selecting expatriates

Selecting expatriates for increasingly complex globalassignments

Michael HarveyMichael F Price College of Business University of Oklahoma NormanOklahoma USAMilorad M NovicevicUniversity of Wisconsin La Crosse Wisconsin USA

In a recent survey of Fortune 500 human

resource managers 85 per cent of the

respondents did not feel that their

organizations had an adequate number of

managersleaders to manage their future global

business operations (Gregersen et al 1988)

Introduction

The globalization of business has accelerated

at a pace that has frequently outpaced many

organizationsrsquo ability to identify and develop

an adequate number of qualified expatriate

managers (Welch 1994 Stroh and Caligiuri

1998 Gregersen et al 1998) The ability to

compete in increasingly hypercompetitive

global markets necessitates having qualified

global managers who have competencies that

differentiate the organizationsrsquo strategic

choices (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1995 Pfeffer

1994 Ghoshal and Bartlett 1997) A successful

global manager will have to possess a complex

amalgamation of technical political social

organizational and cultural competencies

beyond those found in many of the expatriates

of the past (Bartlett 1986 Bartlett and Ghoshal

1994 Ghoshal and Bartlett 1997) The ability to

amass the collective managerial skills to

compete in the hypercompetitive global

marketplace may be one of the most important

strategic tasks facing the management of

rapidly expanding global organizations The

global leadership development through

` superiorrsquorsquo expatriate managers has been

described as a ` contestrsquorsquo for global core

competency (Rumelt 1994 Heene 1994)

The purpose of this paper is to examine

past methods used in the selection of

expatriate managers develop a competency-

based theoretical foundation for a new

integrated model for the selection of

expatriate managers explain specific

componentsstages of the integrated

expatriate selection model and illustrate the

managerial implications of the selection

model and develop a recommended

procedure for managerial practice Each of

these sections of the paper will be discussed

in the following sections of the paper

The selection of expatriatemanagers past methods and theirsuccesses and limitations

The selection of expatriate managers for

assignments has had a long and tortured

research history (Fish 1999 Ones and

Viswesvaran 1997 Spreitzer et al 1997)

Initial models documented that technical or

functional expertise has been the primary

criterion for selecting expatriate managers

for assignments (Mendenhall et al 1987

Tung 1981 1982) Further attempts at

identifying an appropriate model for

selecting expatriate managers focused on

identifying personal characteristics of

candidates that could help improve the

chances of expatriate managersrsquo ` survivalrsquorsquo

during assignments (for example see Baliga

and Baker 1985 Hays 1971 1974 Tucker

1978 Tung 1981) Although models used for

the selection of managers vary with the

nationality of the organization the core

concepts have centered on functional

capabilities and personal characteristics of

potential candidates (see Levy-Leboyer (1994)

for a review of European selection methods)

While these early studies identified a number

of specific issues that could impact on the

success or failure of expatriate managers

initially very little was done to develop a

more systemic approach to the expatriate

selection process

Figure 1 illustrates the individual

organizational environmental and systemic

issues of influence on an expatriatersquos success

Section 1 Academic papers

The research register for this journal is available at

httpwwwmcbupcomresearch_registersThe current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

httpwwwemerald-librarycomft

[ 69 ]

Career DevelopmentInternational62 [2001] 69plusmn86

MCB University Press[ISSN 1362-0436 ]

KeywordsExpatriates Project managementSelection International operations

AbstractAs organizations globalize theiroperations there is a heightened

need to identify and selectqualified managers for overseasassignments The increased

complexity of these foreignassignments necessitates arecalibration of the traditional

selection procedures andprocesses used in the past Inparticular there is some evidence

that expatriation becomesstrategic as organizationsincreasingly grow and compete

globally Therefore the criticalissues which arise as expatriatesrsquo

assignments evolve into a globalassignment scope must beviewed in a systematic manner

This paper develops a uniquetheory-based expatriation

selection process based upon asystemic assessment of potentialexpatriate candidatesrsquo multipleIQs learning styles thinking

styles and the nature of theexpatriate assignment Inaddition a practical step-by-step

managerial process is developedthat can be used in the selection

of expatriate managers for globalassignments

failure that were gleaned from research

conducted on expatriate selection This type of

diagnostic approach to the research of

expatriation did not provide an integrated

theoretical view to guide practice of

expatriate staffing The explanatory approach

to expatriate selection has however been

recently modified toward a more predictive

approach to take into consideration an ex ante

examination of personality characteristics of

potential expatriate managers

Specifically researchers have

concentrated their attention on the

predictive power of the big five personality

characteristics for expatriate success The

five characteristics examined are

1 extroversion plusmn individuals that

successfully assert themselves and gain

acceptance in the social environment

through social relationships (Ones and

Viswesvaran 1997)

2 agreeablenes plusmn being identified as a team

player through the formation of reciprocal

social alliances and the building of social

capital in the organization (Caligiuri

2000)

3 conscientiousness plusmn trusted diligent

cohorts that are productive and

supportive of increased organizational

performance (Hogan 1996)

4 emotional stability plusmn the intrapersonal

ability to adapt and cope with stress in

professional and personal spheres of onersquos

life (Buss 1991) and

5 openness and intellect plusmn having the ability

for individuals to effectively complete

their functional assignment and at the

same time an awareness of the

environment to allow for adaptation of

their behavior to changing conditions in

that environment (Behling 1998)

While these personality characteristics are

thought to have a predictive power relative to

the success of expatriate managers the

empirical research to fully support this

position is somewhat lacking In a

comprehensive review of 117 empirical

studies using the big five personality

characteristics Barrick and Mount (1991)

found that conscientiousness was the best

single predictor of individual performance

The same sort of survey of research was

conducted in Europe resulting in similar

although not as strong results Moreover the

tie to organizational performance using the

big five personality characteristics as the

primary selection means is also somewhat

tentative (for a review of the issues see Wood

(1999)) In addition to the big five personality

attributes the development of classifications

or categories of soft social skills has been

used for the selection of managers

Figure 1Predicting successfailure of expatriate managers

[ 70 ]

Michael Harvey andMilorad M NovicevicSelecting expatriates forincreasingly complex globalassignments


Several skill classification schemes illustrate

the intent of the practitioners to establish

multiple means to predict success for

expatriate managers The Ashridge

Management Research Center identified five

skill categories with multiple items in each

category

1 strategic awareness and support

2 adaptability in newnovel environmental

situations

3 sensitivity and openness to other cultures

and social mores

4 language capabilities interpersonal

communication skills (Harris and

Brewster 1999)

Other studies supporting the ` softrsquorsquo skill

approach (ie skills not directly tied to

technical training and functional expertise)

