selections from historical writings on art education

National Art Education Association

Selections from Historical Writings on Art EducationAuthor(s): Robert J. SaundersSource: Art Education, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Jan., 1966), pp. 25-29Published by: National Art Education AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3190762 .

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A portfolio of source material, presenting l i~,:~ t ~. '"'^~~ :/~ ,for the perusal of the reader a group of

writings by Aristotle, Rabelais, John Locke, Maria and Richard Edgeworth, Frederick Froebel, and Horace Mann. Compiled and annotated by ROBERT J. SAUNDERS.

c.4 ristotle

Selected from "The Basic Works In "Politics," Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) wrote about the ideal state. In the last of Aristotle", edited by Richard book, Book VIII, he observes that the goal

of the ideal state is leisure. He differentiates McKeon (New York: Random House, 1941), "Politics," Bk. between leisure, which is spent in pursuit of those activities which have no other VIII, Chap. 3, pp. 1306-1308. purpose than the enjoyment of them, and the enrichment of a virtuous life and

recreation, the opposite of work. The Greek word for leisure was skole, from which we get the word school. At the beginning of chapter 3, Book VIII, Aristotle observed:

The customary branches of education are in number four; they are-(1) reading and writing, (2) gymnastic exercises, (3) music, to which is sometimes added, (4) drawing. Of these, reading and writing and drawing are regarded as useful for the purposes of life in a variety of ways, and gymnastic exercises are thought to infuse courage. Concerning music a doubt may be raised-in our own day most men cultivate it for the sake of pleasure, but originally it was included in education, because nature herself, as has been said, requires that we should be able, not only to work well, but to use leisure well; for, as I must repeat once again, the first principle of all action is leisure. . . .

It is evident, then, that there is a sort of education in which parents should train their sons, not as being useful or necessary, but because it is liberal or noble. . . . Thus much we are now in a position to say, that the ancients witness to us; for their opinion may be gathered from the fact that music is one of the received and traditional branches of education. Further, it is clear that children should be instructed in some useful things-for example, in reading and writing-not only for their usefulness, but also because many other sorts of knowledge are acquired through them. With a like view they may be taught drawing, not to prevent their making mistakes in their own purchases (of paintings or sculpture), or in order that they may not be imposed upon in their buying or selling of articles, but perhaps rather because it makes them judges of the beauty of human form. To be always seeking after the useful does not become free and exalted souls. Now it is clear that in education practice must be used before theory, and the body be trained before the mind; and therefore boys should be handed over to the trainer, who creates in them the proper habit of body, and to the wrestling-master, who teaches them their exercises.

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'Rabelais Selected from "The Histories of Gargantua and Pantagruel" by Francois Rabelais, (Balti- more: Penguin Books, Ltd., 1957), Translated by J. M. Cohen p. 89.

Selected from "Some Thoughts Concerning Education" by John Locke, Introduction and Notes by R. H. Quick (Cambridge: University Press, 1934), pp. 136- 137.

It does not require much of a reference for an educational historian to latch onto a phrase, and say the teaching of a subject was mentioned by so-and-so in his work published sometime-or-other. Usually it is the entire context of the reference which is important, and in the various references to the education of Gargantua in Rabelais'

"Gargantua and Pantagruel" (1535), it is his satirizing of the abuse of Scholasticism by the humanists to which the historians refer. Be that as it may, it is this work along with the essays of Montaigne, "On Pedantry" and "Of the Institution and Education of Children: to the Lady Diana of Foix, Countess of Gurson" (1580), and "The Great Didactic" of John Amos Commenius (1592-1670) that we find the beginning of recommendations that drawing be taught as an accomplishment for gentlemen. We offer here, the earlier reference by Rabelais: it is not as loud as a school bell, or as wide as a school door, but it is enough to establish an historical precedent. It occurs in the Chapter 23 of Book I, "How Gargantua was so disciplined by Ponocrates that he did not waste an Hour of the Day." After studying reading, writing, Holy Writ, and Greek scholars since four in the morning, and having reviewed his lessons, he had lunch, reviewed the lessons again, learned numbers by playing dice and cards, studied mathematical sciences, geometry, and astronomy. Mid-afternoon, Gargantua studied the art of lettering:

After this they amused themselves by singing music in four or five parts or on a set theme, to their throats' content. With regard to musical instruments, he learned to play the lute, the spinet, the harp, the German flute, the nine-holed flute, the viol, and the trombone. After spending an hour in this way, his digestion being complete, he got rid of his natural excrements, and then returned to his principal study for three hours or more, during which time he repeated the morning's reading, went on with the book in hand, and also practiced writing, drawing, and shaping the Gothic and Roman letters.

