russian messianism during the napoleonic wars

8/13/2019 RUSSIAN MESSIANISM DURING THE NAPOLEONIC WARS

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RUSSIANMESSIANISMDURINGTHENAPOLEONICWARS

A Dissertationsubmitted to the a!u"t# o$ the

Graduate S!hoo" o$ Arts and S!ien!es

o$ Geor%eto&n Uni'ersit#in (artia" $u"$i""ment o$ the re)uirements $or thede%ree o$

Do!tor o$ Phi"oso(h#in Histor#

*#

+ames N, C"ass- *,A,

Washin%ton- DCebruar# .- /001


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Co(#ri%ht /001 b# +ames N, C"assA"" Ri%hts Reser'ed

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RUSSIANMESSIANISMDURINGTHENAPOLEONICWARS

+ames N, C"ass- *,A,

Thesis Ad'isor2 Catherine E'tuho'- Ph,D,

A*STRACT

This stud# in'esti%ates the roots o$ nationa" messianism- an

ideo"o%# &ith uni)ue im(ortan!e in nineteenth3!entur# Russian

thou%ht, Su(("ementin% e4istin% "iterature on the messiani! thin5ers

o$ the 6780s and 6710s- this dissertation e4amines (atrioti!

dis!ourse in a 'er# ne%"e!ted (eriod2 the era o$ the Na(o"eoni! Wars-

es(e!ia""# 670936761, The in'esti%ation e4amines (atrioti! &or5s o$

the edu!ated (ub"i!:s "iterar# so!ieties2 in!"udin% $amous &riters "i5e

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these ideas- the messiani! thin5ers !on!ei'ed their 'isions as a

de$ense o$ the En"i%htenment,

The stud# be%ins &ith the Coa"ition Wars to i""ustrate the

emer%en!e o$ the idea o$ nationa" e"e!tion based on the !ardina"

assum(tion that Russians embodied uni'ersa" 'a"ues and !ou"d

restore !i'i"i>ation in !ountries ra'a%ed b# Na(o"eon, The

subse)uent !ha(ters $o""o& !han%es in the &ar2 $rom nomina" (ea!e

&ith ran!e to the in'asion o$ 676/ and $rom the subse)uent

Euro(ean !am(ai%n to the Russian trium(h in 6761, As &ar &ith

Na(o"eon (ro%ressed to&ard a trium(h- Russian (oets and !"er%#

intert&ined an!ient messiani! ideas- ren!h notions about !i'i"i>ation

and (ro'iden!e- and ima%es $rom their o&n histor# to !onstru!t

theories o$ Russia:s messiani! rene&a" o$ Euro(e, The rise o$ Russian

messianism in the Na(o"eoni! Wars thus testi$ies to the inter("a# o$

ideas bet&een Russia and Euro(e ?and ran!e in (arti!u"ar@ but

de$ies a sim("e !"assi$i!ation in the standard !ate%ories o$ the histor#

o$ Euro(ean thou%ht, This dissertation su%%ests that in Russia- the

inte""e!tua" &or"ds o$ the En"i%htened and Romanti! eras &ere

mutua""# su((orti'e- rather than im("a!ab"# o((osed,

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AC=NOWLEDGMENTS

I &ou"d "i5e to e4tend m# dee(est than5s to m# dissertation

readers2 Catherine E'tuho'- Ri!hard Stites- and *oris Gas(aro', It

&as m# (ri'i"e%e to s(end &ith them time in the !"assroom and to

share m# $irst $ruits &ith them at the de$ense, A &ord o$ than5s must

e4tend as &e"" to Da'id Go"d$ran5- &hose re$usa" to be !on'in!ed has

(ro$ited me as mu!h as has his en!#!"o(edi! mind, M# Buno$$i!ia"

!ommittee o$ Christine A, R#de" and Ed&ard A""an Co"e &as

res(onsib"e $or $irst bondin% m# sou" to Russia- and &hate'er su!!ess

I mi%ht eno# is u"timate"# theirs,

This dissertation &ou"d not ha'e been (ossib"e &ithout a host

o$ (ro$essiona" "ibrar# and ar!hi'a" sta$$s, The di"i%ent em("o#ees o$

the Russian State Librar#:s mi!ro$i"m di'ision and the Russian State

Histori!a" Librar# (ro'ided in'a"uab"e ser'i!e in $a!i"itatin% a!!ess to

(rimar# sour!es, I a"so o&e %ratitude to the Russian Mi"itar#3

Histori!a" Ar!hi'e- the Russian State Ar!hi'e o$ Literature and Arts-

the Manus!ri(t Di'ision o$ the Russian Nationa" Librar#- and the State

Ar!hi'e o$ the Russian ederation, Abo'e a""- ho&e'er- I &ou"d "i5e to

than5 the sta$$ o$ the Librar# o$ Con%ress:s Euro(ean Readin% Room-&here I had the (ri'i"e%e o$ s(endin% man# ("easurab"e hours,

