Chapter 16

Education Donald Webster

Skills

Many aspects of education affect success in shellfi sh aquaculture. First, there are formal academic disciplines that can be used by prac-titioners to gain the knowledge required for building and managing shellfi sh aquaculture operations. There are educational programs that use shellfi sh aquaculture as a tool to encourage scientifi c learning and the develop-ment of skills. Then there are educational pro-grams that provide outreach and technology transfer to shellfi sh aquaculturists in off - campus, noncredit programs designed to solve identifi ed needs of producers. Groups involved in industry development, including the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization ( UNFAO ), have long recognized educational programs as important in establishing success-ful and sustainable resource - based industries.

Shellfi sh aquaculture can be divided into several components, each of which incorpo-

rates varying levels of training and technical competence that require different levels of training and education (Pillay 1974 ):

• Hatchery • Setting • Nursery • Growout

Hatcheries (see Fig. 16.1 ) may acquire brood-stock from natural populations or develop lines through organized breeding programs. The skills required in operating hatcheries include conditioning of the animals, spawning and larval care, as well as the production of phytoplankton associated with nutrition. In some instances, as with oysters, the hatchery may sell the larvae, while in others the product will be shellfi sh seed after metamorphosis. In the latter, it would combine both hatchery and setting procedures. Although there are mainte-nance jobs that use more limited skill sets, the

Shellfi sh Aquaculture and the Environment, First Edition. Edited by Sandra E. Shumway.© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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448 Shellfi sh Aquaculture and the Environment

The setting phase includes care of animals through metamorphosis. Oysters may be exposed to cultch during this process for them to attach to. Clams are provided protection until they settle and begin to develop shells. Mussels may be gathered from the introduc-tion of suspended cultch and the resultant capture of wild seed from natural spawning areas (see Fig. 16.2 ). In oysters, the setting process is normally accomplished by introduc-ing larvae to shell or shell fragments, although chemical methods for inducing metamorphosis have been used to produce spat that have no cultch attachment. The animals proceed through metamorphosis and begin growing. The setting phase usually involves material handling and makes use of less highly skilled labor than that required in hatcheries. In com-mercial production, worker skills include training to properly prepare cultch by ensuring that it is clean and washed. Workers must also know how to install and maintain the setting units and understand physical factors such as temperature and salinity that need to be maintained for the juvenile animals to survive.

A nursery phase may or may not be included, depending on the species and its intended use. If included, the small, newly metamorphosed animals will be cared for until they reach a size deemed necessary for planting, while in others they may be deployed immediately, bypassing the nursery phase. There is usually a trade - off between cost and ultimate survival of the animals in this decision since it is widely regarded that the deployment of larger animals generally results in higher fi nal survival. Nursery operations may be carried out in open water or in containment devices, such as upwellers or downwellers. These devices are designed to protect small animals while pro-viding them with ample food supplies for enhanced growth. Nursery operators require skills that include the handling of small shell-fi sh and an understanding of the periodic

Figure 16.1 Shellfi sh hatchery worker cares for geoduck clam seed on the Pacifi c coast of the United States. (Photo credit: D. Webster, University of Maryland.)

hatchery phase tends to require more techni-cally trained workers due to the critical care requirements during the early life stages of the animals. Algology is also an important component of many hatcheries. Skilled algolo-gists must be well trained in establishing and maintaining viable cultures and adept at pro-ducing suffi cient quantities of suitable phyto-plankton for the production volume and timing needed by the hatchery. Often this requires the culture of several species due to the dietary needs of the culture species. Hatcheries that delve into the development of shellfi sh lines should have expert assistance from geneticists to avoid problems that can lead to “ bottlenecking ” of genetic material and the resulting loss of benefi cial attributes in the lines.

Education 449

Figure 16.2 Field crew placing mussels in socking material on rafts in Maine where they will be grown. (Photo credit: D. Webster, University of Maryland.)

cleaning necessary to maximize their growth and survival.