?ocke In March of either 1692, or 1693, John Locke after being much prevailed upon by friends to do so, published his essay "Some Thoughts Concerning Education." Originally the essay was a series of letters sent to Locke's friend, Edward Clarke, of Chipley, Esq., and were concerned with the education of Clarke's son. We find in the following passage, a continuation of drawing in the training of a gentleman, which began with the previously selected passage from Rabelais, and perhaps influenced Benjamin Franklin later, in his "Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania (1749)," to the effect that with writing, "may be learnt something of Drawing, by Imitation of Prints, and some of the first Principles of Perspective."

161. Drawing. When he can write well and quick, I think it may be convenient not only to continue the Exercise of his Hand in Writing, but also to improve the Use of it farther in Drawing; a Thing very useful to a Gentleman in several Occasions; but especially if he travel, as that which helps a Man often to express, in a few Lines well put together, what a whole Sheet of Paper in Writing would not be able to represent and make intelligible. How many Buildings may a Man see, how many Machines and Habits meet with, the Ideas whereof would be easily retain'd and communicated by a little Skill in Drawing; which being committed to Words, are in danger to be lost, or at best but ill retained in the most exact Descrip- tions? I do not mean that I would have your Son a perfect Painter; to be that to

any tolerable Degree, will require more Time than a young Gentleman can spare from his other Improvements of greater Moment. But so much Insight into Perspective and Skill in Drawing, as will enable him to represent tolerably on Paper any thing he sees, except Faces, may, I think, be got in a little Time, especially if he have a Genius to it; but where that is wanting, unless it be in the things absolutely necessary, it is better to let him pass them by quietly, than to vex him about them to no Purpose: And therefore in this, as in all other things not absolutely necessary, the Rule holds, Nil invita Minerva. [Note: R. H. Quick interprets this phrase, "Nil invita Minerva" to mean, "Do nothing without the consent of Minerva," against the natural bent, against the grain.]

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f roebel Selection from "The Education of Man" by Frederick Froebel, translated by W. N. Hailman. (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1826).

Selected from "Seventh Annual Report to The Board of Educa- tion of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts," from "Common School Journal", April 15, 1844, pp. 132-135.

Although educational practices which seem respectable during one period of time may no longer be so during another, knowing the source of them can aid in under- standing how they entered into common practice. The following passage from, "The Education of Man" by Frederick Froebel (1826) may well be the beginning of coloring books. If this is true, then their introduction into the public school system may have resulted from the concepts of the Kindergarten movement. In view of the following selection, and what we know of the spread of Froebellean methods throughout Germany during the last century, it is possible to understand what Viktor Lowenfeld meant, when, while discussing the effects of coloring books on children's ability to think, he said to his students at Penn State: "Nazism began in the kindergartens of Germany." We also find how even the best intended methods of education can, through misuse, become among the worst methods of education.

About a dozen boys of suitable age are gathered around their teacher like sheep around their shepherd. As the shepherd leads his sheep to green pastures, so the teacher is to lead the boys to joyous activity. It is Wednesday afternoon, when there is no ordinary school instruction; but to-day there is no call for other activity. It is fall, and the desire to paint has often been expressed by each one of these active boys. Perhaps fall invites the boys most urgently to paint, because the colors in nature are most varied and massive in the latter part of fall; and each one has probably tried in his own way to obey the summons.

"Come, let us paint," the teacher says. "It is true, you have painted a great deal; but painting itself and the things you painted did not seem to please you long for you did not paint in distinct and pure colors. Come, let us see if we can not do better together. Now, what shall we paint? What is easy enough for us? For we are to learn, and what we paint should be simple, and of one color if possible."

Teacher and pupils decide quickly that it is easiest to paint leaves, flowers, or fruits. Leaves are chosen; for the beautiful, bright red, yellow, etc., trees, and the gorgeous leaves which in perfect fall days float with a gentle rustle from branches, and deck the ground with a brilliant carpet, have been keenly noticed by the boys, and often they have bound them in wreaths and brought home.

"Here are outlines of leaves [the teacher had prepared them for the purpose]; how will you paint them ?" "Green," "Red," "Yellow," "Brown." "Which leaves will you paint green, red, etc.? Why?"