have extended the number of categories to

include global awareness corporate

strategy cultural empathy cross-cultural

team building international negotiation

skills ethical understanding of conducting

business in foreign countries and self-

confidence Many practitioners feel that

these additional screening devices augment

the more traditional personality

characteristics-based selection tools But

most recently IHRM has begun to develop a

more systematic approach to the entire

human resource management process

There is a growing group of academic

IHRM researchers that contend that selection

and other human resource functions should

not be viewed separately but must be viewed

as an integrated system of human resource

functions (Becker and Gerhart 1996 Huselid

1995 Huselid et al 1997) IHRM researchers

appear to have adopted this systemic

approach toward human resource functions

by developing integrative IHRM frameworks

(for example see Dowling et al 1999 Taylor

et al 1996 Welch 1994) Therefore the

selection process would have to be fully

integrated into the other human resource

functions such as trainingdevelopment

compensation performance appraisal and

the like

These integrated human resource systems

should be attuned to the strategic position

taken by the firm relative to its future global

expectations By examining all the human

resource functions as a system it is felt that

better collective human resource decisions

will be made which will increase the

consistency among the various operating

units in a global network It would be

difficult at this juncture in evaluating the

selection process for expatriate managers to

claim that the selection of these managers is

a systemic well-articulated and documented

process The complexity associated with

selection of expatriates to fill changing

assignments is becoming more vexing given

the staffing requirements associated with

global organizations entering emerging

markets It therefore would appear to be a

propitious time to develop an expatriate

selection process that is keyed to multiple

abilities of candidates better understanding

of candidatesrsquo methods of learning and the

overall competence of managers across a

broad spectrum of personal and professional

skills If organizations are going to be

effective global competitors the competence

repertoire of expatriate managers will play

an integral role in the effective development

and implementation of the organizationsrsquo

strategies Therefore developing a

competency-based theoretical view of

expatriate selection provides the frame for

examining such a process

A competency-based view ofexpatriate selection

A competency-based view of the relationship

between human resource management and

expatriate staffing suggests that input

managerial and transformation-based

competencies operate interdependently

creating firm-specific competencies that can

produce a sustained competitive advantage

(Lado and Wilson 1994) A competency-based

perspective explicitly addresses the dynamic

nature of the global environment by

acknowledging that the initial set of

competencies (ie organizational and

individual) should be renewed by the

development of new competencies through

orchestrated selection of bettermore

qualified expatriate managers This renewal

suggests that a global organization should

formulate its strategic intent to discover and

develop new competencies of strategic

relevance through development of the

complementary competencies to those

possessed by past expatriate managers

(Sanchez et al 1996)

Figure 2 illustrates the basic components

of a competency-based strategic choice

process Competencies are divided into three

distinct categories

1 input competencies plusmn capital labor

physical assets and other factor inputs to

the global organization

2 managerial competencies plusmn top

management team (TMT) capabilities

managerial social knowledge informal

internalexternal business networks of

global organizations and personal social

capital of expatriate managers that can be

[ 71 ]



used to accomplish the mission of the

organization and

3 transformation-based competencies plusmn the

ability of management to accomplish the

tasks necessary to gain competitive

position in the marketplace which

assumes adaptability and learning

capabilities embedded in the expatriate

manager as well as the global organization

(Harvey et al 1999)

As is depicted in Figure 2 the three types

of competencies can be bundled to provide

a set of strategic choice options A greater

set of competencies throughout the

operating entities of the global organization

equates to improved strategic options

The strategic choice options are weighed

against the opportunities in each of the

host countryrsquos environmental contexts

As the level of competencies increases

and the environmental contexts become

more uncertain management may make

future strategic choices to position the

global organization dynamically in the

business landscape based on the competent

advice from the globally dispersed

expatriate network This continuous

expatriate-sourced reassessment of

competencies and market changes allows

the organization to develop a global

competency unique from other

organizations competing in

hypercompetitive market segments

(Harvey et al 1999) Each of the specific

types of competencies will be briefly

discussed

Input competenciesInput resources play a critical role in

developing sustained competitive advantage

within the firm value chain These are the

same competencies that would be identified

in a resource-based view of the firm the

bundled tangible and intangible internal

resources (Oster 1990) that are valuable

rare imperfectly mobile and inimitable

(Barney 1991) These input resources may

include physical assets organizational

capital and specific human resources that

enable an organization to effectively compete

in the global marketplace with valued

products and services (Lado and Wilson

1994)

Specific to global organizations attempting

to develop dynamic capabilities through

expatriation of managers is the identification

and selection of an adequate number of

qualified managers with a strong desire or

interest in managing in subsidiaries These

input human resources may also include

third country nationals employed in overseas

subsidiaries who share their tacit knowledge

of the local context with members of the

home country organization

Managerial competenciesManagerial competencies focus on the global

organizationrsquos vision of the TMT and the

decisions and actions necessary to realize

that vision (Lado et al 1992) Managerial

competencies may create sustained

competitive advantage directly if the TMT is

able to exploit unique expatriate specific

competencies These competencies are

Figure 2Competency-based strategic choice process

[ 72 ]



particularly valuable to the organization if

they provide an institutional bridge between

the cultural social and political divide often

found between the domestic and foreign

subsidiaries (Gabby and Zuckerman 1998)

As these managerial competencies develop

the resulting outcomes from implementing

new strategic visions may reshape the

thinking actions and even the worldview of

the TMT making it ultimately evolve into a

global mindset (Kefalas 1998 Paul 2000)

Specific to expatriate staffing of subsidiaries

a competency-based perspective would suggest

that a diverse and heterogeneous set of

cognitive perspectives (Mahoney and Pandian

1992) and managersrsquo coordination capabilities

(Sanchez et al 1996) can encourage superior

performance of the network of subsidiaries

The objective would be to create

multidimensional competencies to facilitate

effective implementation of global as well as

local initiatives The importance of global

assignments for expatriate managers is

directly tied to their ability to transfer

knowledge and cultural attributes of the

headquarters to overseas operations (Bender

and Fish 2000) Developing this multilevel

competency through knowledge transfer may

result in a superior performance of the

organization (Wright et al 1994)

Transformation-based competenciesThe TMT may also need to acquire and

develop competencies to more effectively

address issues and collaborative

relationships with external entities and

institutions (ie government agencies banks

suppliers customers strategic alliance

partners) and key individuals in the host

countries This broad set of competencies has

been labeled as transformation-based

Transformation-based competencies are

those that enable the foreign subsidiary to

transform inputs into outputs and may

include alliance-based technology or

marketing innovations that facilitate new

product and customer relationship

development (Lado et al 1992) Similarly

these competencies may create a collective

experience base andor learning capability

resulting in an organizational culture

conducive to learning that is difficult for

competitors to replicate and therefore can

create a relative competitive advantage over

other global organizations (Taylor et al 1996

Roth and OrsquoDonnell 1996)

It is imperative to transfer transformational

competencies through cross cultural manager

assignments thereby building more diverse

and pluralistic management teams in overseas

operations (Fish and Wood 1997b)

Transformation-based competencies can play a

specific role in global organizations and their

subsidiaries First there may be situations

outside the global organizationrsquos network of

relationships which may require tacit local

knowledge to explore business relationship

options and exploit opportunities in a specific

geographic area or culture By utilizing

competent expatriates with multiple skills

global organizations are developing a resource

competency of such tacit knowledge that is

difficult for global competitors to duplicate

Furthermore the tacit knowledge gain

through having highly qualified expatriate

managers in foreign subsidiaries can be

brought back and embedded into the domestic

firm-specific routines which in turn can

facilitate organizational learning ultimately

increasing organizational effectiveness in

global competitive positioning

By combining the three types of

competencies effectively the global

organizations can configure a repertoire of

strategic choices relative to a specific

national competitive environment while at

the same time being mindful of the need to

maintain consistency among subsidiary

policiesprocedures Such consistency is

derived from the development of a TMT

global mindset which in turn thrives on the

creation of an adequate pool of global

managers with complementary competencies

and maintains a proactive posture relative to

the value of assembling motivating and

retaining a multicultural management team

for use in global organizations (Kedia and

Mukherji 1999 Kefalas 1998 Paul 2000)