Growout is the ultimate goal of commercial operations. Animals are introduced into the growing areas using the method chosen by the producer. This may entail deployment on bottom, which is a traditional technique for species such as oysters or clams, or the animals may be protected in a variety of trays, cages, or other enclosures that are designed to protect them from predators and aggregate them for ultimate retrieval (see Fig. 16.3 ).

Shellfi sh aquaculture can also be subdivided by production motivation. Commercial aqua-culture has the goal of producing animals for sale, generally for consumption, although some sales exist for aquaria, test animals, or other purposes. Restoration aquaculture is used for introducing animals into depleted populations for the purpose of environmental enhancement or harvest. These harvests may be for either recreational or commercial purposes.

While many commercial shellfi sh producers have become successful without formal aca-demic training in shellfi sh - related disciplines, a key factor that helps ensure success is an appreciation for science and the ability to acquire skills that can aid in identifying problems and developing solutions. Knowledge of the scientifi c method is therefore very useful.

Aquaculture - r elated d isciplines

Many disciplines are used in the overall conduct of shellfi sh aquaculture. From design-ing hatcheries and production equipment to solving growout problems, conducting suc-cessful businesses, and carrying out scientifi c investigations, there are useful areas of study that can aid the ultimate success of prospective culturists (Cole and Hall 1973 ). Among these are

450 Shellfi sh Aquaculture and the Environment

Engineering subdivisions include civil, mechanical, and electrical, each of which have applications in aquaculture. The specialized fi eld of agricultural engineering includes train-ing in many of the other areas. Agricultural engineers are largely concerned with applying their skills in solving problems dealing with the production of food and fi ber. Therefore, it makes them well suited for shellfi sh aquacul-ture. Likewise, ocean engineers are trained to design systems that can withstand the stresses that occur in the dynamic marine environ-ment, which makes them particularly useful when developing systems in open waters. Engineering contributes greatly in areas such as hatchery design and in developing produc-tion equipment with the ability to withstand stresses in severe environments or when prob-lems of material handling arise in large - scale operations (see Fig. 16.4 ).

Since aquaculture involves so many impor-tant areas of knowledge, it is also useful for teaching a broad range of audiences. Involvement at an early age can often stimu-late students to follow it as a vocation.

• Biological sciences (including microbiology, ecology, and related subjects)

• Chemistry (including organic chemistry) • Environmental science • Engineering (including mechanical, civil,

agricultural, ocean, and others) • Business administration (management,

fi nance, marketing, and related subjects)

While it is apparent that biological sciences would be favored due to the need to under-stand the life cycle of the animals being cul-tured, other disciplines can be highly useful. A well - grounded understanding of the culture requirements of the animals being raised is critical for success.

Chemistry and organic chemistry are physi-cal sciences that are benefi cial for understand-ing the nature of reactions that occur within the environment. An understanding of the nature of salinity, acid and base relationships, and ionization as they relate to water quality and the impact that these have on the cultured organisms is important in many aspects of aquaculture.

Figure 16.3 Cages are used to help protect oysters from predators such as crabs and rays while they are growing. (Photo credit: D. Webster, University of Maryland.)

Education 451

them to their operations. For those not near the coast, shellfi sh have been used in aquaria to demonstrate their ability to clear water by biofi ltration. In these early years, they are nor-mally used in conjunction with basic science curricula.

Middle grades often fi nd students learning about the life cycle of the animals and being introduced to science labs. Here, they may par-ticipate in dissecting shellfi sh to learn about their digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and reproductive systems. They may also be intro-duced to environmental science that teaches them about the relationship between species, as well as their places and functions within ecosystems. Educational resources are avail-able to teachers interested in using aquaculture in the classroom, with many of these now being accessible through the Internet.

