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Shang dynasty商朝

Kingdom

← c. 1600 BC–c. 1046

BC →

Remnants of advanced, stratified societies dating backto the Shang period have been found in the Yellow

River Valley.

Capital Anyang

Languages Old Chinese

Religion Chinese folk religion

Government Monarchy

Historical era Bronze Age - Established c. 1600 BC - Battle of Muye c. 1046 BC

Area - 1122 BC est.[1] 1,250,000 km²

(482,628 sq mi)

Shang dynastyChinese

商朝

Literal meaning Shang dynasty

Shang dynastyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Shang dynasty (Chinese: 商朝; pinyin: Shāngcháo) or Yin dynasty (Chinese: 殷代; pinyin: Yīn dài),according to traditional historiography, ruled in theYellow River valley in the second millennium BC,succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Zhoudynasty. The classic account of the Shang comes fromtexts such as the Classic of History, Bamboo Annals andRecords of the Grand Historian. According to thetraditional chronology based upon calculations madeapproximately 2,000 years ago by Liu Xin, the Shangruled from 1766 BC to 1122 BC, but according to thechronology based upon the "current text" of BambooAnnals, they ruled from 1556 BC to 1046 BC. TheXia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project dated them from c.1600 BC to 1046 BC.

Archaeological work at the Ruins of Yin (nearmodern-day Anyang), which has been identified as thelast Shang capital, uncovered eleven major Yin royaltombs and the foundations of palaces and ritual sites,containing weapons of war and remains from bothanimal and human sacrifices. Tens of thousands ofbronze, jade, stone, bone, and ceramic artifacts havebeen obtained. The workmanship on the bronzes atteststo a high level of civilization.

The Anyang site has yielded the earliest known body ofChinese writing, mostly divinations inscribed on oraclebones – turtle shells, ox scapulae, or other bones. Morethan 20,000 were discovered in the initial scientificexcavations during the 1920s and 1930s, and over fourtimes as many have been found since. The inscriptionsprovide critical insight into many topics from thepolitics, economy, and religious practices to the art andmedicine of this early stage of Chinese civilization.[2]

Contents

1 Traditional accounts

Shang dynasty - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty

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Transcriptions

Mandarin

Hanyu Pinyin Shāng cháo

Min

Hokkien POJ Siong tiâu

Wu

Romanization Saon zau

Cantonese

Jyutping Soeng1 ciu4

Yale Romanization Sēung chìuh

Alternative Chinese name

Chinese殷代

Literal meaning Yin era

Transcriptions

Mandarin

Hanyu Pinyin Yīn dài

Wade–Giles Yin tai

Min

Hokkien POJ Ûn tāi

Wu

Romanization In de

Cantonese

Jyutping Jan1 doi6

Yale Romanization Yān doih

1.1 Course of the dynasty1.2 Descendants

2 Early Bronze Age archaeology2.1 Yellow River valley2.2 Other sites2.3 Genetic studies

3 Late Shang at Anyang3.1 Court life3.2 Religion3.3 Bronze working3.4 Military

4 Kings5 Gallery6 See also7 References8 Further reading9 External links

Traditional accountsMany events concerning the Shang dynasty arementioned in various Chinese classics, including theBook of Documents, the Mencius and theCommentary of Zuo. Working from all the availabledocuments, the Han dynasty historian Sima Qianassembled a sequential account of the Shang dynastyas part of his Records of the Grand Historian. Hishistory describes some events in detail, while in other cases only the name of a king is given.[3] Aclosely related, but slightly different, account is given by the Bamboo Annals. The Annals were interredin 296 BC, but the text has a complex history and the authenticity of the surviving versions iscontroversial.[4]

The name Yīn (殷) is used by Sima Qian for the dynasty, and in the Bamboo Annals for both the dynastyand its final capital. It has been a popular name for the Shang throughout history, and is often usedspecifically to describe the later half of the Shang dynasty. In Japan and Korea, the Shang are stillreferred to almost exclusively as the Yin (In) dynasty. However it seems to have been the Zhou name forthe earlier dynasty. The word does not appear in the oracle bones, which refer to the state as Shāng, and