Therefore an expatriate staffing system

needs to be developed that facilitates effective

deployment of the firm-specific competencies

based on individual competencies of

expatriates

Competency-based model ofexpatriate selection

In an effort to develop a more comprehensive

selection process of expatriate managers for

increasingly complex global assignments a

model has been developed to highlight the key

decision variables in the method (see Figure 3

The basic premise of the model is that

potential expatriate managers have multiple

` IQsrsquorsquo that need to be inventoried to determine

the unique skill set of each candidate

(Sternberg 1996) In addition each candidate

has ` potentialrsquorsquo to learn additional

competencies but onersquos learning style directly

impacts on the learning process of new

competencies By having an insight into a

learning style development programs can be

designed to complement the expatriate

[ 73 ]



candidatersquos learning style (Kolb 1974 1978

Mumford 1999) The ability (ie multiple IQ

inventory and additional learning) is the basis

of the competencies required to effectively

manage in complex global assignments But

one must look beyond abilities and learning

styles at the expatriatesrsquo ` action assessmentrsquorsquo

styles (ie thinking styles) to determine how

the IQs and additional learned skills interact

in solving complex managerial problems with

action in mind (Sternberg 1994a 1994b 1997c

Ceci 1996) The action contextenvironment

and the type of task also interact as important

issues when assessing the performance of

potential expatriate managers Each of the

elements in the model will be briefly

discussed

The use of multiple IQsThe selection of expatriate managers can

start by using a series of multiple IQs as

indicators of the abilities of each potential

candidate By focusing on a set of eight IQs

expatriate selection can be based on a

composite of IQs and later can be used as a

template to be matched with the

requirements of the expatriatersquos overseas

position Figure 4 provides definitions of

each IQ and explains how the eight IQs used

in the selection of expatriate managers are

derived from three theory-based categories

These three categories of IQs are modeled

after the triarchic theory of human

intelligence (Sternberg 1985 1996) and are

classified in the following manner (the

references below represent background

research on each IQ)

1 Analytical intelligence plusmn the planning

implementation evaluation of problem

solving processes and knowledge

acquisition which includes cognitive

intelligence (Binet and Simon 1916

Wechsler 1950) and emotional intelligence

(Cooper and Sawaf 1997 Gardner 1999

Goleman 1995 Dulevicz 2000)

2 Practical intelligence plusmn tacit knowledge that

can derive common sense intuition and

` street smartsrsquorsquo knowledge to adapt to an

environment or to shape the environment

to the problem facing the manager which

includes political intelligence (Ferris et

al 1994) culturalsocial intelligence

(Cantor and Kihlstrom 1987 Sternberg and

Smith 1985 Serale and Ward 1990)

organizational intelligence (Wagner and

Sternberg 1986 Davenport and Prusak

1998) and network intelligence (Albrecht

and Adelman 1987 Smith 1997 DeBurca

and McLoughlin 1988 Ford 1998)

3 Creative intelligence plusmn the ability to develop

innovative solutions to new problems in

novel environments which includes

innovative intelligence (Lubart and

Sternberg 1995 Sternberg and Lubart 1995

1996) and intuitive intelligence (Keegan

1982 Parikh 1994 Shirley and Langan-Fox

1996 Weick 1998 Anderson 2000)

The use of the multiple intelligences to

identify potential expatriate candidates

provides the human resource management

with a detailed inventory of the potential

expatriate competency base and at the same

time provides a semantic for an on-going

development program for each manager

Figure 3Global problem-solving potential

[ 74 ]



Once the ability inventory is taken the next

stage of the expatriate selection process is to

examine how the learning styles of potential

candidates influence their absorptive

capacity to acquire new competencies

The influence of learning stylesResearchers have developed a model of the

learning process that is characterized as a

four-stage cycle of learning (Jensen and Kolb

2000) The learning process is envisioned as

being active and passive as well as concrete

and abstract The four states of the learning

process are

1 concrete experience followed by

2 observation and reflection which lead to

3 the formation of abstract concepts and

generalization which engender

4 hypotheses to be tested in future action

which in turn close the cycle leading to

exposure to new experiences (Kolb 1978)

Each stage of the learning cycle may take

differing amounts of time but the learner

will attempt to structure each stage of the

learning cycle in a formal or in an informal

manner (Curry 2000 Jensen and Kolb 2000

Rayner 2000 Saddler-Smith 2000)

Four types of learning styles have been

identified through research and clinical

observations over the past 30 years using the

learning styles inventory (Kolb 1974 1978)

The learning styles are

1 Divergent learning style This style of

learning reflects the view of concrete

situations from many perspectives and

the organization of many relationships

into a meaningful ` gestaltrsquorsquo The focus of

learning in this learning style is on

cognitive adaptation to environmental

context by observation rather than by

taking action (Kolb et al 1995) As the

strength of this style of learning is in the

innovative manner in which these

individuals attempt to learn this would be

an ideal learning style for potential

expatriate candidates assigned to complex

global assignments Specifically these

individuals are most productive in

learning in situations that call for the

generation of multiple alternative ideas

and in developing an array of potential

solutions to managerial problems In

addition it has been found that

` divergersrsquorsquo have broad cultural interests

and have the ability to assimilate into

diverse groups or interact effectively

within heterogeneous cultural settings

The divergent learning style often has a

positive influence on the relationship

between multiple IQs of individuals and

their thinking styles given the openness

of these individuals to learning from

diverse and complex environmental cues

2 Convergent learning style The

` convergerrsquorsquo is an individual who has the

ability to learn through abstracting both

the problem and the contextsetting of the

problem The deductive conceptualization

and experimentation with the abstracted

facts by these potential expatriate

convergers signals they are very good at

structured problem solving testing

alternative solutions and the formulation

Figure 4Definitions of managerial IQs

[ 75 ]



of a practical theory (ie to structure

processesroutines from experience in

order to form the bases for future decision

making) (Bond and Wilson 1998) The

structured problem solving by relying on

their cognitive IQ is the fundamental

strength of expatriates with this learning

style (Leonard and Kowalski 1999) The

hypothetical-deductive learning style is

best suited to technical specified

problems with little need to interact with

others in that these learners are

characterized by controlling both their

emotions and the need for inclusion

Expatriate managers who are assigned for

technical competency and have less to do

with managing a diverse social set of

individuals would best be selected if they

were converger type of learners

3 Assimilation learning style Like the

converger the assimlator type learner has

the ability to abstract complex problems

situations but in contrast uses inductive

reasoning to find solutions to decisions

This ` model buildingrsquorsquo type of learner is

prone to integrating a variety of disparate

information into an integrated model to

solve problems (Mumford 1999) As with

the convergent learner these individuals

are less likely to be effective

interpersonally particularly within a

heterogeneous group of individuals

Rather the assimilator enjoys the process

of learning and understanding This type

of learner is however less likely to want

to actually implement what has been

learned As they view the process of

learning as an end in itself expatriate

managers with an assimilation learning

style are less likely to act upon the

information or on the model that they

have built The ideal expatriate

assignment for assimilators would be in a

staff capacity to assist with technical

issues or to support more decisive

learners in the organization

4 Accommodative learning style As this

learning style is goal-oriented getting

things done is the primary value of

expatriate managers with this learning

style Such learning style stimulates risk

taking new opportunities interaction

with a diverse set of individuals and

cognitive adaptation to unique

environmental contexts These

individuals are willing and able to adapt

themselves to new environments and

social settings making them ideal

expatriate candidates for multiple

assignments The capacity for adaptive

learning of these expatriate candidates is

of particular significance when working

learning across cultures (Lam 1998

McMurray 1998) Their intuitive decision-

making process relies less on theory and

formalized routines and more on past

experiences and their ability to ` readrsquorsquo the

minds of others These expatriate

managers would be utilized best in

situations where informal interaction

with a variety of individuals is a business

necessity Particularly they are well-

suited for marketing and sales type

expatriates who are required to interact

with others outside the foreign subsidiary

(ie with customers suppliers

governmental officials and the like)

