scaffolding and mediating for creativity: suggestions from reflecting on practice in order to...

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Scaffolding and mediating forcreativity: suggestions from reflectingon practice in order to develop theteaching and learning of gymnasticsGerald Griggs a & Debra McGregor ba School of Sport, Performing Arts and Leisure, University ofWolverhampton , Walsall , United Kingdomb School of Education, University of Wolverhampton , Walsall ,United KingdomPublished online: 29 Sep 2011.

To cite this article: Gerald Griggs & Debra McGregor (2012) Scaffolding and mediatingfor creativity: suggestions from reflecting on practice in order to develop the teachingand learning of gymnastics, Journal of Further and Higher Education, 36:2, 225-241, DOI:10.1080/0309877X.2011.614929

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Scaffolding and mediating for creativity: suggestions fromreflecting on practice in order to develop the teaching andlearning of gymnastics

Gerald Griggsa* and Debra McGregorb

aSchool of Sport, Performing Arts and Leisure, University of Wolverhampton,Walsall, United Kingdom; bSchool of Education, University of Wolverhampton,Walsall, United Kingdom

(Received 21 June 2010; final version received 17 November 2010)

This article takes a reflective stance on the development of practice inscaffolding and mediating for creativity and potentially better perfor-mance in gymnastics. The pedagogical approach outlined illustrates howan experienced practitioner can adopt mediational (rather than meddling)and scaffolding techniques to focus on supporting the development ofcreativity. Various teaching tactics and their influences on the nature anddirection of learning are described. Dialogic reflections from the studentsas well as examples of task outcomes offer insight into the impact ofthis approach on learning processes and performance outcomes. Reflec-tions-in-action, on-action and post-action from this study offer sugges-tions about how a learning programme could be re-focused, tasksstructured and mediational approaches adapted to support more creativityin the teaching and learning of gymnastics specifically and in learning ingeneral.

Keywords: scaffolding; reflection; creativity; gymnastics

Introduction

The subject area of physical education (PE) has long been a contested con-cept within education (Kirk 2003). Nowhere has this been more evident thanwithin gymnastics, which has been a site of acrimonious debate. Followingthe rejection of military drill as an appropriate form of exercise for childrenat the start of the twentieth century, a system of free-standing exerciseknown as Lingian gymnastics (devised by Per Henrick Ling) became wide-spread, predicated on a therapeutic rationale (Fletcher 1984). This held swayfor approximately thirty years until it was replaced by a more creative formbased on the work of Laban, and then changed again, with ‘educationalgymnastics’ becoming the norm in the 1950s (Kirk 1992). Finally, as men

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

Journal of Further and Higher EducationVol. 36, No. 2, May 2012, 225–241

ISSN 0309-877X print/ISSN 1469-9486 online� 2011 UCUhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2011.614929http://www.tandfonline.com

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began to enter the teaching profession in larger numbers, they championed askills-focused approach (typical of sports) which by the end of the 1960shad become pervasive (Whitehead and Hendry 1976) and ‘shifted the dis-course away from valuing individual creativity and problem solving towardsperformance away from process to product’ (Wright 1996, 340). Subsequentcurriculum designs over the last half a century continue to draw upon theseideas, with the latter forms providing the basis of most current PE pro-grammes (Kirk 2003). Primary education in particular has become the sitefor a greater education focus, with a more skill-orientated approach evidentin the secondary sector (Lauder, Lowe, and Chawla-Duggan 2008; Wright1996).

At undergraduate level, PE courses continue to contain gymnastics withintheir programmes, as the activity remains as one of a number of specifiedareas to be taught in the National Curriculum for Physical Education(NCPE) (DfEE/QCA 1999). In addition, students embarking on such adegree commonly have a career goal of becoming a PE teacher (Capel1995), so its inclusion appears to be a prudent choice as suitable preparationfor future NCPE delivery. At an institute of higher education in the WestMidlands, within the PE (Non QTS) degree, gymnastics is first taught inyear two within a module entitled Practical Studies, alongside other activityareas prescribed in the NCPE (athletics, dance, games, outdoor and adven-turous activities and swimming). Such an approach to delivering ‘bite-size’experiences is typical of many degree programmes within the higher educa-tion sector in the UK (Dale and McCarthy 2006). However, there are con-cerns that the proliferation of modular programmes in higher educationsignificantly limits the depth of learning desired at such a level of study(Barron 2002), a depth needed for more creative aspects to flourish.