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the capital as Dàyì Shāng (大邑商 "Great settlement Shang").[5]

Course of the dynasty

Sima Qian's Annals of the Yin begins by describing the predynastic founder of the Shang lineage, Xie(偰) — also appearing as Qi (契) — as having been miraculously conceived when Jiandi, a wife ofEmperor Ku, swallowed an egg dropped by a black bird. Xie is said to have helped Yu the Great tocontrol the Great Flood and for his service to have been granted a place called Shang as a fief.[6]

Sima Qian relates that the dynasty itself was founded 13 generations later, when Xie's descendant Tangoverthrew the impious and cruel final Xia ruler in the Battle of Mingtiao. The Records recount eventsfrom the reigns of Tang, Tai Jia, Tai Wu, Pan Geng, Wu Ding, Wu Yi and the depraved final king DiXin, but the rest of the Shang rulers are merely mentioned by name. According to the Records, theShang moved their capital five times, with the final move to Yin in the reign of Pan Geng inauguratingthe golden age of the dynasty.[7]

Di Xin, the last Shang king, is said to have committed suicide after his army was defeated by Wu ofZhou. Legends say that his army and his equipped slaves betrayed him by joining the Zhou rebels in thedecisive Battle of Muye. According to the Yizhoushu and Mencius the battle was very bloody. Theclassic, Ming-era novel Fengshen Yanyi retells the story of the war between Shang and Zhou as aconflict where rival factions of gods supported different sides in the war.

After the Shang were defeated, King Wu allowed Di Xin's son Wu Geng to rule the Shang as a vassalkingdom. However, Zhou Wu sent three of his brothers and an army to ensure that Wu Geng would notrebel.[8][9][10] After Zhou Wu's death, the Shang joined the Three Governors' Rebellion against the Dukeof Zhou, but the rebellion collapsed after three years, leaving Zhou in control of Shang territory.

Descendants

After Shang's collapse, Zhou's rulers forcibly relocated "Yin diehards" (殷頑) and scattered themthroughout Zhou territory.[11] Some surviving members of the Shang royal family collectively changedtheir surname from the ancestral name Zi (子) to the name of their fallen dynasty, Yin. The familyretained an aristocratic standing and often provided needed administrative services to the succeedingZhou dynasty. The Shiji states that King Cheng of Zhou, with the support of his regent and uncle, theDuke of Zhou, enfeoffed Weiziqi (微子啟), a brother of Di Xin, as the ruler of Song, with its capital atShangqiu. The rulers of Song would maintain rites honoring the Shang kings until Song was conqueredby Qi in 286 BC. Confucius was said to have been a descendant of the Shang kings through the rulers ofSong.[12][13][14]

The vassal state of Guzhu, located in what is now Tangshan, was formed by another remnant of theShang, and was destroyed by Duke Huan of Qi.[15][16][17] Many Shang clans that migrated northeastafter the dynasty's collapse were integrated into Yan culture during the Western Zhou period. Theseclans maintained an elite status and continued practicing the sacrificial and burial traditions of theShang.[18]


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The site of Yin, the capital(1350–1046 BC) of the Shangdynasty, also called Yin dynasty

Both Korean and Chinese legends state that a disgruntled Shang prince named Jizi, who had refused tocede power to the Zhou, left China with a small army. According to these legends, he founded a stateknown as Gija Joseon in northwest Korea during the Gojoseon period of ancient Korean history.However, the historical accuracy of these legends is widely debated by scholars.