The learning style inventory (Kolb 1978) can

be administered to potential expatriate

managers to assist in determining how they

will augment their existing IQ inventories as

well as what types of overseas assignments

each individual would be best suited to

combine effectively abilities with learning

style The learning style assessment becomes

critical in identifying how on-going

development of each expatriate manager

should be undertaken as well as in forming

the bases for assignment tasks for various

expatriate candidates Given that most

expatriate managers will need to employ a

combination of their IQs in acquisition of

new competencies learning style analysis is

a critical element in the selection process As

the type of learning style influences the

relationship between a candidatersquos IQs and

critical thinking the role and structure of

expatriate thinking styles in a competency-

based expatriate selection process need to be

explored (Gadzella and Masten 1998)

Developing an understanding of individualthinking stylesThe multiple IQs and learning styles of

expatriate candidates are the potential for

accumulating competencies by overseas

managers But just as with any potential

there must be a mechanism to turn that

potential into action The action dimension of

the assessment of expatriate candidatesrsquo

potential starts with determining their

thinking styles (Sternberg 1997a) A thinking

style is a preferred way of thinking not the

natural or acquired ability but rather how

an individual translates his or her ability

and learning into intent for actions In other

words expatriate thinking styles involve

integrative utilization of their abilities and of

learning styles Putting knowledge

competencies to work beyond having ability

or attempting to learn yields effective

performance

[ 76 ]



Individual thinking styles have been

described as taking the following forms

1 monarchical thinking style plusmn the single-

minded individual that is driven to

succeed may be counted on to reach the

self-set or assigned objectives and is less

likely to be strongly influenced or

distracted by the environmental

uncertainty (ie high goal commitment

and achievement orientation)

2 hierarchical thinking style plusmn the individual

thinking style that is based on setting

priorities and recognizing that not all

goals can be reached therefore these

individuals tend to establish priors for

others in the organization (ie an

expatriate providing structure and a set of

priorities for the foreign subsidiary)

3 oligarchical thinking style plusmn a thinking

style that is based upon doing more than

one thing at a time and on willingness to

undertake multitask assignments Given

their interest in performing multiple

tasks individuals with this thinking style

have difficulty in establishing priorities

and are frequently unwilling to focus on

the primary goalobjective (ie may be

perceived as not being decisive) and

4 anarchical thinking style plusmn lack focus in

their thinking frequently appear to be

disorganized or random in their thinking

processes but are sometimes thought of as

being highly creative thinkers These

individuals also appear to have difficulty

making adjustments to the environmental

context when it becomes dynamic

(Sternberg 1997a)

When selecting expatriate managers

knowing their thinking styles prior to their

assignment can help to assist in selecting

appropriate managers for particular

assignments The type of the assigned task as

well as the task environment (ie internal

and external) can differentially influence the

relationship between thinking styles and the

execution of strategies Some thinking styles

of expatriates are more effective for solving

less structured new and complex problems

which allow the expatriates to think on their

own These expatriate candidates are more

readily willing to come up with their own

way of doing things and prefer to decide for

themselves what they will do and how they

will do it (Sternberg 1997a) In contrast there

are those who prefer to follow existing

routines and procedures and only want to

improve the efficiency of the processes

Expatriate candidates seldom want to

assess and evaluate the existing routines

procedures and to modify them to make the

process fit the environment or task more

closely (Sternberg 1997a) Overall a thinking

style of an expatriate manager reflects the

manner in which the expatriate attempts to

make decisions given the appropriateness of

his or her abilities and learning styles to

acquire competencies for solving problems

This action-oriented step is an important

component in the selection of expatriate

managers in that it reflects a pattern of

taking action which in turn must match the

task and environmental demands that the

expatriate is assigned to in the global

organization (Harvey 1996a)

The influence of the type of taskTasks that expatriate managers face can be

categorized into three types

1 coordinative tasks plusmn are tasks that are

integrative in nature and can be

illustrated by the following types of tasks

developing a marketing plan initiating an

organizational change in a foreign

subsidiary or selecting foreign suppliers

These tasks require a finely orchestrated

interaction between the domestic

organization and the subsidiary where the

expatriate manager is located at their

boundary and where speed accuracy and

reliance on others are essential for the

expatriate manager to accomplish such

tasks successfully

2 computational tasks plusmn are more structured

tasks that require utilization of an

established body of knowledge and

techniques for successful

accomplishment There is less ambiguity

in these tasks and there is a known

beginning and ending point in the set of

activities comprising these tasks While

most computational tasks are fairly

procedural and may require a great deal

of effort on the part of the expatriate

manager their demand on expatriates for

coordination with others is lessened and

3 creative tasks plusmn are tasks that do not have

` provenrsquorsquo answers or processes to find

their solution and are dependent on the

creative insights of the expatriate to find

acceptable solutions These tasks can be

approached andor framed in a number of

different ways because a wide variety of

information sources are to be scanned for

creative task accomplishment (Hambrick

et al 1998)

Therefore it is particularly difficult to

measure the resultoutcomes of performing

such tasks

An additional relevant attribute of a task is

the difficulty of the task that the expatriate

manager is attempting to resolve In the

determination of the relative ` difficultyrsquorsquo of

[ 77 ]



the expatriatersquos assignment there are three

dimensions of the task that have to be taken

into consideration

1 the complexity of the task structure plusmn the

array of potential alternative solutions

the number of cuesinformation sources

relative to the task the relationship

between cues and criteria for solution of

the task and the number of steps or

phases to the task

2 ambiguity of the task content plusmn organizing

principles of the task unknown or

unavailable previous expatriatesrsquo

experience with the task limited or not

existent high likelihood of failurepartial

failure and cues not clear as to how to

frame the problem or organize the

information to solve the task and

3 form of task presentation plusmn only a brief

time span available for judgment

judgment of cues dependent on

perceptional predisposition of the

expatriate manager The greater the

overall complexity of the task the more

skilled and ` intelligentrsquorsquo (ie use of

multiple IQs) the expatriate manager

must be to address the cognitively

demanding nature of global assignment

tasks (Sternberg 1996)

The internalexternal environmentalcontextThe selection of an expatriate manager for a

global assignment could be strongly

influenced by the type of cultural

environment to which the individual will be

assigned (Harvey 1996) The cultural

distance between the home and host

countries needs to be assessed in the

expatriate selection process because it affects

the nature of the expatriate task (ie whether

the task is programmable or not) It is

significantly more difficult for expatriates to

contribute to the expertise of foreign

operations if the cultures of the two countries

are too dissimilar In order to enrich the

knowledge competency of the organization

the expertise of the expatriates have to ` fitrsquorsquo

in the knowledge context of the overseas

assignment and the organization to which

they are assigned (Bender and Fish 2000)

Cultural distance is measured as a

composite index of Hofstedersquos (1980) cultural

dimensions Cultural distance affects an

expatriatersquos understanding of decision-

making processes work values negotiation

patterns conflicts in JVs and wholly-owned

subsidiaries and fairness in reciprocity

(Gomez-Mejita and Palich 1997) Also the

degree of cultural distance will influence

performance ambiguity and task definition

(Hamilton and Kashlak 1999) As a result an

expatriatersquos task programmability and

performance measurability will be inversely

related to the cultural distance

Like cultural distance other influential

factors from the external environment such

as host-country political risk and economic

instability also decrease an expatriatersquos task

programmability and output measurability

A recent measure that combines both of these

two factors has been developed (Fatehi 1994)

The most challenging problem for human

resource management is the definition of an

expatriatersquos taskperformance criteria in the

selection process when all of these three

major environmental variables are salient

As a result the decision regarding which

managers to expatriate to these extreme

environments becomes critical

Also the nature of an expatriatersquos task will

likely vary with the industry in which the

organization operates An expatriatersquos task

and performance ambiguity will likely be

higher for services than for products as well

as higher for consumer products than for

industrial products Finally the factors from

the internal environment that influence an

expatriatersquos task and performance should be

taken into analysis such as the

organizationrsquos global ownership patterns top

management team characteristics strategic

orientation for geographic and product

diversification as well as cross-border

acquisitions and joint venturing and the

organizationrsquos prior experience in the host

country as well as a candidatersquos prior foreign

experiences (Harvey et al 1999)

