n g u a g e f r e q u e n t l y c o n s i st s o f w h a t

h e c a ll s P a u l i n e p r e d i c a t i o n s . H e e x p l a in s t h is t e r m as f o ll o w s :

A P la ton ic sen tence p red ica t ing the ad jec t ive , A, o f an abs t rac t p roper ty , B , m a y b e r e a d a s

ass ign ing A e i the r ( I ) to B in con t rad is t inc t ion to B 's in s tances , o r e l se ( I I) to B 's in s tances ; i f

a n y , i n c o n t r a d is t i n c ti o n t o B , a n d t o t h e m n e c e s s a r i ly ?~

,9 Principally in T he U nity of the V irtues in the Protagoras, Re view o f Metaphysics 25 (1972):

412-458; reprinted, together with another previously unpublished work dealing wi th Pauline predica-

tions ( A n Ambiguity in the Sophis t ) and several related appendices, in Vlastos's Platonic Studies

(Princeton, 1973), pp. 221 -308. His most recent remarks on the subject are A Note on 'Pauline Predica-

tions' in Plato, Phronesis 19 (1974) : 95-101.

20 Platonic Studies, p. 273.


12/14


R e a d i n g ( I ) h e r e is w h a t V l a s to s c a ll s o r d i n a r y p r e d i c a t i o n , w h e r e a s r e a d i n g ( I I) is

P a u l i n e p r e d i c a t i o n . I t w i ll b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t P a u l i n e p r e d i c a t i o n is s o m e t h i n g

l ik e th e g e n e ri c u s e o f a b s t r a c t s i n g u l a r t e r m s a n d o t h e r n a m e s f o r F o r m s , a n d t h a t i s

p a r t o f V l a s t o s ' s in t e n t. H e t h i n k s t h a t w e c a n e xp l a i n P l a t o ' s s e l f - p r e d i c a t io n s , i n

m a n y t r o u b l e s o m e i n st a n c e s , a s P a u l i n e p r e d i c a t i o n s . N o w , I h a v e a l re a d y a r g u e d

t h a t i n m a n y c a s e s g e n e r i c e x p r e s s i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y g e n e r i c s i n g u l a r s , d o n o t s e e m

e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e i r e x p l ic i t ly q u a n t i f i e d a l t e r n a t i v e s ; a n d V l a s t o s s i m i l a r l y d o e s n o t

u n d e r s t a n d a P a u l i n e p r e d i c a t i o n a s n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a q u a n t i f i c a t i o n a l a l t e r n a -

t iv e . I n s t e a d , a P a u l i n e p r e d i c a t i o n ( w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y h e m e a n s t o l i m i t t o s t a te -

m e n t s in P l a t o ' s d i a l o g u e s a b o u t F o r m s ) m u s t c o n t a i n a r e f e r e n c e t o a F o r m a n d

m u s t i n c lu d e t h e m o d a l o p e r a t o r ' n e c e s s a r i l y ' . T h u s , ' J u s t i c e is p i o u s ' , r e a d a s a

P a u l i n e p r e d i c a t i o n , w o u l d b e : ' J u s t i c e is s u c h t h a t a n y o n e w h o h a s t h is p r o p e r t y i s

n e c e s s a r i l y p i o u s ' , z~ S i n c e t h is r e s e m b l e s m y o w n p o s i t i o n , a n d s i n c e m y p o s i t i o n

w a s i n f a c t d e v e l o p e d i n r e s p o n s e t o V l a s t o s ' s , l e t m e e x p l a i n t h e p o i n t s i n w h i c h

t h e y d i f f e r . F i r s t, V l a s t o s th i n k s t h a t t h i s d e v i c e s a v e s P l a t o f r o m w h a t h e r e g a r d s a s

t h e a b s u r d i t y o f s e l f - p r e d i c a t i o n . I h a v e t ri e d to a r g u e t h a t s e l f - p r e d i c a t i o n , a t l e a s t

a s a p a r t o f p r e d i c a t i v e p r e - e m i n e n c e , i s e s s e n ti a l to P l a t o ' s t h e o r y a n d h e n c e s o m e -

t h in g P l a t o c a n n o t d i s p e n s e w i t h , h o w e v e r a b s u r d i t m a y a p p e a r t o be . B e y o n d t h i s,