Following departmental modular evaluations of practical studies, itbecame apparent that the learning of gymnastics was symptomatic of such amodular system, whereby students would merely reproduce identifiablemovements prescribed in the subject matter which they expected to beassessed (Entwistle 2001). This culture of performativity (Ball 2003) increas-ingly pervades learning experiences, leading to learners reproducing ‘safe’,‘taught’ choices so as ‘not to get it wrong’ (Davis 2000), thus stifling crea-tivity. This paper suggests through a reflective case study how re-thinkingthe nature of teacher mediation can influence creativity. The study sought toreconsider the creative elements within the teaching and performing of gym-nastics and reports upon the use and application of a purposely designedscaffold (McGregor 2008) that supports planning and performance processes.

Reflections upon an inherited programme

The gymnastics component of the Practical Studies module within thesecond year PE degree course comprised eight one-and-a-half-hour sessions.

226 G. Griggs and D. McGregor

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These sessions were delivered on one afternoon per week in the autumnterm in a large and well-equipped sports hall. In any one group there wereapproximately thirty students, in mixed gender, age and ability groupings.Students’ prior gymnastic experiences varied considerably, from competitivegymnasts to those who had little or no schooling in this activity area. Thefocus of the work was pitched at primary level and the students workedtowards the final session in the programme, which required individual per-formances of a sequence of their own creation lasting 45 to 60 seconds onfloor and apparatus (a maximum of four mats, two benches and two tabletops) for an audience. The sequence specified that at least 10 different ele-ments be evident and had to include travelling on floor, apparatus, thenfloor, use of three levels of apparatus, flight off or over apparatus, changesin body shape within the actions, rolling into and out of balances, travellingon hands and feet, changes in direction, at least one inverted balance andcontinuity when moving from one action to the next.

Schon (1983) indicates that conscious reflection is key to re-evaluatingthe tacit knowledge of such practice, which can quickly become unthinkingand routine. In this case, having taught on this module the year before andevaluated the delivery and the experiences of both tutors and students, itbecame apparent from departmental modular evaluations of Practical Studiesthat the learning of gymnastics had resulted in students largely reproducingidentifiable movements prescribed in the subject matter which they expectedto be assessed, and not seeking to incorporate more creative elements, whichis essential in gaining higher order marks. It was therefore clear that a planof action would need to be taken to address this issue. Such reflection is inkeeping with what Schon (1983, 61) refers to as ‘reflection-on-action’,where practitioners reflect on their ‘knowing-in-practice’. The intention ofscaffolding more carefully to support creativity was underpinned by the per-spective that

When practitioners respond to the indeterminate zones of practice by holdinga reflective conversation with the materials of their situations, they remake apart of their practice world and thereby reveal the usually tacit process ofworldmaking that underlie all of their practice (Schon 1987, 36).

As McGregor (2008) corroborates, learners can be guided or scaffolded toreflect upon their use of resources and (re)consider their actions. The reflec-tive direction, involving critical or creative thinking, is significantly influ-enced by the focus of the task and the mediational nature of the teacher’sactions. This case study highlights what appeared to be key influences insupporting and scaffolding more creativity in students’ understanding andperformance of gymnastics.

In order to support the application of a broad range of reflective abili-ties and successfully prepare for a live performance, a scaffolded approach

Journal of Further and Higher Education 227

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was implemented. This approach was designed to build upon a learner’sknowledge and understanding week by week through the presentation oftasks and challenges that were just beyond the level of what a learnercould do alone (Vygotsky 19781; Bliss, Askew, and Macrae 1996). Therole of the tutor was to mediate the learner through these challenges andas the learner’s abilities increased the scaffolding provided was progres-sively withdrawn, until the learner was able to complete the task or masterthe concepts independently (Wood, Bruner, and Ross 1976; Hartman2002).