I &ou"d "i5e to mention in a s(e!ia" &a# the (eo("e &ho made

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this stud# $or me a (assionate )uest, M# best $riend and dia"e!ti!a"

o((onent Tim M!Mi""an (osed the )uestion that interested me in

messianism in the $irst ("a!e, Without his $riendshi(- m# inte""e!tua"

de'e"o(ment &ou"d ha'e been si%ni$i!ant"# diminished, Without m#

&i$e- Tri!ia- ho&e'er- nothin% &ou"d ha'e been a!!om("ished at a"",

or her (atien!e and "o'e- her $aith in me- and her !ommitment

durin% this harro&in% (ro!ess- I dedi!ate this to her,

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Tab"e o$ Contents

Introduction......................................................................................................................1Minor Writers and the Loyal Public .......................................................................................................3

Definitions and Method.........................................................................................................................11

Sources ............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .... 17

Plan of the Work................................................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 1: The Literary Societies of Moscow and Petersburg...................................... 27Resistance to Russian Gallomania........................................................................................................ 28

Moscow and the Moderate Enlightenment............................................................................................42

Petersburg: Writers and Politics............................................................................................................55

Chapter 2: National Consciousness In the Patriotic Literature of the Coalition Wars. .68National Consciousness and Enlightened Autocracy............................................................................70

War Odes and Unmatchable Ancestors.................................................................................................86

Historical Tragedy: Valorizing the Common Cause............... .............. .............. .............. ............... ..... 98

Comedies: Ancestral Inheritance and Superior Manners....................................................................110

Chapter 3: Sergei Glinka and the Russian Enlightenment........................................... 120Rousseau after Revolution ................................................................................................................. 122

Glinka and Rousseau...........................................................................................................................125

National Progress................................................................................................................................ 143

Chapter 4: Forming a Myth of National Suffering: Apocalyptic Vision and Clerical

Rhetoric in 1812...........................................................................................................157Revolution and Napoleon in Light of Scripture...................... .............. .............. .............. ............... ... 158

Nationalist Prophets: the Colloquium.................... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... ...... 172

Universalist Muscovites..................... .............. ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............ 184

Chapter 5: Russian Political Criticism and the Search for the Shared Traditions of

Europe ......................................................................................................................... 205Introduction......................... ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... ............ 205

The Early Romantics Search for Balance................... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. . 206

Nationalism and Universalism in Journalism......................................................................................211

Maxim Nevzorov: The Tradition of Moral Legislation..................... .............. .............. ............... ...... 221

Vladimir Izmailov: The Tradition of Enlightened Synthesis................. .............. .............. .............. ... 231

Alexei Merzliakov: The Tradition of Political Balance................. .............. .............. ............... .......... 241

Chapter 6: Romanticism and the Image of the Messianic Tsar in Triumphal Panegyrics

of 1814......................................................................................................................... 255Romantic Structure and Its Sources................ .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. 257

Nikolai Karamzin: Restoration of Civilization................................................................................... 270

Alexei Merzliakov: Religion and Eutopia...........................................................................................281

Vasilii Zhukovskii: A New Exemplar of Faith .................................................................................. 289

Chapter 7: Second Israel for a New Age: Archbishop Avgustin and Russian

Messianism...................................................................................................................298An Alternative Path to the Moderate Enlightenment....................... ............... .............. .............. ........ 299

Preaching to the People................... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. . 306

The Divine Mission.............................................................................................................................315

Avgustin in Context............................................................................................................................ 326

Conclusion................................................................................................................... 334

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Bibliography.................................................................................................................342I. Archives.................... ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. ..... 342

II. Printed Primary Sources.................. .............. .............. .............. ............... .............. .............. .......... 342

III. Secondary Works.......................................................................................................................... 357

