SemanticsSemantics

The systematic study of The systematic study of linguistic meaninglinguistic meaning

Linguistic MeaningLinguistic Meaning•The meaning of linguistic The meaning of linguistic

items.items.

•(linguistic item = anything, (linguistic item = anything, from a word, to a grammatical from a word, to a grammatical morpheme or a combination of morpheme or a combination of words).words).

•Different from personal/social/ Different from personal/social/ cultural meanings. cultural meanings.

Different meanings of Different meanings of meaningmeaning•What is the meaning of the What is the meaning of the

word word bookbook??–A specific book?A specific book?–The class of all books?The class of all books?–The idea of ‘bookness’ (i.e. The idea of ‘bookness’ (i.e. the idea of what makes a the idea of what makes a book a book)book a book)

Semantic triangleSemantic triangle

idea/conceptidea/concept

sign (phonemes/graphemes)sign (phonemes/graphemes) real real worldworld

• Concept: Concept: mental class of mental class of things/humans/events/ properties, etc. that things/humans/events/ properties, etc. that share certain features in meaning (i.e. which share certain features in meaning (i.e. which are sufficiently similar to each other).are sufficiently similar to each other).

• In other words, a concept is what allows us In other words, a concept is what allows us to recognize something as a book, as to recognize something as a book, as green, as walking, etc.green, as walking, etc.

Speaker meaningSpeaker meaningHe is really stupid!He is really stupid!

What do you mean by What do you mean by stupidstupid??

Not the idea of stupidity but what is the Not the idea of stupidity but what is the intention of using this word at all.intention of using this word at all.

Meaning as relation between sign and Meaning as relation between sign and intention of speaker: intention of speaker: speaker speaker meaning.meaning.

Speaker meaning is less an object for Speaker meaning is less an object for semantics but rather for semantics but rather for pragmatics/discourse analysispragmatics/discourse analysis

ReferenceReference

Can you give me this book over there!Can you give me this book over there!

Meaning as relation between sign and Meaning as relation between sign and specific thing/ person/event/property specific thing/ person/event/property in the “real word” is in the “real word” is referencereference..

It It only becomes relevant in only becomes relevant in discourse/texts, i.e. when linguistic discourse/texts, i.e. when linguistic item actually used.item actually used.

SenseSense

Meaning as relation between the sign Meaning as relation between the sign and the concept/idea: and the concept/idea:

sense.sense.

ConnotationsConnotations

• slutslut

• prostituteprostitute

• bratbrat

• childchild

• ethanolethanol

• alcoholalcohol

• obtainobtain

• getget

• scopophilicscopophilic

• Peeping TomPeeping Tom

•Meaning as Meaning as associations evoked associations evoked by concept = by concept = connotations connotations

•affective affective connotations connotations

•intertextual intertextual connotationsconnotations

How do we know whether it How do we know whether it is just a connotation?is just a connotation?• He is not skinny but slim.He is not skinny but slim.

• If you can say this then the two terms If you can say this then the two terms differ in sense.differ in sense.

• ?You cannot get it there but you can ?You cannot get it there but you can obtain it.obtain it.

• PARENTAL ADVISORY: EXPLICIT LYRICSPARENTAL ADVISORY: EXPLICIT LYRICS

• ?It is a prick and not a penis.?It is a prick and not a penis.

Lexical semanticsLexical semantics

• Mental lexicon:Mental lexicon: list of all the words that we know list of all the words that we know in our heads, stored there together with in our heads, stored there together with information about the grammatical and information about the grammatical and phonological properties of the words together phonological properties of the words together with information about their meanings. with information about their meanings.

• Lexical semantics studies the organization of the Lexical semantics studies the organization of the mental lexicon, this is, how lexemes are ordered mental lexicon, this is, how lexemes are ordered there. there. Lexical semantics thus particularly looks at Lexical semantics thus particularly looks at the meaning relationships that lexemes the meaning relationships that lexemes have with each other in the lexicon.have with each other in the lexicon.

• Assumption: meanings of a word can be described Assumption: meanings of a word can be described by the company it keeps.by the company it keeps.

Paradigmatic and Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationsyntagmatic relation• The wine is ________The wine is ________

• redred

• whitewhite

• deliciousdelicious

• very goodvery good

• Paradigmatic relationship: Paradigmatic relationship: alternatives/contrastsalternatives/contrasts

• red winered wine

• Syntagmatic relationship: combinationSyntagmatic relationship: combination

Lexical relationsLexical relations

• Within the lexicon, lexemes have Within the lexicon, lexemes have different meaning relationships to different meaning relationships to particular other lexemes. These particular other lexemes. These relationships are called relationships are called lexical lexical relationsrelations..

• flower – roseflower – rose

• whale – dolphinwhale – dolphin

• bird – blackbirdbird – blackbird

• blue – navy blueblue – navy blue

• move – walkmove – walk

HypernymyHypernymy = relation between a = relation between a general (general (hypernymhypernym) and a specific ) and a specific lexemes (lexemes (hyponymhyponym), the former ), the former implying the latter.implying the latter.