Managerial implications ofexpatriate selection modelrecommended decision-makingprocedure

The specification of critical components of

the model for selection of expatriate

managers for complex global assignments

needs to be translated into a manageable

step-by-step selection procedure The

sequential selection process recommended

for managerial practice is outlined in Figure

5 and briefly discussed below The process

guides international human resource

managers how to design activities for each of

the stages of the process To be implemented

the expatriate selection process should be

institutionalized both in the domestic

organization and the foreign subsidiaries of

the focal organization because several the

stages of the process occur during the

expatriatesrsquo overseas assignment

[ 78 ]



Step one identification of potentialexpatriate pool of candidatesPrior to assessing the multiple IQs the

learning styles and the thinking styles of

potential expatriate managers a manager

must ensure that the ` poolsrsquorsquo of candidates

have been identified In particular if these

expatriates are going to come from outside

the organization the method of how can they

be identifiedattracted must have been

determined In practice expatriates most

frequently have come from within the focal

organization for a number of reasons

1 candidates are easier to identify and

contact

2 the background and developmental

progress of the candidates are available

3 candidates are frequently easier to entice

into taking an overseas position

4 the explicit costs are generally less than

those for the candidates on the market

5 internal candidates have social knowledge

of the companyrsquos culture and are familiar

with the value of international career

paths and

6 internal candidates are trusted in the

organization and therefore provide a

means to extend control to the global

operations (Harvey 1996)

Identifying external expatriate candidates is

a daunting task given the inadequate supply

of qualifiedexperienced managers The

reservoir of potential external expatriate

managers is limited and difficult to evaluate

because they typically have the corollary

negative characteristicstraits of internal

expatriate candidates (ie hard to identify

background unknown difficult to entice into

the organization significantly higher

explicit costs no prior knowledge of the

companyrsquos culture and low trustworthiness

due to lack of prior interaction with others in

the organization)

There are however a number of implicit

costs associated with selecting only

expatriate managers from inside the

organization such as reduced talent pool

within the domestic market as competition is

heightened in mature markets in case of a

higher than average failure rate of expatriate

managers the company could be losing value

managerial talents and frequently managers

will leave their company to avoid overseas

assignments when dual-career couples are

involved (Harvey 1995 1996ab 1997) Many of

these costs are negated with expatriate

candidates from outside the organization

The primary problem remains identifying

an adequate number of qualified external

candidates at a reasonable recruiting cost

and with a high probability of attracting

them to the organization

Step two assessment of IQ competenciesof expatriate candidatesThis stage in the expatriate selection process

is directed at testing the eight IQs of the

potential candidates Each IQ must be

measured and assessed as a complement to

the other IQs and the type of assignment that

is contemplated for the candidates

Measurement of each IQ can be accomplished

by using existing techniques identified in the

following research

1 Cognitive IQ There has been a long

history of measuring cognitive

intelligence with such measures as Binet

amp Simon Basic Intelligence Test (1916)

Thrustone Intelligence Test IV (1919)

Wechsler Intelligence Test (1950) Cattell

Figure 5Expatriate selection process for globalassignments

[ 79 ]



Personality Factor Questionnaire (1949)

Golf and Ackerman Intelligence-as-

Typical Performance Test (1992)

2 Emotional IQ A variety of tests in

psychology education and personal theory

fields have been developed to measure

emotional IQ (Damasio 1994 Goleman

1998 Steiner 1997) For measuring

emotional IQ in organizational settings an

EQ scale of 16 relevant competencies has

been developed in the Job Competencies

Survey developed by researchers (Dulevicz

1998 Dulevicz and Higgs 2000)

3 Political IQ A measure of political IQ

which contains 11 items has recently

been developed reflecting an individualrsquos

ability to exercise influence on others

beyond onersquos functional and resource

bases (Ferris et al 2000)

4 Culturalsocial IQ The sociocultural

adaptation scale (SCAC) was developed in

the last decade (Searle and Ward 1990) This

scale was developed based on an earlier

social skills scale (Trower et al 1978) Most

recently the SCAC has been expanded to

include cognitive as well as behavioral

domains (Ward and Kennedy 1999)

5 Organizational IQ The ability to

effectively ` get things donersquorsquo in an

interorganizational context has a proxy

measure of a team memberrsquos tacit

knowledge (Sternberg and Wagner 1986)

Instruments that measure tacit knowledge

in managers (Wagner and Sternberg 1991)

and other occupations (Sternberg et al

1997) have been developed and tested for

validity and reliability

6 Network IQ A network intelligence

measure which is related to interpersonal

relationships and examines the number of

nodes and ties in personal nets has been

developed (Albrecht and Adelman 1987)

This work has recently been expanded

based on the norms established for

members of Western social systems

(Smith 1997)

7 Innovative IQ A measure of innovative

intelligence has been developed based on

the investment theory of creativity

(Sternberg and Lubart 1991 1995)

8 Intuitive IQ The Keeganrsquos type indicator

form B (KTI) which has 16 items referring

to the function of sensing and intuition

was developed in the 1980s (Keegan 1982)

It has also been suggested that the KTI

instrument be used in conjunction with

the Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI)

first developed by Myers and Caulley in

1985 (Anderson 2000)

Given the variety of measures for each IQ it

is possible for the human resource managers

to compare results among tests as well as

retest candidates at some future time Most of

the tests that have been developed have been

used extensively and are considered reliable

measures for each IQ

Step three determination of learningstyles of expatriate candidatesLike the multiple IQs the individual learning

styles of potential expatriate managers must

be determined Kolb has undertaken the most

extensive empirical research on learning

styles research over the last 30 years (Kolb

1974) The learning styles inventory (LSI-IIa)

has been widely used in industry and

education to examine the preferred learning

styles of thousands of individuals (Kolb 1978)

The LSI assists learners in understanding

their strengths and weaknesses during the

four stages of the learning cycle The

inventory measures the learnerrsquos preferences

in the four stages of learning Preferences of

one or more stages over others indicate the

preferred learning style The inventory is

relatively inexpensive and self-administered

by the expatriate candidate This

straightforward instrument provides the

foundation for understanding the preferred

future learning styles of expatriates which is

of importance when considering

developmental needs of the candidate

Step four determination of thinking stylesof potential expatriate candidatesAs was stated earlier the thinking styles

reflect the action orientation of the potential

expatriate candidates and are of great value in

ascertaining the expatriatesrsquo predisposition to

making actionable decisions This predilection

to action becomes an important consideration

given the uniqueness of the expatriate

assignments and the limited procedures

routines that are established to guide decision-

making by the expatriate managers

There are a number of key issues associated

with thinking styles that must be taken into

consideration when analyzing the preferred

styles of potential expatriate managers

1 styles are preferences in the use of

abilities not abilities themselves

2 the consistency between thinking styles

and abilities creates synergy particularly

if the two are consistent with the task

requirements and the context of task

accomplishment

3 expatriate managers may have profiles

patterns of styles and are not relegated to

one style in all situations

4 styles are variableadaptable across tasks

and situations if the manager has an in-

depth knowledge of their thinking and

learning styles

[ 80 ]



5 managers may vary fairly significantly in

their thinking style flexibility

6 the socialization of expatriate managers

can directly influence their thinking

styles and may require that a preferred

thinking style is modified to fit the host

countryrsquos organization or culture

7 managers thinking styles may vary across

their career life-cycle and change given

their stage of their personal or

professional life-cycle

8 thinking styles are teachable and trainers

may match their styles with expatriate

managers when they are being trained for

overseas assignments

9 the expatriate managerrsquos preferred

thinking style may not be ` acceptablersquorsquo in

a new environmental context (ie

culturally unacceptable or taboo within a

cultural context

10 thinking styles can be measured

(Sternberg 1997a)