Early Bronze Age archaeologyBefore the 20th century, the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) was the earliest Chinese dynasty that could beverified from its own records. However during the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD), antiquarians collectedbronze ritual vessels attributed to the Shang era, some of which bore inscriptions.[19]

Yellow River valley

In 1899, it was found that Chinese pharmacists were selling"dragon bones" marked with curious and archaic characters.[19]

These were finally traced back in 1928 to a site (now calledYinxu) near Anyang, north of the Yellow River in modern Henanprovince, where the Academia Sinica undertook archeologicalexcavation until the Japanese invasion in 1937.[19]

Archaeologists focused on the Yellow River valley in Henan asthe most likely site of the states described in the traditionalhistories. After 1950, remnants of an earlier walled city werediscovered near Zhengzhou.[19] It has been determined that theearth walls at Zhengzhou, erected in the 15th century BC, wouldhave been 20 metres (66 ft) wide at the base, rising to a height of8 metres (26 ft), and formed a roughly rectangular wall 7 kilometres (4 mi) around the ancientcity.[20][21] The rammed earth construction of these walls was an inherited tradition, since much olderfortifications of this type have been found at Chinese Neolithic sites of the Longshan culture (c.3000–2000 BC).[20]

In 1959, the site of the Erlitou culture was found in Yanshi, south of the Yellow River near Luoyang.[20]

Radiocarbon dating suggests that the Erlitou culture flourished ca. 2100 BC to 1800 BC. They built largepalaces, suggesting the existence of an organized state.[22]

The remains of a walled city of about 470 hectares (1,200 acres) were discovered in 1999 across theHuan River from the Yinxu site. The city, now known as Huanbei, was apparently occupied for less thana century and destroyed shortly before the construction of the Yinxu complex.[23][24]

Chinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeedinganother, and readily identified the Zhengzhou and Erlitou sites with the early Shang and Xia dynasty oftraditional histories. The actual political situation in early China may have been more complicated, withthe Xia and Shang being political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou, who


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Major archaeological sites of the secondmillennium BC in north and central China

established the successor state of the Shang, are known to have existed at the same time as the Shang.[18]

Other sites

The Erligang culture represented by the Zhengzhou site isfound across a wide area of China, even as far northeast asthe area of modern Beijing, where at least one burial in thisregion during this period contained both Erligang-stylebronzes and local-style gold jewelry.[18] The discovery of aChenggu-style ge dagger-axe at Xiaohenan demonstratesthat even at this early stage of Chinese history, there weresome ties between the distant areas of north China.[18] ThePanlongcheng site in the middle Yangtze valley was animportant regional center of the Erligang culture.[25]

Accidental finds elsewhere in China have revealed advancedcivilizations contemporaneous with but culturally unlike thesettlement at Anyang, such as the walled city of Sanxingduiin Sichuan. Western scholars are hesitant to designate suchsettlements as belonging to the Shang dynasty.[26] Also unlike the Shang, there is no known evidencethat the Sanxingdui culture had a system of writing. The late Shang state at Anyang is thus generallyconsidered the first verifiable civilization in Chinese history.[5] In contrast, the earliest layers of theWucheng site, pre-dating Anyang, have yielded pottery fragments containing short sequences ofsymbols, suggesting that they may be a form of writing quite different in form from oracle bonecharacters, but the sample is too small for decipherment.[27][28][29]

Genetic studies

A study of mitochondrial DNA (inherited in the maternal line) from Yinxu graves showed similaritywith modern northern Han Chinese, but significant differences from southern Han Chinese.[30]

Late Shang at AnyangThe oldest extant direct records date from around 1200 BC at Anyang, covering the reigns of the lastnine Shang kings. The Shang had a fully developed system of writing, preserved on bronze inscriptionsand a small number of other writings on pottery, jade and other stones, horn, etc., but most prolificallyon oracle bones.[31] The complexity and sophistication of this writing system indicates an earlier periodof development, but direct evidence of that development is still lacking. Other advances included theinvention of many musical instruments and observations of Mars and various comets by Shangastronomers.[32]

Their civilization was based on agriculture and augmented by hunting and animal husbandry.[33] Inaddition to war, the Shang also practiced human sacrifice.[34] Cowry shells were also excavated at

Erlitou Zhengzhou

Panlongcheng

Anyang

Sanxingdui

Wucheng


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Oracle bones pit at Yin

Bronzewares from the excavatedtomb of Fu Hao

Bronze gū ritual wine vessel

Anyang, suggesting trade with coast-dwellers, but there was verylimited sea trade in ancient China since China was isolated fromother large civilizations during the Shang period.[35] Traderelations and diplomatic ties with other formidable powers viathe Silk Road and Chinese voyages to the Indian Ocean did notexist until the reign of Emperor Wu during the Han dynasty (206BC–221 AD).[36][37]