• Lexemes that are hyponyms of the Lexemes that are hyponyms of the same hypernym are same hypernym are co-hyponymsco-hyponyms..

• nose — facenose — face

• wheel — carwheel — car

• Austria — EuropeAustria — Europe

• page — bookpage — book

• branch — treebranch — tree

MeronymyMeronymy: relation between part and : relation between part and whole, e.gwhole, e.g..

• get – becomeget – become

• meronymy — part:whole relationmeronymy — part:whole relation

• mercury — quicksilvermercury — quicksilver

• despite — in spite ofdespite — in spite of

SynonymySynonymy: relation between lexemes : relation between lexemes with the same meaning.with the same meaning.

• like ‘like ‘as’ versus as’ versus like ‘like ‘love’love’

• pupil ‘pupil ‘Schüler’ versus Schüler’ versus pupilpupil ‘Pupille’ ‘Pupille’

HomonymyHomonymy: relation between : relation between lexemes that have the same form but lexemes that have the same form but different meanings, e.g.different meanings, e.g.

• homophoneshomophones: e.g. : e.g. buy — by; read — buy — by; read — red; bee — be; red; bee — be;

gaol — jailgaol — jail

• homographyhomography: e.g. : e.g. lead — lead, bow — lead — lead, bow — bowbow

• headhead

• singlesingle

• PolysemyPolysemy: relation between lexemes : relation between lexemes with the same form but different with the same form but different meanings but the meanings are clearly meanings but the meanings are clearly related.related.

• FederFeder

black – whiteblack – white married – unmarriedmarried – unmarried girl – boygirl – boy

AntonymyAntonymy: relation between lexemes : relation between lexemes whose meaning are opposites.whose meaning are opposites.

black – whiteblack – white big – smallbig – small married – unmarriedmarried – unmarried male – femalemale – female dead dead

– alive– alive

• gradable antonymsgradable antonyms: intermediate : intermediate steps between the two poles.steps between the two poles.

• non-gradable antonymsnon-gradable antonyms: no : no intermediate steps, just binary relation.intermediate steps, just binary relation.

Semantic fieldSemantic field

• Semantic relations do not hold just between Semantic relations do not hold just between pairs of lexemes, but also between whole pairs of lexemes, but also between whole groups.groups.

• Mother, daughter, father, son, children, Mother, daughter, father, son, children, parents, aunt, uncle, nephew, niece, cousinparents, aunt, uncle, nephew, niece, cousin

• Semantic fieldSemantic field (or (or word fieldword field): a group of ): a group of lexemes which are densely linked with each lexemes which are densely linked with each other. They somehow together cover one area other. They somehow together cover one area of meaning, e.g. family relations, coloursof meaning, e.g. family relations, colours

• Please, please me; With the Beatles; A Please, please me; With the Beatles; A hard day’s night; Beatles for sale; hard day’s night; Beatles for sale; Help!; Rubber Soul; Revolver; Sgt. Help!; Rubber Soul; Revolver; Sgt.

• Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band; Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band; Magical mystery tour; Yellow Magical mystery tour; Yellow Submarine; The Beatles; Abbey Road; Submarine; The Beatles; Abbey Road; Let it beLet it be

• exams, professor, teach, main building, exams, professor, teach, main building, Aula, lecture, Introduction to Aula, lecture, Introduction to English linguistics, registration, study, English linguistics, registration, study, blackboard, Mensa, copy cheque, term blackboard, Mensa, copy cheque, term paperpaper

CollocationsCollocations

• Word partnerships, i.e. words that Word partnerships, i.e. words that tend to occur together, e.g. tend to occur together, e.g. redred and and winewine..

• flockflock lionslions

• schoolschool wolveswolves

• pridepride beesbees

• podpod fishfish

• packpack cowscows

• herdherd whaleswhales

• swarmswarm birdsbirds

• Collocates of Collocates of on the on the verge ofverge of

• war war 2222

• collapse collapse 1515

• death death 1414

• disasterdisaster 1313

• bankruptcybankruptcy 77

• revolutionrevolution66

• extinctionextinction 55

• starvationstarvation55

• chaoschaos 44

• defeatdefeat 44

• Collocates of Collocates of on the on the brink ofbrink of

• tears tears 3232

• collapsecollapse 2020

• extinctionextinction 1616

• bankruptcybankruptcy 1414

• deathdeath 77

• warwar 77

• losinglosing 55

• retirementretirement 55

• starvationstarvation55

• hysteriahysteria 44

Internal structure of Internal structure of meaningmeaning

• Can you define the meaning of Can you define the meaning of

• foalfoal

• diedie

• Definitions show you that we can take Definitions show you that we can take meanings apart, divide them into meanings apart, divide them into their components.their components.