Mediating towards creative alternatives

The development of creativity in practice can be problematic. Encouraging amutually supportive learning community (Wenger 1991) is key (Wyse andSpendlove 2007), and within that, supporting the application of theory topractice can encourage what Craft (2000) describes as ‘small c’ creativity.The theoretical framework that provided insightful guidance to inform thenature of the scaffolding within which to analyse the creative potential wasa seven-point model devised by Nickerson (1999). Reviewing potentialopportunities for creative development, the following seven aspects werecarefully integrated into the scaffolded and mediated approach: supportingdomain-specific knowledge, rewarding curiosity and exploration, encourag-ing risk-taking, having high expectations, developing students’ self-management skills, offering opportunities for choice and discovery andbuilding motivation and confidence.

Supporting domain-specific knowledge

In order for participants to realise their creative potential in the physicaldomain it is imperative that they are equipped with the basic skills withwhich to be creative. Within gymnastics, as previously discussed, there havebeen a number of competing agendas, most of which fail to maximise crea-tive development, so the choice of the most appropriate approach wasimportant. Therefore the thoughts underpinning this project were developedfrom the work of Rudolf Laban, whose principles are based upon classifyingand mastering human movement and then combining these in a creativeway (Hodgson 2001).

In order to equip students with knowledge of the appropriate movements,the first sessions in the programme were largely teacher-led, with studentsexperiencing different types of gymnastic actions such as travels, rolls,jumps, balances and weight on hands. Once basic familiarity was gainedstudents were encouraged to explore the creation of basic sequences withinthe specified teacher constraints: for example, the construction of a sequence


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which included one of the gymnastic actions given. In order to develop thevariety of gymnastic actions, over the sessions, students were encouraged toperform movements using a range of compositional concepts developed byLaban, such as using different shapes, speeds, pathways, directions and lev-els (Maletic 1987). To encourage the development of these concepts, avocabulary of movement was available on the walls of the hall during eachsession: for example, words to describe shape (tall, long, wide, narrow,twisted, curled, wide and narrow).

For the final performance, students were encouraged to develop a formof written plan, a ‘performance sentence’, that symbolically represented theirintended movements. The task sheet (Figure 1) provided a scaffold to con-vey their preparatory thinking.

Practical Gymnastics Presentation

Create and perform gym sequence (45 _ 60 seconds) on floor and apparatus for an audience.

Include at least 10 elements, ie: travel using 10 different gym actions

It must include:

Travelling on floor, apparatus, then floor Use of 3 levels of apparatus Flight off or over apparatus Changes in body shape within the actions Rolling into and out of balances Travelling on hands and feet Changes in direction At least one inverted balance Continuity when moving from one action to the next

Draw your equipment layout here

Use the boxes below to help you record your sequence _ words or pictures may be of use

Figure 1. Example of a scaffolded task sheet.


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Rewarding curiosity and exploration

Currently course documentation within higher education is most oftenfocused around a discrete set of objectives and outcomes from which a modu-lar programme is constructed. With students increasingly used to ‘bite-size’experiences within the higher education sector in the UK (Dale and McCarthy2006), concerns have been raised that this modular approach employed acrossand within courses significantly limits the depth of learning desired at such alevel of study (Barron 2002). With a heightened awareness of a results- andoutcomes-driven system, it is perhaps not surprising that measurable perfor-mance has been given greater value (Ball 2003), but we appear to havereached a point at which‘performativity’ can be seen to be ‘hijacking the crea-tivity discourse’ (Turner-Bisset 2007, 201).