High school programs (see Fig. 16.5 ) include more advanced studies where students learn scientifi c method by investigating existing lit-erature, developing hypotheses, designing experiments to test them, analyzing results,

K - 12 e ducation

Shellfi sh aquaculture has the ability to attract young people, who often develop an interest in the animals as they learn about them. Encouraging young people to become inter-ested in shellfi sh aquaculture at an early age can lead to starting them on career paths while providing them with useful knowledge about the role of shellfi sh in the environment. That makes shellfi sh and the culture of them par-ticularly attractive for use in educational pro-grams. Aquaculture education programs have been developed in many areas and are used to teach a range of subjects such as biology, chemistry, mathematics, and marketing.

In the early years during primary grades, students may learn about the various ways in which shellfi sh are raised. If they are fortunate to live near the coast, they may be able to participate in a fi eld trip to a hatchery or pro-duction site. Many producers understand the benefi ts of having young people learn about their businesses and are quick to welcome

Figure 16.4 Floating upwellers are engineered with a rotating paddle wheel to move large quantities of water for seed oysters. (Photo credit: D. Webster, University of Maryland.)

452 Shellfi sh Aquaculture and the Environment

and maintaining small - scale hatcheries pro-vides an excellent way to combine engineering with biology while learning production tech-niques. The products from these experiments are sometimes used for stocking natural areas, which leads to an appreciation of the use of aquaculture for restoration.

Undergraduate d egree p rograms

At the university level, degree programs in aquaculture, often including shellfi sh, have become established in many countries ( University of Hawaii, Manoa n.d. ). Institutions in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Scotland, and the United States offer programs of this type. Some institutions have developed 2 - year programs that are typically more vocational in nature and provide signifi cant hands - on train-ing to students. These may grant Associate of Science ( AS ) degrees or offer certifi cates to graduates.

and reaching conclusions. In this manner, shellfi sh aquaculture can be used to teach many skills. Mathematics can aid students in calculating production and determining effi -ciency of shellfi sh setting, as well as determin-ing fl ow rates and comparing diets. The study of commensal organisms can lead to a better understanding of the relationships that shell-fi sh have with other creatures in the environ-ment. Engineering studies aid students in designing culture systems and determining how to solve production problems.

While many school programs integrate aquaculture into traditional courses, there are formal programs that use aquaculture as a focus for teaching ( http://bigquil.blogspot.com ). One example is the Sound School in Connecticut (USA) ( www.soundschool.com ), where students design, build, and maintain culture systems and develop research projects. Some examples have led students to monitor oysters in nearby areas to determine parame-ters affecting growth and survival. Building

Figure 16.5 Dr. Joseph Buttner works with high school youths to use shellfi sh aquaculture as a teaching tool. (Photo credit: J. Buttner, Salem State University.)

Education 453

Graduate d egree p rograms

Many students who wish to become profi cient in shellfi sh aquaculture pursue training through the graduate school level. Graduate programs offer students the opportunity for advanced study with professors who have experience and reputation in the fi eld. A key factor in graduate programs is that the student will be taught to think critically and further develop skills in the scientifi c method.

In applying for a program leading to a grad-uate degree, the student should consider the reputation of the institution and the major professor with whom the student seeks to become associated. Choosing an educational institution and a major professor cannot be taken lightly or decided upon without signifi -cant investigation. Once accepted, the profes-sor will assist the student in assembling a graduate committee, choosing a course of study, and developing a research topic while mentoring the student during the course of his or her graduate study.

There are institutions offering graduate degrees in aquaculture or aquaculture - related studies throughout the world. These include Master of Science ( MS ) or Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) programs, depending on the institution. Many of these are connected with colleges of biological or life sciences. A few engineering programs also have aquaculture options.

Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) programs can be useful to those interested in the business aspect of aquaculture. It has been noted many times that more aquaculture busi-nesses fail because of poor business manage-ment decisions than because of technical problems.