Measurement of thinking styles has been

developed and extensively explored by

Sternberg and Wagner (for example see

Sternberg-Wagner self-assessment inventory

models in Sternberg (1997a))

Step five determination of assignmenttask and its environments (internalexternal)A manager must first determine the type of

the assignment task Marketing and RampD

expatriates commonly have creative tasks

production expatriates commonly have

coordinative tasks while finance and

accounting commonly have computational

tasks The next step is to rank the expatriate

task in terms of difficulty In general the

difficulty of an expatriate task increases with

its complexity ambiguity and

incompleteness These task characteristics

are the representations of the variables from

the organizationrsquos external and internal

environments

The most salient variable in the external

environment is the cultural distance between

the country of the expatriate assignment and

the home country of the organization The

measure for cultural distance was developed

by Kogut and Singh (1988) and has been

validated in subsequent research The other

two important variables from the external

environment are the political risk and

economic instability of the host country The

composite measure and the source

publications for these two factors can be

found in Fatehi (1994)

The important variables from the internal

organizational environment which increase

the difficulty of managing as an expatriate

are the problems associated with managing

in foreign hybrid organizational

environments generally represented by

combined ownership (ie joint ventures

strategic alliances) the top-managementsrsquo

attitude relative to the strategic importance

of the host country operationsmarket and

history of the organizationrsquos prior experience

in the host country market This information

is organization-specific and could have an

impact on the expatriate ability to

accomplish task specific objectives during

the foreign assignment

Step six assessment of familycharacteristicsIn the past the number one reason for

expatriate failures has been identified as

problems associated with the expatriatersquos

familyspouse (Harvey 1985 1997 1998 Fish

and Wood 1997a) Therefore in selecting

expatriates for global assignments it is

imperative to take the spouse and family into

consideration when the selection process is

being developed The problems with

expatriate spousefamily are becoming

central not only to expatriate failure rates

but to the increase in refusal to relocate

overseas (Harvey 1997) These problems are

being accentuated by the level of dual-career

professional couples and concerns of the

trailing-spouses as to how their careers will

be affected by their partnersrsquo transfer

(Harvey 1997 Harvey and Wiese 1998

Harvey et al 1999)

In an effort to reduce the negative impact

of family related problems a detailed

analysis of the family life-cycle should be

undertaken on each of the potential

expatriate candidates In this analysis of the

family the human resource management

needs to determine what stage of the family

life-cycle the expatriates family unit is in

(Harvey 1996a) the stage of professional

career development of the expatriatersquos

spouse the number of children and their

stage of educational attainment extenuating

family considerations such as special

education needs of children health related

issues for children and other extended

family considerations (ie sickelderly

parents) employment potential of the

expatriatersquos trailing spouse and the past

relocation experiences of the expatriate and

hisher family This assessment of family

related issues should be undertaken prior to

selecting managers to become candidates for

expatriation and not as an ` afterthoughtrsquorsquo

once the expatriation trainingdevelopment

has been started (Fish and Wood 1997a

Elkins and Phillips 2000) The family issues

can be significant enough in that at certain

[ 81 ]



times or conditions good expatriate

candidates should not be selected for

assignments due to family considerations

Step seven development of repatriationprogram prior to expatriationTo ameliorate some of the basic family issues

associated with expatriation the selection

process should have a basic component that

examines issues associated with repatriating

the manager Researchers have determined

that the repatriation process plays a

significant role in assisting the expatriate

and their family with reentry adjustment

(Harvey 1989 Black et al 1992) Therefore

repatriation plans for each expatriate

candidate must be examined and plans

established prior to selection This is

necessary for two reasons to determine the

complexity of the re-entry problems (ie the

length of expatriation assignment the

culturaleconomic distance between home

and host country the stage of family life-

cycle the readjustment issues associated

with the spouse and family upon repatriation

and the like) and to provide the expatriate

candidate with vital information concerning

hisher career life-cycle and the preplanning

that the organization is undertaking to

ensure a positive re-entry experience for the

expatriate and their family The development

of the repatriation plan is also helpful in

developing a succession plan and timetable

concerning the expatriate and the position

that they are filling overseas

Step eight selection of expatriatecandidates and assignmentsThe final step in the selection process is the

matching of the candidates with assignments

or at the least regions in which the candidates

could be assigned This stage is to underscore

the point that expatriate managers cannot be

seen as equally applicable to all expatriation

assignments The type of assignment the

country characteristics the host organization

cultureclimate and the nature of the task

should all be taken into consideration when

aligning the expatriate with the array of

potential expatriation assignments

Summaryconclusions

In the new competitive landscape of the

knowledge-rich global economy effective

innovations particularly those in human

resource management systems are the

determining factor in the ability of

organizations to adapt and exploit global

opportunities The global human resource

management innovations are rooted within a

given set of practices influencing

organizational choices in a global context In

particular the practices associated with

transferring organization-specific

knowledge like the expatriation of key

individuals are central to generating flexible

strategic options in global markets

Effective expatriation requires a repertoire

of individual competencies appropriate for

integrating the tacit knowledge of local

subsidiary contexts which is scarce and

dispersed in the global organization This

dispersal of knowledge creates coordination

problems that go beyond the control

problems addressed by the routine practice of

expatriation Rather the expatriate abilities

learning thinking and acting must go

beyond the mere ` Bayesian updating of

priorsrsquorsquo (Foss 1999 p 465) to involve setting

up new interpretative frameworks for

handling new types of unforeseen problems

encountered in global markets Therefore for

effective organizational choices to be

supported by such innovative mental

constructs the development of an innovative

expatriate selection process is necessary

The proposed competency-based expatriate

selection process heightens a global

organizationrsquos alertness to neglected

opportunities in global markets thus

compensating for the potential problem of

expatriate ` hyper-ignorancersquorsquo (ie expatriates

not knowing what they do not know about new

market opportunities) as the globalization

process advances Overcoming this cognitive

constraint through appropriate expatriate

selection process is an important activity in

building a global mindset which goes beyond

the conventional management of information

asymmetry between the headquarters and

subsidiaries Expatriates selected based on a

set of competencies become the key foci of

dispersed knowledge about global markets

and can promote the coordination of specific

effective strategic choices Therefore the

competency-based expatriate selection may

contribute to the development of global

dynamic capabilities

Although only a portion of dispersed

knowledge about global markets can be fully

integrated through the competency-based

expatriation the resulting enhanced

organizational planning ability can however

successfully update top managementrsquos

knowledge base Thus the top management

team may become more informed about which

kind of specific knowledge is present in the

global organization which learning processes

are evolving in foreign subsidiaries and

which knowledge and practices may

successfully be transferred to other parts of


[ 82 ]



It should be noted that when expatriate

selection is competency-based then these

expatriates are able to capture those

elements of the global market environment

that are stable and possess unique features

(ie are non-repeatable and idiosyncratic)

The expatriates selected in the traditional

manner would focus on the typical features

and may not identify such specific features

With competent expatriates as its focuses of

tacit and distributed knowledge a global

organization faces lower coordination costs

which arise in the process of acquiring and

coordinating market knowledge in global

markets

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[ 84 ]



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performancersquorsquo Academy of Management