To integrate this aspect of creativity, one of the first challenges was toencourage the students to move, lose their narrow focus and their inhibi-tions, and simply play or travel freely using their newly introduced move-ments. Bailey et al. (2007) remind us that physical education (of whichgymnastics is part) is fortunate in that it is in an ideal position to captureand capitalise upon what appears to be a person’s innate desire to move(Bailey et al. 2007). As such moments were created, students were encour-aged simply to find out how they could move themselves from one space toanother. In these freer and more creative instances, some parts of a lessonmay not always have an observable outcome (Turner-Bisset 2007).

Interestingly, when this was introduced, some students voiced their dis-satisfaction at such an approach – it was not that they had issues with beingcompletely involved, but rather, they failed to see why it was useful or ‘anygood’. This state of affairs is perhaps representative of the current climate inwhich notions of play and creativity are seen by many as progressive,woolly and equated with a drop in standards (Marshall 2001). Indeed,Maisuria (2005, 145) warns that currently, ‘a teacher who is creative andcelebrates creativity from pupils is a teacher who is willing to risk a greatdeal’. To refocus students within this context, attention was drawn back tothe actions, concepts and vocabulary learned, and synthesis was madebetween existing knowledge and newly discovered movements. Interestingcreations could then be incorporated into sequence design at a later time.That is not to say that a movement such as a ‘textbook’ forward roll is nota desirable skill to acquire, but ideally this may be selected as one of adozen different rolls at the student’s disposal, after repeated exploration.

‘In a bid to offset the irresistible drift towards a product and outcomesfocused PE curriculum, it is essential that the process of learning is also givenvalue’ (Griggs 2008). To this end, students were encouraged to record howthey planned to showcase the different movements attempted (see Figure 2),along with an explanation of the choices they made which resulted in theirfinal sequence. This ‘movement sentence’ could also be added to the practical


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portfolio which complemented the practical components of the course andwas submitted for assessment at the end of the year.

Encouraging risk taking

Another consequence of students being immersed in a culture of perform-ativity is that learners tend to reproduce ‘safe’, ‘taught’ choices so as ‘not toget it wrong’ (Davis 2000). This manifested itself in practice during thegymnastic routines that students were performing for their assessments. Ofcourse risks are everywhere, both perceived and real – for example, the riskof injury or the risk of failure. What is needed therefore is a sense of per-spective to inform appropriate risk awareness and risk management. Toaddress the idea of ‘sensible risk taking’ in a bid to move away from saferchoices, a number of strategies were employed. The first of these was thatwithin planned sequences, possible deviations were identified in which thestudent could select the degree of difficulty they could engage with at anygiven time. For instance, they may choose to perform an inverted balanceon a high platform, but they could employ a shoulder stand or a headstandwith straddled legs depending on their confidence at the time. As a student’sconfidence regarding sequence building and improved body control grew,they mostly chose to push themselves into selecting more difficult options.This underlines the importance within creative development of modelling anapproach that is prepared to consider the broadest range of options (Craft2005). The performance of the higher order selections was then noted ontheir final mark sheet. To allay fears of the risk of injury, throughout theteaching sessions attention was given to safe ways that students could

Figure 2. Movement sentence using symbols.


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physically support each other during the practicing of particular movements.This meant that new and ever more difficult challenges could be introducedand that student mastery grew as repeated practice could occur in a safeenvironment. The option to allow students to support each other during finalassessments was also permitted, to encourage the continued performance ofmore advanced movements.

Conveying high expectations

Historically there have been low expectations of PE within all levels of edu-cation, and where improvement has occurred the ‘culture is proving slow tochange’ (Casbon 2006, 15). What is key in such instances is the continuedencouragement and modelling of good practice, which can manifest itself inmanner, body language and even clothing (Griggs 2007). To this end, stu-dents were always expected to dress appropriately, including the removal offootwear and jewellery and securing long hair and baggy clothing. Repeatedopportunities were found during the sessions for students to perform to thebest of their ability and to give each other feedback so that reciprocalimprovements could be made. Students should seek to go beyond mere par-ticipation or simply being ‘busy, happy, and good’ (Placek 1983) and openup the possibilities for more complex learning. Lastly, the idea of out-of-session practice was actively encouraged and provision was made forstudents to book the facilities and equipment without the presence of a tutor.