Advanced or graduate degrees may open up more potential pathways for employment since they are required for many jobs in con-temporary society, especially in developed nations. Positions in academic institutions for research faculty now generally require the PhD

Two - year programs are often created in areas where aquaculture industries exist and are frequently meant to produce graduates with the skills needed by local businesses. This relationship provides a ready source of trained technicians for companies while offering attractive employment potential to program graduates. However, to be genuinely benefi cial for lifelong applicability, these programs should offer training that provides students with the skills needed to earn a living across a spectrum of aquaculture industries rather than just provide training in local production tech-niques or systems. Studies of vocational pro-grams have found that students gain up to a 5 - year knowledge advantage by attending these programs compared with those who gain their training by directly entering employment and learning while on the job.

Institutions with two - year programs may also offer four year courses of study leading to the Bachelor of Science ( BS ) degree. Those who complete the 2 - year program may be allowed to transfer most, if not all, of the credits earned into the 4 - year programs. This is benefi cial for students who are interested in studying aquaculture but (1) may not be able to commit the time needed to a 4 - year program, (2) may initially be undecided about how far they wish to pursue a formal degree program, or (3) are fi nancially unable to afford more than 2 years of initial training. In this case, it may be possible for the student to apply for the 4 - year program at a later date after gaining employment and working in the industry, where they would fi nd their employment expe-riences valuable for background.

Courses included in BS degree program will likely include basic sciences, communications, and economics at the core, while adding a range of electives tailored to the course of study and interests of the student. Labs con-nected with many of the courses are designed to teach skills that will be required by students for gaining employment in industry.

454 Shellfi sh Aquaculture and the Environment

learn leadership, citizenship, and life skills through local clubs and activities (National 4 - H Council 2010 ).

4 - H principally relies on clubs led by local leaders, but with a strong national support network. The 4 - H community has over half a million volunteers and has been a key part of agricultural leadership and skill development for decades. Learning activities of clubs are supported by the latest research from Land Grant universities. These are focused in (1) science and technology, (2) healthy living, and (3) citizenship. This tie with Extension pro-vides programs in more than 3000 counties within the United States through local offi ces.

4 - H programs have traditionally involved farm or rural youth but have been expanded to new audiences. One of these is shellfi sh aquaculture. Some local projects across the nation have used shellfi sh topics with the most focused program currently based in Washington State. The Jefferson County 4 - H club known as “ Big Quil Enterprises ” provides students with training to manage a youth - operated oyster business on the Hood Canal, a well - known shellfi sh production area ( http://bigquil.blogspot.com ). The club has been sup-ported by a local oyster company, which buys the product from the club for processing and sale (Big Quil Enterprises 2006 ).

Typical of 4 - H programs, the club includes about 50 students who learn the skills needed to produce oysters while acquiring an ability to manage the operation as a business. As in any business, the goal of the club is to make a profi t and become self - sustaining. While most of their production is sold to a local shellfi sh company, club members participate in festivals throughout the state where they distribute information about their project while selling shellfi sh. This provides them with the oppor-tunity to educate others about the benefi ts of shellfi sh aquaculture.

4 - H can provide a suitable model for other regions seeking to introduce both the skills and attitude necessary to make a living in

degree, while the MS is considered as minimum for associate staff and extension faculty. This is also true for many government positions, although an undergraduate degree may be accepted by many more state and local agen-cies. In many instances, an undergraduate degree may be the minimum necessary to begin employment with agencies; successful candi-dates, however, often see the benefi t of pursu-ing advanced degrees throughout their careers. This allows them to open additional pathways for advancement or pursue opportunities for other positions.

In addition to formal classroom training and degree - granting programs, shellfi sh aqua-culture has other options that can provide learning experiences in off - campus and noncredit environments. These programs can be extremely important to the long - term development of the industry and have the ability to provide continuing support to producers.

4 - H and y outh p rograms

In order to change the future, it has been rec-ognized as advantageous to train future gen-erations. Youth programs provide a way to change attitudes and instill values. Youth vocational programs developed for agriculture over the past century have been particularly successful in developing that industry. These programs provide a useful guide for teaching shellfi sh aquaculture skills and techniques to new generations of young people.