Court life

At the excavated royal palace of Yinxu, large stone pillar baseswere found along with rammed earth foundations and platforms,which according to Fairbank, were "as hard as cement."[19]

These foundations in turn originally supported 53 buildings ofwooden post-and-beam construction.[19] In close proximity tothe main palatial complex, there were underground pits used forstorage, servants' quarters, and housing quarters.[19]

Many Shang royal tombs hadbeen tunneled into and ravagedby grave robbers in ancienttimes,[38] but in the spring of1976, the discovery of Tomb 5 atYinxu revealed a tomb that wasnot only undisturbed, but one of the most richly furnished Shang tombsthat archaeologists had yet come across.[39] With over 200 bronze ritualvessels and 109 inscriptions of Lady Fu Hao's name, archaeologistsrealized they had stumbled across the tomb of the militant consort toKing Wu Ding, as described in 170 to 180 Shang oracle bones.[40] Alongwith bronze vessels, stoneware and pottery vessels, bronze weapons,jade figures and hair combs, and bone hairpins were found.[41][42][43]

Historian Robert L. Thorp states that the large assortment of weaponsand ritual vessels in her tomb correlate with the oracle bone accounts of

her military career and involvement in Wu Ding's ritual ancestral sacrifices.[44]

The capital was the center of court life. Over time, court rituals to appease spirits developed, and inaddition to his secular duties, the king would serve as the head of the ancestor worship cult. Often, theking would even perform oracle bone divinations himself, especially near the end of the dynasty.Evidence from excavations of the royal tombs indicates that royalty were buried with articles of value,presumably for use in the afterlife. Perhaps for the same reason, hundreds of commoners, who may havebeen slaves, were buried alive with the royal corpse.

A line of hereditary Shang kings ruled over much of northern China, and Shang troops fought frequentwars with neighboring settlements and nomadic herdsmen from the inner Asian steppes. The Shang


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king, in his oracular divinations, repeatedly shows concern about the fang groups, the barbarians livingoutside of the civilized tu regions, which made up the center of Shang territory. In particular, the tufanggroup of the Yanshan region were regularly mentioned as hostile to the Shang.[18]

Apart from their role as the head military commanders, Shang kings also asserted their social supremacyby acting as the high priests of society and leading the divination ceremonies.[45] As the oracle bonetexts reveal, the Shang kings were viewed as the best qualified members of society to offer sacrifices totheir royal ancestors and to the high god Di, who in their beliefs was responsible for the rain, wind, andthunder.[45]

Religion

Shang religion consisted of a mixture of shamanism, divination and sacrifice. There were six mainrecipients of sacrifice: (1) Di, the High God, (2) nature powers like the sun and mountain powers, (3)former lords, deceased humans who had been added to the dynastic pantheon, (4) predynastic ancestors,(5) dynastic ancestors, and (6) dynastic ancestresses such as the concubines of a past emperor.[46] TheShang rulers subscribed to the notion that these ancestors held power over them and performed rituals toascertain their intentions.[46]

One of the most common rituals was divination, which often was performed to determine whetherancestors desired specific sacrifices or rituals. Divination involved cracking a turtle carapace or oxscapula to answer a question, and to then record the response to that question on the bone itself.[47] It isunknown what criteria the diviners used to determine the response, but it is believed to be the sound orpattern of the cracks on the bone.

The Shang also seem to have believed in an afterlife, as evidenced by the elaborate burial tombs built fordeceased rulers. Often "carriages, utensils, sacrificial vessels, [and] weapons" would be included in thetomb.[48] A king's burial involved the burial of up to several hundred humans and horses as well toaccompany the king into the afterlife, in some cases even numbering four hundred.[48] Finally, tombsincluded ornaments such as jade, which the Shang may have believed to protect against decay or conferimmortality.