Providing opportunities for student self-management

Chedzoy (2006, 4) argues that PE continues to offer many avenues throughwhich to foster creativity through self-management, as it allows the opportu-nity to create such things as gymnastic sequences. This was encouragedthroughout all the sessions and was manifested in a number of ways. Thefirst example of this was the selection of the gymnastic apparatus: studentswere given free use during the sessions of all available mats, benches (bothwooden and padded) and platforms, the latter of which varied considerablyin size and shape. However for the assessment, students were given amaximum number of pieces of apparatus to select from, which could notexceed four mats, two benches and two platforms. In addition, students wereencouraged to be imaginative regarding the layout of this apparatus. Thiswas felt to be an important development in decision making, as the perfor-mance apparatus for the assessment had previously been prescribed, in orderto ease management issues. Previously apparatus management was never aburden on staff. Students were responsible at all times for setting out andclearing away all apparatus. As well as the organisation of apparatus, self-management of time was encouraged. This was done firstly within thetimetable. At the end of the first taught sessions a small amount of time was


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given over to free exploration, where the students were encouraged to exper-iment and practise movements learned in the taught session that they feltappropriate to include in their individual sequence. The balance betweenteaching time and free sequence development was progressively tilted infavour of the latter as the weeks went by, so that finally, no direct teachingwas given and the tutor took on the role of a facilitator during a freesequence development session. As previously mentioned, management ofindependent time was encouraged through the provision of booking practicetime. However, this aspect was taken further still, with students later beingexpected to self-sign the assessment time slots they wished to have over thecourse of half a day. This had distinct advantages: students felt that theassessment was less of an imposition on their time, and with half a dozenstudents present within any given time slot, friends could sign up togetherand support each other both emotionally and physically if necessary. Thescaffolded task sheet (Figure 1) provided an aid for planning, managing andperforming the gymnastic sequences. This was also available electronicallyso that imaginative ideas could be re-drafted over time. The students wereable to record the movements in sequential order using their own words,symbols or pictures and sketch an apparatus plan to define the space andequipment to be used. The final draft of this (see Figure 2 as an example)was requested on the day of the performance, which enabled the swiftarrangement of equipment and served as a record to accompany the marksheet.

Providing opportunities for choice and discovery

PE literature continues to celebrate its ability to offer opportunities to makechoices and engage in episodes of discovery (Chedzoy 2006), not leastbecause of the endless range of movement possibilities that can be combinedand recombined. Examination of examples given in guidance for PE practi-tioners, however, indicates that many of these opportunities have a focus onexamples of ‘guided discovery’, which is designed to lead pupils to aplanned, predetermined response (Katone 1949). ‘This structure gets thelearner to the target with maximum efficiency’ (Mosston and Ashworth2002, 220) and is consistent with performativity discourses which specifyboth objectives and outcomes and are the basis for much of the structurefound in education planning, especially PE (QCA 2000). As a method ofdiscovery, however, this approach has its limits – not least because cogni-tively it is allied to memory recall and practice (Bruner 1961), which iscompounded within PE due to its association with the sport and dominantcoaching pedagogies that have continued to impose their influence upon thesubject at every level (Capel 2000). Traditionally within PE, lessons canquickly fall into the habit of being command-style affairs, where teachersseek to maximise control, talk a lot and expect pupils to follow their


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instructions (Mosston and Ashworth 2002). Conscious that students withinthe physical education course discussed here been primarily schooled withinsuch a pedagogy, the key was to find the right approach and get them tothink differently (McGregor 2007). Therefore where possible, questions andtasks were focused towards a divergent discovery approach in which thelearner makes most of the key decisions and is engaged cognitively through-out in a process of designing and evaluation. According to Mosston andAshworth (2002, 248), ‘without experiences in divergent discovery, learners’experiences are limited to replication of the known movements, basic skillsand fundamental strategies in the different activities and sports’. To employthis approach successfully it was important to create a less constrained learn-ing environment, as discussed previously, and to use precise language. Forexample, during the development of gymnastic actions such as rolling, itwas vital to go beyond the practice pedagogy and vocabulary of ‘show orfind three ways to roll’ to a more open ‘create five different rolls’ and con-nect them using the provided ‘vocabulary’. This approach mediated for crea-tivity by offering a supportive focus and tentative suggestions.