One of the most successful is the 4 - H program that has been operated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. It became a prin-cipal cause for the application of modern agri-cultural techniques and is a major component of extension programs in the United States, where 4 - H exists with the other major program areas of Agricultural Science and Family and Consumer Science. Today, 4 - H includes over 6 million young people who are organized to

Education 455

to production sites. Extension specialists are usually university - trained graduates in a bio-logical science (Kensler 1989 ).

Extension education consists of off - campus, noncredit programs that provide research - based solutions to industry problems (Severs et al. 1997 ). This has been recognized as an essential element in developing agriculture, fi sheries, and aquaculture by agencies involved in both national and international develop-ment. While many terms are used for exten-sion work around the world, one of the most descriptive is the Dutch “ Voorlichting , ” which means “ lighting the path. ” Essentially, exten-sion workers provide guidance that helps people identify and solve problems.

In the United States, this mission has been part of the Land Grant and Sea Grant college programs. The Land Grant system has roots that extend back to 1862, while the Sea Grant system that was envisioned to provide similar services in the marine environment was estab-lished in 1966. Land Grant includes academic institutions in all U.S. states, while Sea Grant colleges are found in coastal and Great Lakes

shellfi sh aquaculture. While other programs exist that provide youth with skills, the ties to university research gives 4 - H a unique ability to provide training that can translate into future industry expansion using state - of - the - art technology. Related 4 - H projects in areas such as leadership development and public speaking aids in developing articulate industry spokespersons who can become politically involved to help bring about positive change ( http://4 - H.org ).

Extension p rograms

Extension education has many important uses in establishing, supporting, and developing shellfi sh aquaculture (see Fig. 16.6 ). Since many who decide to go into business may not have had formal training, there is a need to provide educational services to teach skills needed for success. Extension programs are often used for this purpose. These efforts extend or apply research done by universities at campuses and experiment or fi eld stations

Figure 16.6 Florida fi shermen became successful clam farmers through the application of research and extension pro-grams. (Photo credit: D. Webster, University of Maryland.)

456 Shellfi sh Aquaculture and the Environment

where farmers are urged to make decisions on their own. Farmer - to - farmer exchanges are also favored as a means of spreading knowl-edge. This new model is known as Participatory Technology Development ( PTD ).

Extension is often misunderstood by those who think of it only as providing fact sheets or single programs to potential growers in response to specifi c questions. In fact, a suc-cessful extension program includes a series of educational events targeting specifi c problems and must involve the audience in the process of development and implementation.

A well - designed program will work with aquatic farmers to help them identify their problem. It will then help with providing alter-natives for solution while aiding them in choosing the most practical path for imple-mentation. The fi nal phase is to assist in evalu-ating results and deciding whether to remain with that solution or choose another. This evaluation and assessment process is critical for success. The participatory system has been recognized as more effective for continued success than top - down models that provide farmers with only a single course of action. In essence, extension educators act as mentors, similar to professors who teach students to think and act as scientists.

Extension programs are designed in several phases. The planning phase identifi es goals, often by conducting a formal “ needs assess-ment. ” Here also is where project priorities and objectives are determined and the target audience identifi ed. The design and implemen-tation phase includes selecting and developing program content, delivery methods, and resource materials and determining the project timeline. At the conclusion, the evaluation phase measures the success of the program and judges its impacts upon the participants as well as the other factors it was intended to infl uence.

In creating programs, it is vitally important that the needs of the community and the society being targeted are taken into account.

states. Both include ties to island common-wealths, republics, and territories.

The system provides linkage between research, education, and extension. In the operational model, research conducted to enhance production and profi tability is dis-seminated to producers through extension programs, while problems identifi ed at the fi eld level are transmitted to researchers for future investigation. The body of knowledge that results is included in courses for the edu-cation programs that train the next generation of producers and scientists in campus educa-tional programs.