The degree to which shamanism was a central aspect of Shang religion is a subject of debate.[47][49]

The Shang religion was highly bureaucratic and meticulously ordered. Oracle bones containeddescriptions of the date, ritual, person, ancestor, and questions associated with the divination.[47] Tombsdisplayed highly ordered arrangements of bones, with groups of skeletons laid out facing the samedirection.

Bronze working

Chinese bronze casting and pottery advanced during the Shang dynasty, with bronze typically being usedfor ritually significant, rather than primarily utilitarian, items. As far back as c. 1500 BC, the early Shangdynasty engaged in large-scale production of bronze-ware vessels and weapons.[50] This production


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The Shang dynasty Houmuwu Dingis the heaviest piece of bronze workfound in China so far.

A late Shang dynasty bronze dingvessel with taotie motif

required a large labor force that could handle the mining,refining, and transportation of the necessary copper, tin, and leadores. This in turn created a need for official managers that couldoversee both hard-laborers and skilled artisans and craftsmen.[50]

The Shang royal court and aristocrats required a vast amount ofdifferent bronze vessels for various ceremonial purposes andevents of religious divination.[50] Ceremonial rules even decreedhow many bronze containers of each type a nobleman ornoblewoman of a certain rank could own. With the increasedamount of bronze available, the army could also better equipitself with an assortment of bronze weaponry. Bronze was alsoused for the fittings of spoke-wheeled chariots, which appearedin China around 1200 BC.[45]

Military

Bronze weapons were an integral part of Shang society.[51]

Shang infantry were armed with a variety of stone and bronzeweaponry, including máo spears, yuè pole-axes, gē pole-baseddagger-axes, composite bows, and bronze or leather helmets.[52][53] The chariot first appeared in China during the reign ofWu Ding. Oracle bone inscriptions suggest that the westernenemies of the Shang used limited numbers of chariots in battle,but the Shang themselves used them only as mobile commandvehicles and in royal hunts. A crucial factor in the Zhou conquestof the Shang may have been their more effective use ofchariots.[54]

Although the Shang depended upon the military skills of theirnobility, Shang rulers could mobilize the masses oftown-dwelling and rural commoners as conscript laborers andsoldiers for both campaigns of defense and conquest.[55]

Aristocrats and other state rulers were obligated to furnish their local garrisons with all necessaryequipment, armor, and armaments. The Shang king maintained a force of about a thousand troops at hiscapital and would personally lead this force into battle.[56] A rudimentary military bureaucracy was alsoneeded in order to muster forces ranging from three to five thousand troops for border campaigns tothirteen thousand troops for suppressing rebellions against Shang dynasty.

KingsThe earliest records are the oracle bones inscribed during the reigns of the Shang kings from WuDing.[57] The oracle bones do not contain king lists, but they do record the sacrifices to previous kingsand the ancestors of the current king, which follow a standard schedule that scholars have reconstructed.


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A bronze axe of the Shang dynasty

From this evidence, scholars have assembled the implied kinglist and genealogy, finding that it is in substantial agreement withthe later accounts, especially for later kings.[58]

The Shang kings were referred to in the oracle bones byposthumous names. The last character of each name is one of the10 celestial stems, which also denoted the day of the 10-dayShang week on which sacrifices would be offered to that ancestorwithin the ritual schedule. There were more kings than stems, sothe names have distinguishing prefixes such as 大 Dà (greater),中 Zhōng (middle), 小 Xiǎo (lesser), 卜 Bǔ (outer), 祖 Zǔ(ancestor) and a few more obscure names.[59]

The kings, in the order of succession derived from the oraclebones, are here grouped by generation. Later reigns were assigned to oracle bone diviner groups byDong Zuobin:[60]


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Generation Older brothers Main line ofdescent

Youngerbrothers

Divinergroup

1 大乙 Dà Yǐ[a]

[b]

2 大丁 Dà Dīng[c]

3 大甲 Dà Jiǎ卜丙 BǔBǐng[d]

4 [e] 大庚 Dà Gēng 小甲 Xiǎo Jiǎ[f]

5 大戊 Dà Wù 呂己 Lǚ Jǐ[g]