a c t u a l s e l f - p re d i c a t i o n s in P l a t o t h a t c o u l d b e t r a n s l a t e d a s P a u l i n e p r e d i c a t i o n s a r e

r a r e . 22 P l a t o d o e s n o t s a y T h e b e d i t s e lf i s, o f c o u r s e , a b e d ; i n s t e a d , h e s i m p l y i n -

c l u de s it , w i t h o u t c o m m e n t , a m o n g a g r o u p o f o t h e r b e d s . T h u s , t h e t e x t u a l e v i-

d e n c e t h a t P l a t o a c c e p t e d s e l f - p r e d i c a t io n s b e c a u s e h e h a d a P a u l i n e r e a d i n g o f

t h e m i n m i n d w h e n h e u t t e r e d t h e m i s m i s s i n g , s i n c e w e d o n o t f i n d t h e r e q u i s i t e s e lf -

p r e d i c a t io n s . B e y o n d t h a t , i t is b y n o m e a n s c l e a r t o m e t h a t T h e b e d i t s e lf i s a

b e d h a s a n y t h i n g li k e t h e s a m e c o m m o n p l a c e c h a r a c t e r a s T h e b e d i ts e l f i s a p i e ce

o f f u r n i t u r e . S u c h e x p re s s i o n s, i f i n d e e d t o b e t r e a t e d a s P a u l i n e p r e d i c a t i o n s ,

s e e m t o f o r m p a r t o f t h e j a r g o n o f a s pe c i a li z e d t h e o r y r a t h e r t h a n o r d i n a r y l a n -

g u a g e . I n t h a t c a se , h o w e v e r , P l a t o c o u l d c o m e t o a c c e p t t h e m o n l y a f te r d e v e l o p i n g

t h e T h e o r y ; a s a r es u lt , t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f a il s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e o r d i n a r i n e s s o f

F o r m - l a n g u a g e i n t h e d i a l o g u e s .

T h e r e i s a m o r e s e r io u s o b j e c t i o n t o V l a s t o s ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . H e i n s is ts t h a t P a u l -

i ne p r e d i c a ti o n s m u s t b e r e a d a s c o n t a i n i n g a n i m p l i c it r e fe r e n c e t o a F o r m : w e a r e

n o t t o o m i t t he p h r a s e J u s t i c e is s u ch t h a t . . . i n t h e e x a m p l e a b o v e . T h e r e a s o n

f o r th i s in s i s t e n c e i s o b v i o u s : o t h e r w i s e , t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s a r e o n l y i ll u s o r y F o r m -

l a n g u a g e , s in c e t h e s t ri c t q u a n t i f i c a t i o n a l r e a d i n g e l i m i n a t e s e v e n th e a p p a r e n t

r e f e re n c e t o a F o r m . Y e t i f V l a s t o s r e ta i n s t h e r e f e r e n c e t o th e F o r m , i t i s w i t h o u t

a n y r e a l t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t . A t le a s t, o n m y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e F o r m s h a v e a g e n u i n e

r e a s o n f o r p r e d i c a t i v e p r e -e m i n e n c e . T h a t i s w h a t a l l o w s t h e m t o d o t h e i r j o b .

V l a s t o s , b y c o n t r a s t , e l i m i n a te s a n y r e a l p r e d i c a t i v e p r e - e m i n e n c e , a n d h is r e m a r k s

s u g g e st th a t t h e F o r m s d o n o t d o m u c h w o r k i n a n y e v e n t.

For a l l i t s t r anscenden ta l i sm , P la to ' s m e taphys ics can on ly f ix the in te r re la t ions o f a m ul t i tude

of ce le st ia l F orm s by cha r t ing those o f the ir ea r th ly shadows . I f the re is i rony in th i s fac t - - th e

z, N ote on 'Pauline Pred ications ', p. 98.

z2 The only exc eptions I can fin d are in larotagoras330c-d, where justice is called just and piety pious.

How ever, Pauline readings are not encouraged by such questions as tha t thing pragma]which you just

men tioned, justice, is that thin g itself auto touto] just or unjust? (330c4-5).