The teacher then distributes the paints, properly prepared. First, the colors are correctly designated. It need, however, scarcely be mentioned that-inasmuch as the representation of the object is secondary, and the knowledge and treatment of the colors primary consideration-we can not expect to do more than to give the leaves approximately exact coloring. For the present, even distribution of the color, keeping within the lines, etc., are as yet the most important concerns; the proper position of the body, in order to insure free movement of arm, hand, and finger, is a matter to be attended to, of course.

Inasmuch as each pigment requires its own treatment, we do not pass from one color to the next until the pupil has attained proficiency in the use of the former.

j%ann Horace Mann's tour of Europe, and the "Seventh Annual Report" and his discussion of drawing in the Prussian schools which resulted from it, are standard reference points in nineteenth century art education history. However, there is confusion about the dates. In one instance, the tour has been placed in 1839 (Logan'), and the date of the report for 1843 (Bennett2). We clarify. On May 1, 1843, Horace Mann, and his bride since that morning, Mary Peabody Mann, sailed for Europe on the tour which was also their honeymoon. Horace visited schools, prisons, hospitals, and asylums. Although Mary accompanied him many places, she did not go with him to the dangerous parts of the cities. She preferred country houses, palaces and their

'Frederick Logan, Growth of Art in American Schools (New York: Harper and Bros. Co., Inc. 1955), p. 19.

'Charles Bennett, History of Manual and Industrial Education up to 1870 (Peoria, Ill., Chas. A. Bennett Co., 1926), p. 421.

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GRAPHIC CREDITS IN THIS SECTION: Page 25 and above, illustrations from "The Ameri- can Drawing Book: A Manual for the Amateur and Basis of Study for the Professional Art- ist," by J. G. Chapman. Pub- lished by J. S. Redfield, Clinton Hall, N.Y., 1847.

gardens, and art museums. They visited parts of England, Scotland, the German states, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, and France. They returned November 15, 1843.

Horace had a stronger sense of moral justice and humnan need than he had a sense of the aesthetic. After he and Mary had visited the cathedral at York, he wrote in his journal: "To me the sight of one child educated to understand something of his Maker, and of that Maker's works, is a far more glorious spectacle than all the cathedrals which of the art of man ever reared .. .

Years later, Mllary, in her biography of her husband, wrote "In Germany alone he met with any true comprehension of what he regarded as moral and religious instruction." Mann's now famous report on drawing in the Prussian schools, was quite concerned with the relation between good penmanship and the teaching of drawing. Mann usually published his annual reports through the "Common School Journal," of which he, as Secretary of Education for the Commonwealth of Massa- chusetts, was editor. "The Seventh Annual Report" was published in a series of issues. The section on "Drawing and Writing" occurred in the April 15, 1844 issue (pp. 132-135). We present an excerpt here:

Such excellent hand-writing as I saw in the Prussian schools, I never saw before. I can hardly express myself too strongly on this point. In Great Britain, France, or in our own country, I have never seen any schools worthy to be compared with theirs in this respect. I have before said that I found all children provided with a slate and pencil. They write or print letters, and begin with the elements of drawing, either immediately or very soon after they enter school. This furnishes the greater part of the explanation of their excellent hand-writing. A part of it, I think, should be referred to the peculiarity of the German script, which seems to me to be easier than our own. But after all due allowance is made for this advantage, a high degree of superiority over the schools of other countries remains to be accounted for. This superiority cannot be attributed in any degree to a better manner of holding the pen, for I never saw so great a proportion of cases in any schools where the pen was so awkwardly held. This excellence must be referred in a great degree to the universal practice of learning to draw, contemporaneously with learning to write. I believe a child will learn both to draw and to write sooner and with more ease, than he will learn writing alone;-and for this reason:-the figures or objects contemplated and copied in learning to draw, are larger, more marked, more distinctive one from another, and more sharply defined with projection, angle or curve, than the letters copied in writing. In drawing there is more variety, in writing more sameness. Now the objects contemplated in drawing, from their nature, attract attention more readily, impress the mind more deeply, and of course will be more accurately copied than those in writing. And when the eye has been trained to observe, to distinguish, and to imitate, in the first exercise, it applies its habits with great advantage to the second.