6中丁 ZhōngDīng[h] 卜壬 Bǔ Rén

7 戔甲 JiānJiǎ 祖乙 Zǔ Yǐ

8 祖辛 Zǔ Xīn羌甲 QiāngJiǎ[i]

9 祖丁 Zǔ Dīng南庚 NánGēng[j]

10 象甲 XiàngJiǎ

盤庚 PánGēng

小辛 XiǎoXīn 小乙 Xiǎo Yǐ

11 武丁 Wǔ Dīng I

12 [k] 祖庚 ZǔGēng 祖甲 Zǔ Jiǎ II

13廩辛 LǐnXīn[l] 康丁 Kāng Dīng III

14 武乙 Wǔ YǐIV

15 文武丁 Wén WǔDīng

16 帝乙 Dì Yǐ[m]V

17 帝辛 Dì Xīn[n]

Notes

^ The first king is known as Tang in the Historical Records. The oracle bones also identify six pre-dynasticancestors: 上甲 Shàng Jiǎ, 報乙 Bào Yǐ, 報丙 Bào Bǐng, 報丁 Bào Dīng, 示壬 Shì Rén and 示癸 Shì Guǐ.

a.

^ There is no firm evidence of oracle bone inscriptions before the reign of Wu Ding.b.^ According to the Historical Records and the Mencius, Da Ding (there called Tai Ding) died before he couldc.


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ascend to the throne. However in the oracle bones he receives rituals like any other king.^ According to the Historical Records, Bu Bing (there called Wai Bing) and 仲壬 Zhong Ren (not mentionedin the oracle bones) were younger brothers of Dai Ting and preceded Da Jia (also known as Dai Jia).However the Mencius, the Commentary of Zuo and the Book of History state that he reigned after Da Jia, asalso implied by the oracle bones.

d.

^ The Historical Records include a king Wo Ding not mentioned in the oracle bones.e.^ The Historical Records have Xiao Jia as the son of Da Geng (known as Tai Geng) in the "Annals of Yin",but as a younger brother (as implied by the oracle bones) in the "Genealogical Table of the Three Ages".

f.

^ According to the Historical Records, Lü Ji (there called Yong Ji) reigned before Da Wu (there called TaiWu).

g.

^ The kings from Zhong Ding to Nan Geng are placed in the same order by the Historical Records and theoracle bones, but there are some differences in genealogy, as described in the articles on individual kings.

h.

^ The status of Qiang Jia varies over the history of the oracle bones. During the reigns of Wu Ding, Di Yi andDi Xin, he was not included in the main line of descent, a position also held by the Historical Records, but inthe intervening reigns he was included as a direct ancestor.

i.

^ According to the Historical Records, Nan Geng was the son of Qiang Jia (there called Wo Jia).j.^ The oracle bones and the Historical Records include an older brother 祖己 Zǔ Jǐ who did not reign.k.^ Lin Xin is named as a king in the Historical Records and oracle bones of succeeding reigns, but not thoseof the last two kings.[61]

l.

^ There are no ancestral sacrifices to the last two kings on the oracles bones, due to the fall of Shang. Theirnames, including the character 帝 Dì "emperor", come from the much later Bamboo Annals and HistoricalRecords.[62]

m.

^ also referred to as Zhòu (紂), Zhòu Xīn (紂辛) or Zhòu Wáng (紂王) or by adding "Shāng" (商) in front ofany of these names.

n.

Gallery

Late Shang artifacts

Jade ring in the shape ofa dragon

Jade carved deer

Jade carved fish

Jade carved tiger


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Bronze gefuding guǐvessel

Bronze yuefu youvessel

Bronze pou vessel withfour ram heads

Bronze zūn ritual vessel

Bronze guang ritualewer

Bronze pot with lid andhandle

A late Shang, ritualbronze wine vessel(zun) in the unusualshape of an owl with adomed head for its lid

Bronze yuè axe

Shang/Zhou sculpture,14–10th century BC

White pottery with acarved geometricpattern

See also

Chinese sovereignChinese mythology


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Historical capitals of China

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^ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, Dahia Ibo Shabaka, (1999). WorldHistory: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X.