Building opportunities for motivation and confidence

Supporting the initial observations that prompted this study, Jeffrey (2006,401) observed that students were largely ‘motivated by extrinsic factors, orpurely task-oriented exercises’. As a consequence of these findings, a projectentitled ‘Creative Learning and Student Perspectives’ (CLASP) was under-taken across a wide variety of teaching and learning environments in a bidto see how greater creativity could be developed in practice. Four commonthemes were identified, namely innovation, ownership, control and rele-vance, and it became apparent that within these four themes, creativity couldbe developed as pupils saw their learning becoming meaningful and subse-quently took greater ownership and felt in control. These themes are rein-forced within the seven aspects that Nickerson (1999) suggests can supportcreativity, particularly the development of students’ self-management skills.It appears, then, that the newly developed PE programme outlined earlierrepresents an imaginative curriculum approach that can strongly enthuse andmotivate students. Woods (2002, 7) suggests that if this can be achieved, thelikelihood of developing creative individuals is enhanced: ‘relevance aidsidentification, motivation, excitement and enthusiasm. Control, in turn, leadsto ownership of the knowledge that results. If relevance, control and owner-ship apply, the greater the chance of creative learning resulting.’

Evaluation of the new approach to mediating and scaffolding forcreativity

In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the new programme, and in particu-lar the development of the more creative compositional concepts, data was


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collected from three sources. The first was the mark sheet, on which tutorscommented on different actions and their composition. The second was theplanning sheets, which were expected to record the apparatus layout and themovements intended to be performed. Thirdly, a self-completion question-naire was completed by students immediately after their performance. Thisasked them for their open comments concerning their progress in domain-specific knowledge; curiosity and exploration; risk-taking; raising expecta-tions; self-management skills; discovery; motivation and confidence asNickerson (1999) suggests these are the key developments underpinningcreativity. The relevant sheets were then collated and analysed. Access todata was confined to the researcher and was managed in accordance withthe Data Protection Act 1998.

Reflecting upon the findings

Tutor mark sheets included largely positive comments regarding the inclu-sion of compositional concepts. In particular, attention was drawn to aspectsof shape, levels and the linkage between movements. More able performerstended to devise more complex performances, using a wider variety of loca-tions or movements as well as a selection of more complex pathways. Thispoint was supported by evidence from the student planning sheets (see anal-ysis in Table 1). Interestingly, while the lower-achieving performers intendedto combine a wide range of actions, they could not always execute theseplans in their performance, or chose less challenging movements and transi-tions.

Differences between the weaker and stronger performances includedmore creative arrangements of equipment, often in U-, S- and F-shapedarrangements. The clear distinction of different speeds was a concept absentfrom all but a few mark sheets.

By contrast, the student planning sheets offered very sparse representa-tions of the compositional concepts. Students recorded their movements inboth graphical and written form, with more able students showing a ten-dency to record words only (eg ‘Figure 3’). In most cases the items recordedwere the particular individual movements, eg ‘headstand’ or ‘forward roll’.While some students did include different compositional concepts in theirplan, eg ‘fast cartwheel’ or ‘high balance on tabletop’, this varied widelyacross the group and was no more applicable to one level of performer thanto another.

The post-course questionnaires indicated that students felt that their crea-tivity was developed in each of the seven areas identified by Nickerson. Theimportance attached to building motivation and confidence appears to havebeen the key aspect in this activity and consistently prompted the fullestresponses:


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Table 1. Analysis of some aspects of student creativity (through evidence fromplanning sheets).