Land Grant colleges were established to research problems in agriculture production while providing campus - based education for future farmers and scientists. It was recognized that a great deal of agricultural research needed to be transferred from academia to farm fi elds for successful implementation. The system that was established provided funds for offi ces at the county level staffed with exten-sion agents who worked directly with farmers to apply research for solving defi ned problems. These offi ces were jointly funded by federal, state, and local governments (van den Ban and Hawkins 1985 ).

Internationally, the UNFAO has long recog-nized the importance of extension programs to the success of development projects. While interest in extension programs waned during the 1990s, they have recently increased and are again recognized as important in international development projects (Marine Technical Assistance Group 1982 ).

UNFAO models have varied over the years. The Training and Visitation ( T & V ) system was used for many years. It was based on extension agents making specifi c recommenda-tions to farmers about practices that were determined should be adopted by them. As such, it was top - down and paternalistic in nature, and did not always result in long - term success. It has been replaced by systems that create empowerment and experiential learning

Education 457

tant that extension educators not be given tasks such as enforcing regulations or collect-ing fees or taxes. They must have the trust of the farmers they are working with in order to build relationships that will bring support to the extension programs. Governments fre-quently invest in extension since they see it as a way to aid national goals of increasing food production and creating economic growth, especially among poorer areas. They often recognize the ability of these programs to increase the welfare of rural people and to promote sustainable production practices. Shellfi sh are well suited to sustainability and are regarded as “ green ” businesses in many nations. In some cases aquaculture extension activities may be combined within larger agri-cultural units because of their better equip-ment and larger numbers (FAO Technical Guidelines 1997 ).

Extension education is an accepted and well - documented way of aiding shellfi sh farmers in their businesses. In many cases, edu-cators also have appointments as research faculty. These joint appointments can be ben-efi cial in establishing important links between those who identify problems and the research that helps fi nd solutions. However, it must also be stated that joint appointments create mul-tiple responsibilities for those who have them, which may affect the overall effi ciency or per-formance of the program. Joint appointments often mean that the person will be evaluated by two different groups or with different cri-teria for the research and extension portions of their job. This may lead to diffi culty if those involved in the evaluation process lack under-standing about the differences.

Technology t ransfer

Another route for disseminating information is through technology transfer. This system seeks to share knowledge, skills, methods, equipment, and processes that have already

Factors that are considered important include the social, historical, economic, educational, and political. In some instances, especially in rural areas or developing nations, there may be audience members who are illiterate. A determination will need to be made when cre-ating educational materials and methods that will allow them to learn important concepts. In these instances, pictorial designs for printed material could be used to illustrate concepts. Modern technology such as the use of portable computers has allowed the use of audio and visual training aids to be used as well. Political factors are frequently important since they may include laws and regulations that would prevent the use or implementation of new or creative production techniques that might oth-erwise prove benefi cial.

Extension programs are planned, imple-mented, and evaluated in a seven - step process known as “ Bennett ’ s hierarchy. ” This involves delineating

1. Inputs (time, resources) 2. Activities (content and methods) 3. People (numbers, characteristics, contact

frequency) 4. Reactions (interest, satisfaction levels) 5. KASA change(knowledge, attitudes, skills,

aspirations) 6. Practice (adoption and application of

knowledge) 7. Results (economic, environmental, and

social actions)

In order to properly judge success in reaching goals, the evaluation of results is critical and should be determined in the three areas of social, economic, and environmental change (Sea Grant Editorial Board 2000 ). Properly evaluating results is not an easy task. Many people make the mistake of stopping after only a few steps and reporting results based on number of attendees at a program or on the dissemination of written materials.

In creating new extension organizations, especially in developing nations, it is impor-

458 Shellfi sh Aquaculture and the Environment

faculty for income, they may be constantly on the watch for areas in which their technology could be applied.

Perhaps the most widespread use of tech-nology transfer has been in the commercial application of devices developed for the mili-tary. The use of radar, sonar, and position determining equipment such as the global positioning system ( GPS ) is now widespread in aquaculture as well as many other industries (see Fig. 16.7 ). The use of side - scan sonar and subbottom profi ling has been applied in shellfi sh aquaculture to map beds that were previously carried out by laborious physical methods and with time - consuming manual chart plotting. The development of computers and creation of the World Wide Web have brought information management within the reach of all but the most isolated areas.