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Jensen P and Kolb DA (2000) ` Learning style

and meaning making in conversationrsquorsquo in




John J (1994) ` Social knowledge as a control

system a proposition and evidence from the

Japanese EDI behaviorrsquorsquo Journal of


pp 295-324

Kedia B and Mukherji A (1999) ` Global

managers developing a mindset for global

competitivenessrsquorsquo Journal of World Business

Fall Vol 34 No 3 pp 230-47

Keegan W (1982) Keegan Type Indicator Form B

Warren Keegan Associates Press London

Kefalas AG (1998) ` Think globally act locallyrsquorsquo

Thunderbird International Business Review

Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62

Kogut B and Singh H (1988) ` The effect of

national culture on the choice of entry modersquorsquo

Journal of International Business Studies

Fall pp 411-32

Kolb DA (1974) ` On management and the

learning processrsquorsquo in Kolb DA Rubin IM

and McIntyre JM (Eds) Organizational

Psychology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs

NJ

Kolb DA (1978) Learning Style Inventory

Technical Manual McBer amp Co Boston MA

Kolb D Osland J and Rubin I (Eds) (1995)

Organizational Behavior An Experimental

Approach 6th ed Prentice-Hall Englewood

Cliffs NJ

Lado A and Wilson M (1994) ` Human resource

systems and sustained competitive advantage

a competency-based perspectiversquorsquo Academy of

Management Review Vol 19 pp 699-727

Lado A Boyd N and Wright P (1992) ` A

competency-based model of sustainable

competitive advantage toward a central

integrationrsquorsquo Journal of Management Vol 18

No 1 pp 77-91

Lam SSK (1998) ` Organizational performance

and learning styles in Hong Kongrsquorsquo Journal of

Social Psychology Vol 138 No 3 pp 401-2

Leonard NH Leonard W Leonard SR and

Kowalski KB (1999) ` Information

processing style and decision makingrsquorsquo

Journal of Organizational Behavior Vol 20

No 3 pp 407-20

Levy-Leboyer C (1994) ` Selection and assessment

in Europersquorsquo in Triandis H Dunnette M and

Hough L (Eds) Handbook of Industrial and

Organizational Psychology Vol 4 Consulting

Psychologists Press Palo Alto CA pp 173-90

Lubart T and Sternberg R (1995) ` An

investment approach to creativity theory and

datarsquorsquo in Smith SM and Finke R (Eds) The

Creative Cognition Approach MIT Press

Cambridge MA pp 269-301

McMurray D (1998) ` Learning styles and

organizational behavior in Japanese EFL

classroomsrsquorsquo Journal of Fukui Prefectural

University Vol 13 pp 31-47

Mahoney JT and Pandian JR (1992) ``The

resource-based view within the conversation

of strategy managementrsquorsquo Strategic


Mendenhall M Dunbar E and Oddou G (1987)

` Expatriate selection training and career-

pathing a review and critiquersquorsquo Human

Resources Management Vol 26 No 3 pp 331-45

Mumford A (1999) ` Learning styles and learning

organizationrsquorsquo in Landale A (Ed) Grower

Handbook of Training and Development 3rd ed

Myers M and Caulley M (1985) ` The Myers-

Briggs type indicator and leadershiprsquorsquo in

Clark K and Clark M (Eds) Measure of

Leadership Leadership Library of America

Press West Orange CA pp 381-418

Ones D and Viswesvaran C (1999) ` Relative

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expatriate selection a policy capturing studyrsquorsquo

Human Performance Vol 12 No 3 pp 275-90

Oster S (1990) Modern Competitive Analysis

Oxford University Press New York NY

Parikh J (1994) Intuition The New Frontier of

Management Blackwell Business Cambridge

MA

Paul H (2000) ` Creating a global mindsetrsquorsquo


Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200

Pfeffer J (1994) Competitive Advantage through

People Harvard Business School Press Boston

MA

Rayner SC (2000) ` Reconstructing style

differences in thinking and learning profiling

learning performancersquorsquo in Riding RJ and

Rayner SG (Eds) International Perspectives

on Individual Differences Ablex Stamford CT

Roth K and OrsquoDonnell S (1996) ` Foreign

subsidiary compensation strategy an agency

theory perspectiversquorsquo Academy of Management


Rumelt R (1994) ` Forewordrsquorsquo in Hames G and

Heene A (Eds) Competence-Base Competition

Wiley New York NY pp XV-XIX

[ 85 ]



Saddler-Smith E (2000) ` Cognitive style and

learning in organizationsrsquorsquo in Riding RJ and



Sanchez R Heene A and Thomas H (1996)

Dynamics of Competence-based Competition

Elsevier Science Amsterdam

Searle W and Ward C (1990) ` The prediction of

psychological and sociocultural adjustment

during cross-cultural transitionsrsquorsquo Journal of

Intercultural Relations Vol 14 pp 449-64

Shirley D and Langan-Fox J (1996) ` Intuition

a review of the literaturersquorsquo Psychological

Reports Vol 79 pp 563-84

Smith RL (1997) ` Intercultural network theory

a cross-paradigmatic approach to Smith

RLrsquorsquo International Journal of Intercultural

Relations Vol 23 No 4 pp 629-58

Spreitzer GM McCall MW and Mahoney JP

(1997) ` Early identification of international

executive potentialrsquorsquo Journal of Applied


Steiner C (1997) Achieving Emotional Literacy

Bloomsbury London

Sternberg R (1985) Beyond IQ A Triarchic

Theory of Human Intelligence Cambridge

University Press New York NY

Sternberg R (1994a) ` Thinking styles theory of

assessment at the interface between intelligence

and personalityrsquorsquo in Sternberg R and Ruggis P

(Eds) Intelligence and Personality Cambridge

University Press New York NY pp 169-87

Sternberg R (1994b) ` Allowing for thinking stylesrsquorsquo

Educational Leadership Vol 52 No 3 pp 36-40

Sternberg R (1996) Successful Intelligence How

Practical and Creative Intelligence Determine

Success in Life Simon and Schuster New

York NY

Sternberg R (1997a) ` Intelligence and lifelong

learning whatrsquos new and how can we use itrsquorsquo

American Psychologist Vol 52 No 10 pp 1134-9

Sternberg R (1997b) ` Managerial intelligence

why IQ isnrsquot enoughrsquorsquo Journal of


Sternberg R (1997c) Thinking Styles Cambridge


Sternberg R and Lubart T (1991) ` An investment

theory of creativityrsquorsquo Human Development

Vol 34 pp 1-32

Sternberg R and Lubart T (1995) Defying the

Crowd Cultivating Creativity in a Culture of

Conformity Free Press New York NY

Sternberg R and Lubart T (1996) ` Investing in

creativityrsquorsquo American Psychologist Vol 51

pp 677-88

Sternberg R and Smith C (1985) ` Social

intelligence and decoding skills in nonverbal

communicationrsquorsquo Social Cognition Vol 2

pp 168-92

Sternberg R and Wagner R (1986) Practical

Intelligence Nature and Origins of Intelligence

in Everyday World Cambridge New York NY

Sternberg R OrsquoHara L and Lubart TI (1997)

` Creativity as instrumentrsquorsquo California


Stroh LK and Caligiuri PM (1998) ` Strategic

human resources a new source for

competitive advantage in the global arenarsquorsquo

The International Journal of Human Resource

Management Vol 9 pp 1-17

Taylor S Beechler S and Napier N (1996)

` Toward an integrative model of strategic

international human resource managementrsquorsquo

Academy of Management Review Vol 21 No 4

pp 959-85

Thurstone LL (1919) ` Mental test for college

entrancersquorsquo Journal of Educational Psychology

Vol 10 pp 129-42

Trower P Bryant B and Argyle M (1978) Social

Skills and Mental Health Methuen London

Tucker M (1978) The Measurement and Prediction

of Overseas Work Assignments in the Navy (US

Navy Contract Number N00600b73 -D-0780)