13/14

1 5 2 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

i n t e r r e l a ti o n s o f t h e se F o r m s b e g i n t o l o o k l i k e s h a d o w s o f t h e i r s h a d o w s - - t h e i r o n y is

g e n e r a t e d b y P l a t o ' s m e t a p h y s i c s , n o t b y t h e P a u l i n e r e a d i n g o f a c l a s s o f P l a t o ' s s e n te n c e s . ~3

I h a v e a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e c l a s s o f s e n te n c e s r e f e r r e d t o h e r e i s n o t r e a l l y i n

e v i d e n c e i n P l a t o . A s f o r t h e i r o n y , I s u s p e c t t h a t it i s a s m u c h a c o n s e q u e n c e o f

V l a s t o s ' s s t y l e o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s a n y t h i n g e ls e . H e e a r l ie r 24 p r o p o s e d a n i n t e r p r e t a -

t i o n o f t h e c a u s a l r o l e F o r m s a r e c a l l e d o n t o p l a y i n th e P h a e d o t h a t h a s a s i m i l a r

e f fe c t . T h e r e , h e u n d e r s t a n d s P l a t o ' s a p p e a l t o p a r t i c i p a t i o n in F o r m s t o a m o u n t t o

a n a p p e a l t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f s o m e d e f i n i t i o n : a c la i m o f t h e t y p e ' F t h i n g s a r e F i n

v i r t u e o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n th e F i t s e lf ' s h o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s ' F t h i n g s a r e F i n

v i r t u e o f s a t i s f y in g t h e lo g i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y a n d s u f f i c ie n t c o n d i t i o n s o f b e i n g F ' . A s

f a r a s I c a n s e e , th i s e l im i n a t e s t h e q u e s t i o n w h a t s o r t o f th i n g a F o r m m i g h t b e b y

m a k i n g i t u n i m p o r t a n t . V l a s t o s ex p l a i n s :

W h e n I w a n t t o k n o w w h a t m a k e s t h i s fi g u re a s q u a r e r a t h e r t h a n a p e n t a g o n , w h a t a n s w e rs

m y q u e s t i o n i s n o t t h e e x i s t e n c e a s s u ch o f th e F o r m , S q u a r e . . . b u t th e l og i ca l c o n t e n t o f i ts

d e f i n i t i o n . . . A n d t h e f a c t t h a t t h is lo g i c a l f u n c t i o n is p e r f o r m e d b y a c e l e st i al F o r m , r a t h e r

t h a n b y a n o m i n a l i s t i c

f l a t u s v o c i s ,

i n n o w a y a l t e r s t h e s t r i c t ly n o n - c a u s a l i m p o r t o f t h e

f o r m u l a F i n v i r t u e o f s a t i s fy i n g t h e d e f i n i t io n . ' 2 s

I n o t h e r w o r d s , a l l t h a t m a t t e r s a b o u t a F o r m i s i ts d e f i n i t i o n . B u t h e r e , t o o , a n

i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e T h e o r y o f F o r m s t u r n s o u t n o t t o n e e d th e F o r m s a t a l l . T h e

n e t r es u l t o f t h e se t w o p r o p o s a l s o f V l a s t o s is t h a t t h e F o r m s b e c o m e m e r e

e p i p h e n o m e n a . I f I m a y b o r r o w a li n e u s e d b y R . E . A l l e n in a r e l a t e d c o n t e x t , t h is

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n l e a v e s t h e F o r m a s a g h o s t l y w r a i t h h o v e r i n g a b o u t t h e v e r g es o f

e x i s te n c e , p o w e r l e s s e v e n t o g i b b e r . ' '2 6 I f p o s s i b l e , w e o u g h t t o a c c o r d t h e F o r m s

m o r e t h a n a n h o n o r a r y p l a c e . 27

V . I w o u l d l i k e t o c o n c l u d e t h is p a p e r w i t h a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f t h e T h e o r y o f F o r m s t h r o u g h o u t P l a t o ' s c a r e e r i n o r d e r t o s h o w ( a s I w o u l d h o p e )

t h a t t h is d e v e l o p m e n t c o n f i r m s m y a n a ly s i s ; h o w e v e r , s u c h a n u n d e r t a k i n g w o u l d b e