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^ Flad, Dr. Rowan (28 Feb 2010). "Shang Dynasty Human Sacrifice" (http://www.slashcontrol.com/free-tv-shows/ngc-presents/4006945677-shang-dynasty-human-sacrifice). NGC Presents (National Geographic).Retrieved 3 Mar 2010.

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^ Fairbank & Goldman (2006), p. 35.35.^ Sun (1989), pp. 161–167.36.^ Chen (2002), pp. 67–71.37.^ Thorp (1981), p. 239.38.^ Thorp (1981), p. 240.39.^ Thorp (1981), pp. 240, 245.40.^ Thorp (1981), pp. 242, 245.41.^ Li (1980), pp. 393–394.42.^ Lerner et al. (1985), p. 77.43.^ Thorp (1981), p. 245.44.^ a b c Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 14.45.^ a b Keightley (2004).46.^ a b c Chang (1994).47.


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^ a b Smith (1961).48.^ Keightley (1998).49.^ a b c Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 17.50.^ Sawyer & Sawyer (1994).51.^ Wang (1993).52.^ Sawyer & Sawyer (1994), p. 35.53.^ Shaughnessy (1988).54.^ Sawyer & Sawyer (1994), p. 33.55.^ Sawyer & Sawyer (1994), p. 34.56.^ Wilkinson (2000), p. 397.57.^ Keightley (1999), p. 235.58.^ Smith (2011), pp. 3–5.59.^ Keightley (1999), pp. 234–235, 240–241.60.^ Keightley (1978a), p. 187.61.^ Keightley (1978a), pp. 187, 207, 209.62.

Works cited

Bagley, Robert (1999), "Shang archaeology", in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L., The CambridgeHistory of Ancient China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 124–231, ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.Chang, Kwang-Chih (1994), "Shang Shamans", in Peterson, Willard J., The Power of Culture: Studies inChinese Cultural History, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, pp. 10–36, ISBN 978-962-201-596-8.Chen, Yan (2002), Maritime Silk Route and Chinese-Foreign Cultural Exchanges, Beijing: Peking UniversityPress, ISBN 978-7-301-03029-5.Cheung, Kwong-yue (1983), "Recent archaeological evidence relating to the origin of Chinese characters", inKeightley, David N.; Barnard, Noel, The Origins of Chinese Civilization, trans. Noel Barnard, University ofCalifornia Press, pp. 323–391, ISBN 978-0-520-04229-2.Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006), East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and PoliticalHistory, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 978-0-618-13384-0.Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (2006), China: A New History (2nd ed.), Harvard University Press,ISBN 978-0-674-03665-9.Keightley, David N. (1978a), Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China,Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-02969-0; A 1985 paperback 2nd edition is still in print,ISBN 0-520-05455-5.—— (1978b), "The Bamboo Annals and Shang-Chou Chronology", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 38(2): 423–438, JSTOR 2718906 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718906).—— (1998), "Shamanism, Death, and the Ancestors: Religious Mediation in Neolithic and Shang China (ca.5000–1000 B.C.)", Asiatische Studien 52 (3): 763–831, doi:10.5169/seals-147432 (http://dx.doi.org