Centre for Research and Education Denver CO

Tung R (1981) ` Selection and training of personnel

overseas assignmentsrsquorsquo Columbia Journal of

World Business Vol 16 No 1 pp 68-78

Tung R (1982) ` Selection and training procedures

of US European and Japanese multinationalsrsquorsquo

California Management Review Vol 25

pp 57-71

Wagner R and Sternberg R (1991) Tacit

Knowledge Inventory for Managers The

Psychological Corporation San Antonio TX

Ward C and Kennedy A (1999) ` The

measurement of sociocultural adaptationrsquorsquo

International Journal of Intercultural


Wechsler D (1950) ` Cognitive conative and non-

intellective intelligencersquorsquo American Psychologist

Vol 5 pp 78-83

Weick K (1998) ` The attitude of wisdom

ambivalence as the optimal compromisersquorsquo in

Srivasta S and Cooperider D (Eds)

Organizational Wisdom and Executive

Courage The Lexington Press San Francisco

CA pp 40-64

Welch D (1994) ``HRM implications of

globalizationrsquorsquo Journal of General


Wood S (1999) ` Human resource management

and performancersquorsquo International Journal of

Management Reviews Vol 1 No 4 pp 367-413

Wright PM McMahan G and Williams A (1994)

` Human resources as a source of sustained

competitive advantagersquorsquo International Journal

of Human Resource Management Vol 5

pp 299-324

[ 86 ]



failure that were gleaned from research

conducted on expatriate selection This type of

diagnostic approach to the research of

expatriation did not provide an integrated

theoretical view to guide practice of

expatriate staffing The explanatory approach

to expatriate selection has however been

recently modified toward a more predictive

approach to take into consideration an ex ante

examination of personality characteristics of

potential expatriate managers

Specifically researchers have

concentrated their attention on the

predictive power of the big five personality

characteristics for expatriate success The

five characteristics examined are

1 extroversion plusmn individuals that

successfully assert themselves and gain

acceptance in the social environment

through social relationships (Ones and

Viswesvaran 1997)

2 agreeablenes plusmn being identified as a team

player through the formation of reciprocal

social alliances and the building of social

capital in the organization (Caligiuri

2000)

3 conscientiousness plusmn trusted diligent

cohorts that are productive and

supportive of increased organizational

performance (Hogan 1996)

4 emotional stability plusmn the intrapersonal

ability to adapt and cope with stress in

professional and personal spheres of onersquos

life (Buss 1991) and

5 openness and intellect plusmn having the ability

for individuals to effectively complete

their functional assignment and at the

same time an awareness of the

environment to allow for adaptation of

their behavior to changing conditions in

that environment (Behling 1998)

While these personality characteristics are

thought to have a predictive power relative to

the success of expatriate managers the

empirical research to fully support this

position is somewhat lacking In a

comprehensive review of 117 empirical

studies using the big five personality

characteristics Barrick and Mount (1991)

found that conscientiousness was the best

single predictor of individual performance

The same sort of survey of research was

conducted in Europe resulting in similar

although not as strong results Moreover the

tie to organizational performance using the

big five personality characteristics as the

primary selection means is also somewhat

tentative (for a review of the issues see Wood

(1999)) In addition to the big five personality

attributes the development of classifications

or categories of soft social skills has been

used for the selection of managers

Figure 1Predicting successfailure of expatriate managers

[ 70 ]









category



situations


and social mores



Brewster 1999)

































the like






























































distinct categories










[ 71 ]




organization and








(Harvey et al 1999)


























discussed















1994)





















[ 72 ]







































































































expatriates


















[ 73 ]



















discussed

























































[ 74 ]














process are





























































[ 75 ]

























































































































performance

[ 76 ]







































(Sternberg 1997a)





















































tasks successfully























et al 1998)



such tasks





[ 77 ]





into consideration







phases to the task








































































































[ 78 ]















contact










paths and


















the organization)




























following research








[ 79 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]









category



situations


and social mores



Brewster 1999)

































the like






























































distinct categories










[ 71 ]




organization and








(Harvey et al 1999)


























discussed















1994)





















[ 72 ]







































































































expatriates


















[ 73 ]



















discussed

























































[ 74 ]














process are





























































[ 75 ]

























































































































performance

[ 76 ]







































(Sternberg 1997a)





















































tasks successfully























et al 1998)



such tasks





[ 77 ]





into consideration







phases to the task








































































































[ 78 ]















contact










paths and


















the organization)




























following research








[ 79 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]




organization and








(Harvey et al 1999)


























discussed















1994)





















[ 72 ]







































































































expatriates


















[ 73 ]



















discussed

























































[ 74 ]














process are





























































[ 75 ]

























































































































performance

[ 76 ]







































(Sternberg 1997a)





















































tasks successfully























et al 1998)



such tasks





[ 77 ]





into consideration







phases to the task








































































































[ 78 ]















contact










paths and


















the organization)




























following research








[ 79 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]







































































































expatriates


















[ 73 ]



















discussed

























































[ 74 ]














process are





























































[ 75 ]

























































































































performance

[ 76 ]







































(Sternberg 1997a)





















































tasks successfully























et al 1998)



such tasks





[ 77 ]





into consideration







phases to the task








































































































[ 78 ]















contact










paths and


















the organization)




























following research








[ 79 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]



















discussed

























































[ 74 ]














process are





























































[ 75 ]

























































































































performance

[ 76 ]







































(Sternberg 1997a)





















































tasks successfully























et al 1998)



such tasks





[ 77 ]





into consideration







phases to the task








































































































[ 78 ]















contact










paths and


















the organization)




























following research








[ 79 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]














process are





























































[ 75 ]

























































































































performance

[ 76 ]







































(Sternberg 1997a)





















































tasks successfully























et al 1998)



such tasks





[ 77 ]





into consideration







phases to the task








































































































[ 78 ]















contact










paths and


















the organization)




























following research








[ 79 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]

























































































































performance

[ 76 ]







































(Sternberg 1997a)





















































tasks successfully























et al 1998)



such tasks





[ 77 ]





into consideration







phases to the task








































































































[ 78 ]















contact










paths and


















the organization)




























following research








[ 79 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]







































(Sternberg 1997a)





















































tasks successfully























et al 1998)



such tasks





[ 77 ]





into consideration







phases to the task








































































































[ 78 ]















contact










paths and


















the organization)




























following research








[ 79 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]





into consideration







phases to the task








































































































[ 78 ]















contact










paths and


















the organization)




























following research








[ 79 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]















contact










paths and


















the organization)




























following research








[ 79 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]
















































(Smith 1997)
































































accomplishment







learning styles

[ 80 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]






















cultural context


(Sternberg 1997a)



















environments
















































Harvey et al 1999)




























[ 81 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]















































Summaryconclusions







































































[ 82 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]

















markets



Newbury Park CA






















No 6 pp 79-88




No 1 pp 86-93





Vol 39 No 4 pp 779-801




No 1 pp 77-86





No 2 pp 125-37





pp 96-111















pp 459-92










Vol 6 pp 15-34







NJ















Boston MA










OH






pp 1-13

[ 83 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]











































Vol 155 pp 458-86





pp 189-217




No 3 pp 1248-50



Books New York NY









pp 93-102











pp 21-32













pp 488-504








pp 131-44




pp 223-44




Winter pp 102-18



No 4 pp 18-39












No 2 pp 33-48














[ 84 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]






pp 25-37




























pp 295-324









Vol 40 No 6 pp 547-62




Fall pp 411-32





NJ






Cliffs NJ









No 1 pp 77-91








No 3 pp 407-20







































MA



Vol 42 No 2 pp 187-200



MA













[ 85 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]


























Bloomsbury London














York NY











Vol 34 pp 1-32






pp 677-88




pp 168-92
















pp 959-85



Vol 10 pp 129-42













pp 57-71










Vol 5 pp 78-83






CA pp 40-64











pp 299-324

[ 86 ]



selecting expatriates

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