f a r t o o l o n g f o r t h i s c o n t e x t . I n s t e a d , I w i l l n o t e t h r e e p a s s a g e s t h a t I t h i n k l e n d

s u p p o r t t o m y v i ew . F i r s t , a t P h a e d o 1 0 3b , S o c r a t e s r e s p o n d s t o a n o b j e c t i o n c o n -

c e r n in g h i s c l a im th a t n o t h i n g - - t h a t i s, n o F o r m m c a n b e c o m e i t s o p p o s i t e : H o w

d o e s S o c r a t e s s q u a r e t h is w i t h t h e g e n e r a t i o n f r o m o p p o s i t e s p o s i t e d e a r l i e r ( 70 e )?

S o c r a t e s r e p l i e s :

Y o u h a v e n o t u n d e r s t o o d t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n w h a t w a s j u s t s a i d a n d w a s s a i d t h e n . T h e n ,

w e s a i d t h a t t h e o p p o s i t e t h i n g [ p r a g m a ] c a m e t o b e f r o m i ts o p p o s i t e ; b u t n o w , t h a t t h e

a3 N ote on 'Pau l ine Pre d ica t ion s ' , p . 101 .

24,, Reasons a nd C auses in the P h a ed o , P h i l o so p h i ca l R ev i ew 78 (1969) : 291-325; repri nted in Pla ton-

ic Studies, pp. 76-110.

~s Plat onic Studies, p. 92.

26 Pa r t ic ipa t io n and Pred ica t ion in Pla to ' s Middle Dia log ues , in Al len , Stud ies in P la to ' s Metaphys-

ics, p. 54.

~7 Since writ ing this pap er , I have beco me aw are of tw o oth er ar t icles concerning Vla stos's uses of

Pau l ine p red ica t ion : Jer ry S. Clegg , Se l f -Pre d ica t ion and Linguis tic Reference in Pla to ' s Theory o f the

F o r m s , Phrones is 18 (1973):26-73; and J . W . For res ter , Som e Per i ls o f Pau l in i ty , Phrones is

20 (1975): 11-21.


14/14


oppo s i te i t se l f wi ll neve r becom e oppos i te to i t se l f , ne i the r tha t wh ich i s in us no r th a t w h ich i s

in na tu re . (103b l -5 ) .

I t s e e m s t o m e t h a t P l a t o i s e x p r e s s l y r e c o g n i z i n g t h e d i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e n a g e n e r i c

u s e t r e a t e d a s a u n i v e r s a l q u a n t i f i c a t i o n a n d a s y n t a c t i c a l l y s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t a b o u t a

F o r m . T h e l ar g e b e c o m e s s m a l l , f o r i n s ta n c e , c a n b e r e a d e i th e r a s L a r g e t h i n g s

b e c o m e s m a l l , w h i c h S o c ra t e s a c c e p t s , o r a s T h e l a r g e i t se l f ( i .e . , t h e F o r m )

b e c o m e s s m a l l , w h i c h h e r e je c ts . W e s h o u l d e x p e c t su c h a r e c o g n i t i o n a s P l a t o

b e c o m e s m o r e f a m i l i a r w i th t h e n o t i o n o f a s e p a r a t e F o r m .

T h e n e x t p a s s a g e i s i n t h e P a r m e n i d e s . T h e m u l t i t u d e o f p u z z le s in th i s w o r k

c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f F o r m s a n d t h e n a t u r e o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o u l d m a k e i n t e r-

e s t in g a n a l y s i s , b u t I w i ll p a s s t h e m b y e x c e p t f o r o n e o d d p o i n t . A t 1 3 3 d - e ,

P a r m e n i d e s is a r g u i n g t h a t F o r m s c a n h a v e re l a t i o n s o n l y t o F o r m s , n o t t o

p a r t i c u l a r s , a n d h e is i l l u s tr a t i n g t h i s w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s l a v e i ts e l f