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Introduction

Nationa" messianism is a m#tha %rou( o$ stories about a

(arti!u"ar nation:s mission to sa'e humanit#,6In Russia- nationa"

messianism (ermeated nineteenth3!entur# thou%ht so broad"# that

the (hi"oso(her Ni5o"ai *erdiae' !"aimed that messianism &as

Ba"most !hara!teristi! o$ the Russian (eo("e,/E'en in (ost3Wor"d

War II So'iet Russia- messianism resur$a!ed and has endured in

!ontem(orar# (o"iti!a" ideo"o%ies and re"i%ious mo'ements,8A!ross

Euro(e- nationa" messiani! theories abounded in the nineteenth

!entur# &ith the rise o$ Romanti! Nationa"ism- an inte""e!tua"

mo'ement %enera""# understood as a rea!tion a%ainst the

inte""e!tua" a4ioms o$ the En"i%htenment- the !u"tura" (o&er o$

ran!e- and- "ater- the (o"iti!a" domination o$ Na(o"eon throu%hout1On nationa" m#ths- see Geor%e S!hF($"in, BThe un!tions and Ta4onom#o$ M#ths- in Myths and Nationhood- edited b# Geo$$re# Hos5in% andGeor%e S!hF($"in ?London2 Hurst and Com(an#- 6@- 6, M# attention tothis sour!e &as dra&n b# Peter Dun!an:s simi"ar obser'ation, See $ootnote Error2 Re$eren!e sour!e not $oundbe"o&,

2Ni5o"ai *erdiae'- Russkaia ideia: Osnovnye problemy russkoi mysli XIXveka i nachala XX veka- ?Paris2 MCA- 61.@- 8.,

3Peter Dun!an !o'ers the entire (ost&ar (eriod u( to the 60s, See his

Russian Messianism: Third Rome, Holy Revolution, Communism, and !ter-?LondonJNe& or52 Rout"ed%e- /000@- ./3610, On the 60s- see +u"ia *run3


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Euro(e,1Within the stud# o$ Russian inte""e!tua" histor#- (re'ious

s!ho"ars ha'e !redited the Na(o"eoni! War era ?in Russia- 63

6769@ &ith %i'in% birth to ideas o$ nationa" mission that (ro"i$erated

in the 6780s and 6710s- but &ithout a!tua""# in'esti%atin% their

!onstru!tion,9Who de'e"o(ed the messiani! 'isions What

inte""e!tua" mo'ements in$"uen!ed their rea"i>ation Was the o"d

4A"bert *oime- thou%h &ritin% (rimari"# on art- (ro'ides a su!!in!t a!!ounto$ the rise o$ Romanti! Nationa"ism as an inte""e!tua" mo'ement in hisrt

in the $e o! %onapartism, &'(()&'&*- ?Chi!a%o2 Uni'ersit# o$ Chi!a%o-60@- 81/!!, See a"so Sie%$ried Heit- BGerman Romanti!ism2 an Ideo"o%i!a"Res(onse to Na(o"eon- Consortium on Revolutionary +urope, &*()&'*(:-roceedin$s, &.'(- edited b# Dona"d D, Hor&ard ?Athens- GA2 theConsortium- 670@- 6736, On the re!e(tion o$ the (hi"oso(h# o$ GermanRomanti! Nationa"ism in Russia- see Isaiah *er"in- BGerman Romanti!ism inPetersbur% and Mos!o&- in his Russian Thinkers- ?Ne& or52 ;i5in% Press-67@- 68.361,

5Andr>e Wa"i!5i- e,%, !onsidered tsar A"e4ander I:s be"ie$ in a (ersona"messiani! mission as an anti3en"i%htenment trend- !hara!teristi! o$ the(ost&ar re'i'a" in m#sti!a" Christianit# that s&e(t Centra" and Eastern

Euro(e, See his History o! Russian Thou$ht !rom the +nli$htenment toMar/ism- trans"ated b# Hi"da Andre&s3Rusie!5a- ?Stan$ord2 Stan$ordUni'ersit# Press- 6@- /, Mar! Rae$$ ar%ued that the Na(o"eoni! Wars!ata"#>ed nationa" !ons!iousness amon% a (ro$essiona" and inte""e!tua"e"ite that (arado4i!a""# !"un% to En"i%htenment:s $aith in (ro%ress &hi"ebe"ie'in% in Romanti! notions o$ nationa" !hara!ter and mission, BAt theOri%ins o$ a Russian Nationa" Cons!iousness- in his -olitical Ideas andInstitutions in Imperial Russia- ?*ou"der2 West'ie&- 61@- ..3., Ed&ard

Thaden:s theoreti!a" stru!ture $or the rise o$ Romanti! Nationa"ism inRussia treated the Na(o"eoni! Wars as the time &hen Russians de'e"o(edtheir o&n 'ersions o$ this inte""e!tua" mo'ement, See his BThe *e%innin%so$ Romanti! Nationa"ism in Russia- in Interpretin$ History: Collective