Conclusion

Educational needs within the shellfi sh aquacul-ture industry are many and varied. However,

been developed, often for other industries. The application of these is made accessible to those who it is believed can best integrate them into their production processes.

Government agencies in some countries use technology transfer to provide new ideas for production methods and equipment to indus-try. This is an accepted practice in many nations where a designated agency will keep abreast of new technology, evaluating it for application to industry needs, and providing the resulting information to appropriate businesses for that application. Agencies may also invest in proj-ects that are designed to help purchase, install, and evaluate technology under fi eld conditions. If the application is successful, they will publi-cize it to others in the industry, trying to gain as much acceptance as possible.

It is not unusual to fi nd an Offi ce of Technology Transfer in agencies, companies, or institutions that are tasked with fi nding applications for the new methods and equip-ment that these bodies have developed. Since many academic institutions rely on patents or the licensing of technology developed by their

Figure 16.7 Computerized information system guiding towed dredge samples to assess bottom for shellfi sh culture suitability. (Photo credit: D. Webster, University of Maryland.)

Education 459

Cole , R.C. , and Hall , D.N.F. 1973 . Guide to fi shery education and training . FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, Rome.

FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries Aquaculture Development - 5. 1997. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

Kensler , C. 1989 . A Regional Survey of the Aquaculture Sector in North America (Including Canada, Greenland and the United States of America) . United Nations Development Programme, FAO , Rome, Italy .

Marine Technical Assistance Group . 1982 . An Evaluation of Fishery and Aquaculture Programs of the Agency for International Development . National Academy Press , Washington, D.C .

National 4 - H Council . 2010 . About 4 - H: Who We Are. http://www.4 - h.org/about/youth - development - organization/ . Accessed June 23, 2011.

Pillay , T.V.R. 1974 . Planning of Aquaculture Development — an Introductory Guide . Fishing News Books , Surrey, England .

Sea Grant Editorial Board B. Wilkins, Leader Emeritus . 2000 . Fundamentals of a Sea Grant Extension Program . Cornell University , Ithaca, NY .

Severs , B. , Graham , D. , Gamon , J. , and Conklin , N. 1997 . Education through Cooperative Extension . Delmar Publishers , Albany NY .

University of Hawaii, Manoa. Education Opportunities — University Degree Programs. ( http://praise.manoa.hawaii.edu/ed.php?univ ).

van den Ban , A.W. , and Hawkins , H.S. 1985 . Agricultural Extension , 2nd ed . Blackwell Science , Cambridge, MA .

they are important for the growth of it and certainly cannot succeed without it. The growth of computer and communication tech-nology has made it possible for information to be obtained throughout the world in a short time. It can link learners with educators across continents and provide televised demonstra-tions of equipment and methods that would otherwise have take days to see.

Perhaps one of the most important aspects has been the ability to magnify the effort of teachers and provide information to broader audiences than were previously able to be reached. This has also led to dissemination of results in a timely manner to those who have the ability to use them. It is now possible to link educators in several nations around the world with students, essentially bringing the world into the classroom. Computer - based information sources such as listservs and social networks have made it possible to share ideas with people of similar interest in far - fl ung areas. Websites serve as information hubs and can include text, video, voice - over presenta-tions, and interactive technology. The infor-mation that used to take days or weeks to get across a town now can travel around the world in a matter of seconds.

The structure that combines research and education with extension services has been effective in getting many shellfi sh aquaculture businesses established. Continuing to provide this support to those in production is critical for the overall success of shellfi sh aquaculture.

Literature cited

Big Quil Enterprises . 2006 . http://bigquil.blogspot.com/search/label/Big%20Quil%20Enterprises . Accessed June 23, 2011 .