( h i m s e l f ? ) a n d t h e m a s t e r h i m s e l f ( it s el f ?) . T h e s e a r e n a m e d , a p p r o p r i a t e l y , a u t o s

d o u l o s h o e s t i d o u l o s a n d a u to s d esp otOs h o es t i desp o tOs a t 1 3 3 d 8 -e l . H o w e v e r , a t

e 3 - 4 w e f i n d ' m a s t e r s h i p i t se l f '

a u to d esp o te ia )

a n d ' s l a v e r y i t se l f '

a u to d o u le ia )

in

t h e ir s t e a d . T h e s e a r e c o n t r a s t e d , in f a c t , w i th m a s t e r s h i p a n d s l a v e ry ' i n u s ' , a n d h e

s p e a ks o f t he ' p o w e r '

d u n a m i s )

o f t h e m e m b e r s o f e a c h p ai r . T h i s is t o m y k n o w l -

e d g e t h e o n l y in s t a n c e in w h i c h F o r m s o f c o u n t a b l e p r e d i c a t e s a r e n a m e d b y a b s t r a c t

s i n g u l a r t e r m s , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e i t i s t h e o n l y c a s e i n w h i c h P l a t o h a s a v a i l a b l e t h e

r e q u i s i t e a b s t r a c t t e r m s . I t i s s t r i k i n g t h a t i n t h i s p a s s a g e , i n w h i c h F o r m s a r e c l e a r l y

b e i n g t r e a t e d a s s e p a r a te ( a n d a f t e r th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a p a r a d i g m a t i c c o n c e p t o f

F o r m s a t 1 3 2 d ) , w e f i n d t h e l a n g u a g e o f i m m a n e n c e . I s u g g e s t t h a t P l a t o i s s ti ll n o t

c l e a r o n t h e n o t i o n o f s e p a r a t i o n , e v e n i f h e is c l e a r a b o u t s o m e o f i ts d i f f i c u l ti e s .

F i n a l l y , I w o u l d l ik e to c a ll a t t e n t i o n t o t h e t h e o r y o f p r i m a r y b o d i e s i n t h e

T i m a e u s

a s a n i n d i c a t io n o f t h e l ev e l o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n P l a t o f i n al l y o b t a i n e d c o n -

c e r n i n g t h e r e la t i o n o f F o r m s t o s en s ib l e p a r ti c u l a r s . T h e r e , P l a t o d e a ls w i t h p r e -

c is e ly th o s e c o s m o l o g i c a l p r i m a r i e s t h a t I su g g e s t e d e a r li e r m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h e

i m p l i c it m o d e l f o r t h e e a r l ie s t s ta g e o f t h e T h e o r y o f F o r m s : f i re , a i r, w a t e r , e a r t h .

H o w e v e r , h e e x p l i c i tl y d i s t i n g u i sh e s t h e s e n s i b le q u a l i t y m o r p hO , p a t h o s , d u n a m i s )

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h es e e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e t h i n g s t h e m s e l v e s , w h i c h a r e n o n s e n s i b l e

F o r m s . S i n ce h e r e c o g n i z e s - - p e r h a p s m u c h l ik e s o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y p h i l o s o p h e r s - -

t h a t m a s s t e r m s a r e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y t r e a t e d a s p re d i c a t e s t h a n a s r e f e rr i n g

e x p r e s s i o n s , h e is l e d t o p o s t u l a t e a ' r e c e p t a c l e ' o f w h i c h t h e s e p r e d i c a t e s c a n b e

t r u e . T h e F o r m is a t r a n s c e n d e n t p a r a d i g m t h a t t h e q ua l i ti e s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e re c e p -

t a c l e i m i t a t e i n s o m e w a y . I t a p p e a r s t h a t P l a t o h a s a t l a s t r e j e c t e d a l l v e s t i g e s o f a n

i m m a n e n t c o n c e p t i o n o f F o r m s . I w o u l d s u gg e st t h a t h is re a s o n s m a y b e n o t

u n r e l a t e d t o t h o s e t h a t h a v e le d s o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y p h i l o s o p h e r s t o d i s c o u n t t h e

a p p a r e n t r e f e r e n ti a l i ty o f m a s s t e r m s a n d a b s t r a c t n o u n s a l ik e . 28

K a n s a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

28 A num ber of p eople have provided m e with criticisms and suggestions concerning earlier versions of

this paper, including Charles M. Y oung, G. N . G eorgacarakos, and several anonym ous referees.

smith - mass terms, generic expresions, and plato´s theory of forms

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