+ssays on Russia0s Relations #ith +urope,?*ou"der2 So!ia" S!ien!eMono%ra(hs- 60@- 670, Whi"e these studies ha'e (ointed to the immensesi%ni$i!an!e o$ the ear"# nineteenth3!entur# $or subse)uent Russianthou%ht- none a!tua""# e4amines the rise o$ messianism itse"$, E'en PeterDun!an:s re!ent sur'e# o$ Russian messianism a!!ords on"# a senten!e tothe stru%%"e &ith Na(o"eon- &hi"e a!5no&"ed%in% &ides(read be"ie$ in anationa" mission, Russian Messianism- 6,

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!a(ita" Mos!o& or the BEuro(ean !a(ita" St, Petersbur% more

in$"uentia" in messianism:s rise Was the Russian m#th a t#(i!a"

Euro(ean &a# o$ ree!tin% the En"i%htenment To ans&er these

)uestions- this dissertation e4amines the de'e"o(ment o$

messianism in the Russian anti3Na(o"eoni! dis!ourse %enerated b#

"iterar# inte""e!tua"s in both the !a(ita"s- i""ustrates the intert&inin%

o$ En"i%htened and Romanti! thin5in% in narrati'es about the &ar

e$$ort- and ar%ues that nationa" messianism emer%ed in modern

Russian thou%ht as a &a# o$ !riti)uin% Euro(ean !i'i"i>ation $rom

&ithin- &ith the u"timate aim o$ $u"$i""in% the En"i%htenment rather

than ree!tin% it,

Minor Writers and the Loyal Public

This stud# $o!uses on the de'e"o(ment o$ messianism $rom the&ea"th o$ !u"tura" arti$a!ts that (rodu!ed nationa" identit# in ear"#

nineteenth3!entur# Russia, In this sense- it e4amines the se!tors o$

Russian dis!ourse o'er the Na(o"eoni! Wars &here the (o"iti!a"-

territoria"- or e'en s(iritua" sa"'ation o$ Euro(e &as a 5e# issue, It

em("o#s the &or5 o$ "ess $amous &riters &hose aestheti! )ua"it# &as

modest but &hose out(ut o$ (atrioti! "iterature &as si%ni$i!ant,

Writers o$ the Bse!ond de%ree or Bse!ond tier- as understood b#

the Russian orma"ist !riti! Iurii T#niano'- (o(u"ate e(o!hs in "iterar#

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histor# instead o$ de$inin% turnin%3(oints, T#niano' (ro(osed that

minor &riters #ie"ded the most use$u" insi%hts into the d#nami!s o$

histori!a" !han%e- sin!e the# (ro'ided !oheren!e $or the e'o"ution o$

%enre,.This stud# e4amines their !ontent to sho& ho& ideas

!ir!u"ated and be!ame inter&o'en into a nationa" m#th,

The Bse!ond tier !om(rised members o$ Russia:s "iterar# e"ite2

(eo("e &ho "i'ed (rimari"# in the t&o !a(ita"s- &ho (ursued "iterature

as an a'o!ation or (ro$ession- and &hose se"$3identit# deri'ed in (art

$rom their non3o$$i!ia" !u"tura" a!ti'ities, This %rou( in!"udes $amous

(oets "i5e Ga'rii" Der>ha'in and the state historio%ra(her- Ni!ho"as

=aram>in- as &e"" as a host o$ $e""o&s in "iterar# so!ieties asso!iated

&ith the maor $i%ures, It a"so in!"udes the edu!ated !"er%#men &ho

(arti!i(ated in the "iterar# so!ieties- uni'ersit# "e!tures- and maor

(ub"i! e'ents &ith the "iterar# e"ite, Whi"e a"" members o$ this %rou(

had more (o&er- $reedom- and so!ia" standin% than the maorit# o$

the Russian (o(u"ation- the# !ame $rom di'erse ba!5%rounds, Man#

(ossessed no ser$s and "a!5ed the o((ortunit# or desire $or t#(i!a"

mi"itar# ad'an!ement amon% the nob"es, Due to its %enera"

a!!e(tan!e o$ Tsar A"e4ander and some $orm o$ en"i%htened

6Iu, N, T#niano'- BLiteraturn#i $a5t- inrkhaisty i novatory- ?Lenin%rad2Priboi- 6/@- 37.