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/10.5169%2Fseals-147432).—— (1999), "The Shang: China's first historical dynasty", in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L., TheCambridge History of Ancient China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 232–291,ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.—— (2000), The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China (ca. 1200–1045B.C.), China Research Monograph 53, Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley,ISBN 978-1-55729-070-0.—— (2004), "The Making of the Ancestors: Late Shang Religion and Its Legacy", in Lagerwey, John,Chinese Religion and Society: The Transformation of a Field, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press,pp. 3–63, ISBN 978-962-99612-3-7.Lerner, Martin; Murck, Alfreda; Ford, Barbara B.; Hearn, Maxwell; Valenstein, Suzanne G. (1985), "AsianArt", Recent Acquisitions (Metropolitan Museum of Art): 72–88, JSTOR 1513695 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1513695).Li, Chu-tsing (1980), "The Great Bronze Age of China", Art Journal 40 (1/2): 390–395, JSTOR 776607(https://www.jstor.org/stable/776607).Qiu, Xigui (2000), Chinese writing, trans. by Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry Norman, Berkeley: Society for theStudy of Early China and The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California,ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7. (English translation of Wénzìxué Gàiyào 文字學概要, Shangwu, 1988.)Sawyer, Ralph D.; Sawyer, Mei-chün Lee (1994), Sun Tzu's The Art of War, New York: Barnes and Noble,ISBN 978-1-56619-297-2.Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1988), "Historical Perspectives on The Introduction of The Chariot Into China",Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 48 (1): 189–237, JSTOR 2719276 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2719276).Smith, Adam Daniel (2011), "The Chinese Sexagenary Cycle and the Ritual Origins of the Calendar"(http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/item/ac:128930), in Steele, John M., Calendars and Years II:Astronomy and time in the ancient and medieval world, Oxbow Books, pp. 1–37, ISBN 978-1-84217-987-1.Smith, Howard (1961), "Chinese Religion in the Shang Dynasty", International Review for the History ofReligions 8 (2): 142–150, doi:10.1163/156852761x00090 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1163%2F156852761x00090),JSTOR 3269424 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269424).Sun, Guangqi (1989), 中国古代航海史 [History of Navigation in Ancient China], Beijing: Ocean Press,ISBN 978-7-5027-0532-9.Sun, Yan (2006), "Colonizing China's Northern Frontier: Yan and Her Neighbors During the Early WesternZhou Period", International Journal of Historical Archaeology 10 (2): 159–177,doi:10.1007/s10761-006-0005-3 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10761-006-0005-3).Thorp, Robert L. (1981), "The Date of Tomb 5 at Yinxu, Anyang: A Review Article", Artibus Asiae 43 (3):239–246, JSTOR 3249839 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249839).Wagner, Donald B. (1993), Iron and Steel in Ancient China, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-09632-5.Wang, Hongyuan 王宏源 (1993), 漢字字源入門 [The Origins of Chinese Characters], Beijing: Sinolingua,ISBN 978-7-80052-243-7.


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Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to ShangDynasty.

Wilkinson, Endymion (2000), Chinese history: a manual (2nd ed.), Harvard Univ Asia Center,ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.

Further reading

Allan, Sarah (1991), The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China, SUNYPress, ISBN 978-0-7914-9449-3.Allen, Herbert J. (translator) (1895), "Ssŭma Ch'ien's Historical Records, Chapter III – The YinDynasty" (http://www.sacred-texts.com/journals/jras/1895-17.htm), Journal of the Royal AsiaticSociety 27 (3): 601–615, doi:10.1017/S0035869X00145083 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0035869X00145083).Chang, Kwang-Chih (1980), Shang Civilization, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-02885-7.Duan, Chang-Qun; Gan, Xue-Chun; Wang, Jeanny; Chien, Paul K. (1998), "Relocation ofCivilization Centers in Ancient China: Environmental Factors", Ambio 27 (7): 572–575,JSTOR 4314793 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4314793).Lee, Yuan-Yuan; Shen, Sin-yan (1999), Chinese Musical Instruments, Chinese Music MonographSeries, Chinese Music Society of North America Press, ISBN 1-880464-03-9.Needham, Joseph (1971), Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3, CambridgeUniversity Press, ISBN 978-0-521-07060-7.Shen, Sinyan (1987), "Acoustics of Ancient Chinese Bells", Scientific American 256: 94.Timperley, Harold J. (1936), The Awakening of China in Archaeology; Further Discoveries inHo-Nan Province, Royal Tombs of the Shang Dynasty, Dated Traditionally from 1766 to 1122B.C..

External links

Zhengzhou Shang City Site (http://www1.chinaculture.org/library/2008-02/15/content_36909.htm)

Preceded byXia dynasty

Dynasties in Chinese historyca. 1600–ca. 1047 BC

Succeeded byZhou dynasty

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shang_dynasty&oldid=623965756"Categories: Former monarchies of Asia Former countries in Asia1046 BC disestablishments in China States and territories established in 1600 BC Shang dynastyFormer countries in Chinese history


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