Arrangement ofapparatus

Variety ofactions in plan

Variety of locationsused in plan

Finalperformance

grade

U shaped 12 A14linear 14 4 B13F shaped 21 5 B13linear 10 3 B12T shaped 25 3 B12L shaped 16 3 B12T shaped 17 2 B12scattered 15 4 B11S shaped 19 2 B11triangular 10 3 B11triangular 16 4 B11F shaped 13 3 B11linear 15 3 B11S shaped 11 2 B11linear 15 3 B11

Average 15.5 3.1

L shaped 10 3 C8Diagonal line 14 3 C8linear 13 3 C8linear 12 3 C8L shaped 10 3 C8T shaped 11 3 C8Block 10 3 C8linear 12 3 C8linear 9 4 C8L shaped 11 3 C8

Average 11.2 3.1

U shaped 15 3 D5L shaped 15 3 D5linear 16 3 D6scattered 15 3 D6linear 16 3 D6block 13 3 D6L shaped 12 3 D6Y shaped 16 3 D6L shaped 10 3 D5

Average 14.2 3

linear 13 3 E4


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I’d not done much gym before but seeing others doing it gave me a real sensethat I could do it too.

Having some time to myself within sessions gave me a chance to developgradually (even at my age and level of ability!).

I now feel more confident teaching gym at my school. TOPS gym was notenough to help me. The last two years I have taught gym ok, now it’s brill.I’m motivated and pass it on to children.

Conclusions

This article reflects upon an heuristic case study (Mitchell 2006, 30) whichfocused on development of practice and sought to rethink the creative ele-ments within the teaching and performing of gymnastics through theengagement of ‘reflection-on-action’ (Schon 1983, 61). The reflection on atutor’s practice ascribed to in this paper came about as Schon suggests:

Sometimes, in the relative tranquillity of the post-mortem, they think back ona project they have undertaken, a situation they have lived through, and theyexplore the understandings they have brought to their handling of the case(Schon 1983, 61).

As Alger (2006) also suggests, critical reflection is an important characteris-tic and skill of an effective teacher – and one which has been explored in

Figure 3. Movement sentence using words.


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this case through a tutor’s personal perspective which takes account of therecipient learners’ dialogic reflections. The article reports upon the influ-ences of mediational approaches and application of a scaffold designed tosupport more creativity. The seven aspects for development suggested byNickerson (1999) were a useful framework through which to inform the nat-ure of learning opportunities and subsequently review students’ reflectiveperspectives on the new programme. Findings indicated that students feltthat their creativity was developed in each of these areas, with particularimportance attached to building motivation and confidence.

The development of creativity has manifested itself in a plethora of gov-ernment documentation at all levels of education over the past decade (Craft,2006), most notably within primary schools, with ‘Creativity and culturaleducation: All our futures’ (NACCCE 1999), ‘National Curriculum inEngland and Wales’ (DfEE/QCA 1999), ‘Curriculum guidance for the foun-dation stage’ (QCA/DfES 2000) and ‘Excellence and enjoyment: A strategyfor primary schools’ (DfES 2003). However there has been great difficultyin realising creativity in practice (OFSTED 2004) and within physical edu-cation this has manifested itself in a lack of attention given to the strand of‘Selecting and applying skills/tactics and compositional ideas’ (OFSTED2005).

The findings from this study offer suggestions about how a learning pro-gramme could be refocused, tasks reshaped and mediational approachesadapted to support more creativity in teaching gymnastics specifically andlearning in general.

Note1. Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of proximal development (zpd) is applied to pro-

mote a higher level of ‘potential development as determined through problemsolving’ under adult (or expert) guidance or in collaboration with more capablepeers’. Vygotsky 1978, 86.

Notes on contributorsGerald Griggs is Senior Lecturer in Physical Education and Sports Studies in theSchool of Sport, Performing Arts and Leisure at the University of Wolverhampton.

Dr Debra McGregor is Reader in Developing Pedagogies in the School ofEducation at the University of Wolverhampton.

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scaffolding and mediating for creativity: suggestions from reflecting on practice in order to...

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