• But what are these components?But what are these components?

Componential analysisComponential analysis

• The first attempt at semantic analysis was The first attempt at semantic analysis was componential analysis. componential analysis.

• It assumes that all meanings can be It assumes that all meanings can be decomposed into semantic features, which decomposed into semantic features, which are usually binary, i.e. [±]are usually binary, i.e. [±]

• womanwoman: : [+ human] [+ female] [+ adult][+ human] [+ female] [+ adult]

• manman: : [+ human] [- female] [+ adult][+ human] [- female] [+ adult]

• girlgirl: : [+ human] [+ female] [- adult][+ human] [+ female] [- adult]

• boyboy: : [+ human] [- female] [- adult][+ human] [- female] [- adult]

• But...But...

• What about What about snakesnake??

• OOr r breast-strokebreast-stroke??

• So componential analysis only works So componential analysis only works with a few concepts.with a few concepts.

Let’s try another oneLet’s try another one

• longlong

• highhigh

• deepdeep

• broadbroad

• They all refer to extension in space, and all They all refer to extension in space, and all refer to the upper pole of this dimension.refer to the upper pole of this dimension.

• What then are the differences?What then are the differences?

• What can they go together with?What can they go together with?

• taketake givegive

• borrowborrow lendlend

• buybuy sellsell

• comecome gogo

• hugehuge and and largelarge

• hot hot and and warmwarm

• terrifiedterrified and and scaredscared

• looklook and and stare stare

• talk talk and and whisperwhisper

• red red and and scarletscarlet

What is a bird?What is a bird?

PrototypesPrototypes

• Sense (and thus concepts) are not Sense (and thus concepts) are not homogenous. There are elements homogenous. There are elements which are more at the centre of a which are more at the centre of a meaning category and elements meaning category and elements that are more at the margins. that are more at the margins.

• And they do not have clear boundaries And they do not have clear boundaries either, either, this is greenthis is green and and this is blue, this is blue,

but what about but what about this?this?

• The centre is called the prototype of The centre is called the prototype of the meaning.the meaning.

• It might be defined by features (e.g. It might be defined by features (e.g. the prototypical bird can fly) or by the prototypical bird can fly) or by exemplars (e.g. the prototypical bird is exemplars (e.g. the prototypical bird is the robin).the robin).

Prototype effectsPrototype effects

• Prototypical members are more likely to Prototypical members are more likely to be mentioned first if you ask people to be mentioned first if you ask people to give you as many examples of a give you as many examples of a category as possible (e.g. birds or trees)category as possible (e.g. birds or trees)

• Prototypical members are more likely to Prototypical members are more likely to be learned first in language acquisitionbe learned first in language acquisition

• Prototypical members are more easily Prototypical members are more easily recognized than non-prototypical recognized than non-prototypical members.members.

• In the absence of other evidence In the absence of other evidence prototypes function as default prototypes function as default options.options.

Grammatical semanticsGrammatical semantics

• Grammatical semantics deals with Grammatical semantics deals with grammatical meaning.grammatical meaning.

• lexical meaninglexical meaning: meaning of : meaning of lexemeslexemes

• grammatical meaninggrammatical meaning: meaning of : meaning of grammatical words, bound grammatical words, bound morphemes, and syntactic morphemes, and syntactic constructions.constructions.

Modifying other meaningsModifying other meanings

• Many of these linguistic items modify the meanings Many of these linguistic items modify the meanings of events expressed by verbs, entities of events expressed by verbs, entities expressed by nouns, properties expressed by expressed by nouns, properties expressed by adjectives.adjectives.

• The comparative in theThe comparative in the adjective has the meaning adjective has the meaning ‘more of the property’ ‘more of the property’

• The plural in nouns signifies ‘more than one entity’.The plural in nouns signifies ‘more than one entity’.

• Tense in the verbTense in the verb modifies temporal structure of modifies temporal structure of event and positions event relative to time of event and positions event relative to time of speakingspeaking

Sentence meaningSentence meaning

• She watched the audience during the She watched the audience during the performance.performance.

• propositionproposition: meaning unit that expresses a state : meaning unit that expresses a state of affairs (Sachverhalt) and can therefore of affairs (Sachverhalt) and can therefore be true or false. A proposition is like a be true or false. A proposition is like a play and can be analysed into play and can be analysed into

– action (action (processesprocesses) – ) – watchingwatching– characters (characters (participantsparticipants) – ) – she; the audienceshe; the audience– wings/props (wings/props (circumstancescircumstances) – ) – during the during the

performance performance

Thematic rolesThematic roles

• Participants have different roles in the Participants have different roles in the processes.processes.

• Agent: initiate a process – Agent: initiate a process – sheshe hit the hit the ballball

• Patient: affected by a process – Patient: affected by a process – she she hit hit the ballthe ball

• Recipient: Recipient: she gave all the money she gave all the money to to the poorthe poor