Another reason is, that the child is taught to draw things with which he is familiar, which have some significance and give him pleasing ideas. But a child who is made to fill page after page with rows of straight marks, that look so blank and cheerless though done ever so well, has and can have no pleasing associations with his work. The practice of beginning with making inexpressive marks, or with writing unintelligible words, bears some resemblance, in its lifelessness, to that of learning the alphabet. Each exhales torpor and stupidity to deaden the vivacity of the worker. ... In the course of my tour, I passed from countries where almost every pupil in every school could draw with ease, and most of them with no inconsiderable degree of beauty and expression, to those where less and less attention was paid to the subject; and, at last, to schools where drawing was not practiced at all; and after many trials, I came to the conclusion that, with no other guide than a mere inspection of the copy-books of the pupils, I could tell whether drawing were taught in the school or not;-so uniformily superior was the hand-writing in those schools where drawing was taught in connection with it. On seeing this, I was reminded of that saying of Pestalozzi,-somewhat too strong,-that "without drawing there can be no writing."

But suppose it were otherwise, and that learning to draw retarded the acquisition

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of good penmanship, how richly would the learner be compensated for the sacrifice. Drawing, of itself, is an expressive and beautiful language. A few strokes of the pen or pencil will often represent to the eye what no amount of words, however well chosen, can communicate. For the master-architect, for the engraver, the engineer, the pattern-designer, the draughtsman, moulder, machine-builder, or head mechanic of any kind, all acknowledge that this art is essential and indispensable. But there is no department of business or condition in life, where the accomplishment would not be of utility. Every man should be able to plot a field, to sketch a road or a river, to draw the outlines of a simple machine, a piece of household furniture or a farming utensil, and to delineate the internal arrangement or construction of a house.

But to be able to represent by lines and shadows what no words can depict, is only a minor part of the benefit of learning to draw. The study of this art develops the talent of observing, even more than that of delineating. Although a man may have but comparatively few occasions to picture forth what he has observed, yet the power of observation should be cultivated by every rational being. The skillful delineator is not only able to describe far better what he has seen, but he sees twice as many things in the world as he would otherwise do. To one whose eye has never been accustomed to mark the form, color or peculiarities of objects, all external nature is enveloped in a haze, which no sunshine, however bright, will ever dissipate. The light which dispels this obscurity must come from within. Teaching a child to draw, then, is the development in him of a new talent,-the conferring upon him, as it were, of a new sense,-by means of which he is not only better enabled to attend to the common duties of life, and to be more serviceable to his fellow-men, but he is more likely to appreciate the beauties and magnificence of nature, which everywhere reflect the glories of the Creator into his soul. When accompanied by appropriate instruction of a moral and religious character, this accomplishment becomes a quickener to devotion.

&dgeworth Selected from "Essays in Prac- tical Education" by Maria and Richard Edgeuworth (London: printed for J. Johnson, St. Paul's Church Yard, by J. Crowder, Warick Sq. Second Edition in Three Volumes, 1801), Vol. III, pp. 8-10.

In the same way that Locke prescribed how drawing should be taught to the young gentleman, Maria and Richard Edgeworth, in "Essays in Practical Education" (1799, 1801), discuss the nature of drawing as a "Female Accomplishment":

Those who have excelled in drawing do not appear to abandon the occupation so suddenly; it does not demand such an inordinate quantity of time (as music) to keep up the talent; the exertion of the imitative powers is agreeable; the employment is progressive, and therefore the mind is carried on to complete what has been begun. Independently of all applause, which may be expected for the performance, there is a pleasure in going on with the work. But setting aside enthusiasm and habit, the probability that any sensible person will continue to pursue a given employment, must depend, in a great measure, upon their own conviction of its utility, or of its being agreeable to those whom they wish to please. The pleasure, which a lady's friends receive from her drawings, arises chiefly from the perception of their comparative excellence. Comparative excellence is all to which gentlewomen artists usually pretend, all to which they expect to attain; positive excellence is scarcely attained by one in a hundred. Compared with the performances of other young ladies of their acquaintance, the drawings of Miss X or Y may be justly considered as charming! admirable! astonishing! But there are few drawings by young ladies which can be compared with those of a professed artist. The wishes of obliging friends are satisfied with a few drawings in handsome frames, to be hung up for the young lady's credit; and when it is allowed amongst their acquaintance that she draws in a superior style, the purpose of this part of her education is satisfactorily answered. We do not here speak of those few individuals who really excel in drawing, who have learnt something more than the common routine which is usually learnt from a drawing-master, who have acquired an agreeable talent, not for the mere purpose of exhibiting themselves, but for the sake of the occupation it affords and the pleasure it may give to their friends.

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selections from historical writings on art education

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