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monar!h#- this %rou( mi%ht a"so be !a""ed the B"o#a" (ub"i!,As this

stud# !on!"udes &ith the end o$ the &ar- it does not !o'er the

re"i%ious statesmen &ho !ame to (o&er in the (ost&ar Ho"# A""ian!e

era7and &hose ties to German Pietism a$$i"iated them &ith a

di$$erent !u"tura" and inte""e!tua" &or"d $rom the mainstream "o#a"

(ub"i!,

Attention to the messiani! ideas o$ the "o#a" (ub"i! &as absent

$rom mu!h o$ the (re3Re'o"utionar# Russian historio%ra(h# on the

rei%n o$ A"e4ander I ?r, 6706367/9@ be!ause o$ a !on!e(tion that the

era:s ideas &ere transient and insi%ni$i!ant, A"e4ander P#(in-

(ub"ishin% in the 67.0s- sou%ht in 'ain a mo'ement o$ the ear"ier era

that !ou"d ha'e eman!i(ated so!iet# $rom the state, He !on!"uded

that inte""e!tua"s had not been stron% enou%h to a&a5en so!iet#- and

he em(hasi>ed the ro"e o$ German nationa"ists in sha(in% (atrioti!

7Whi"e I de'ised the heuristi! term B"o#a" (ub"i! on m# o&n- Da'id*urro&s is &or5in% on e4(andin% the !on!e(t in his do!tora" dissertation atthe Uni'ersit# o$ Penns#"'ania, As o$ this &ritin%- I ha'e not been ab"e toa!)uire the $ina" dissertation- but ha'e !orres(onded &ith Mr, *urro&s-&hose 'ie&s seem %enera""# !om(atib"e &ith the (resent usa%e,

8or a %ood introdu!tion to the ideas and (o"iti!s o$ su!h $i%ures asA"e4ander Sturd>a- Dmitrii Runi!h- and Ioannes Ca(odistrias- see !hs, .3o$ A"e4ander Martin- Romantics, Re!ormers, Reactionaries: RussianConservative Thou$ht and -olitics in the Rei$n o! le/ander I,?De=a"b2North I""inois Uni'ersit# Press- 6@,

9One notab"e e4!e(tion is the (oet ;asi"ii


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(ub"i!ations durin% the in'asion and Euro(ean !am(ai%n,60A se'en3

'o"ume !entenar# !o""e!tion- entit"ed the 1atherland 2ar o! &'&3

and Russian "ociety- &ent mu!h $arther into the &or5s o$ minor

&riters- dramatists- ourna"ists- and other !u"tura" a!tors, Its authors-

ho&e'er- (ossessed a dee( s#m(ath# $or P#(in:s Bso!ia" $or!es in

o((osition to the monar!h and em(hasi>ed the )ui!5 disa((earan!e

o$ (atrioti! !u"ture a$ter the &ar:s end,66An arti!"e b# A"e4ei

Ga"a5ho' on (atrioti! a!ti'ities in 670936766 !on!"uded that the

unit# o$ (atrioti! minds &as sundered a$ter the &ar as &e"",6/

So'iet s!ho"ars &ere mu!h more e4!ited about !ertain minor

&riters: a!ti'it# in the &ars a%ainst Na(o"eon be!ause the# dis!erned

seeds o$ radi!a"ism in them, So'iet resear!h $o""o&ed the "ead o$ the

nineteenth3!entur# "iterar# !riti! ;issarion *e"ins5ii- &ho had de$ined

the e(i! batt"e o$ *orodino in 676/ as the moment &hen the Russian

10A, N, P#(in- Obshchestvennoe dvi4henie pri leksandre I, ?Petro%rad2O%n:- 66.@- /9 $$,

11A, =, D>hi'e"e%o' et a"- eds, Otechestvennaia voina &'&3 $oda i russkoeobshchestvo- 'o"s, ?Mos!o&2 I, D, S#tin- 666366/@, or an e4am("e o$the transien!e- see N, L, *rods5ii- BTeatr ' Ote!hest'ennuiu 'oinu- 'o", 1-67366, See a"so the historio%ra(hi!a" ana"#sis in A, S, edoto' and O, E,

Nitsie's5ii- BProb"em# '"iianiia ote!thest'ennoi 'oin# 676/ %oda naruss5uiu 5u":turu ' os'esh!hennii russ5oi i so'est5oi istorio%ra$ii, inRusskaia kul0tura v usloviiakh ino4emnykh nashestvii i voin X)nachalo XXv,;#(, /, ?Mos!o&2 AN SSSR- 60@- 673/08,

12A, Ga"a5ho'- BRuss5aia (atrioti!hes5aia "iteratura- 67093676/ %%,1ilolo$icheskie 4apiski;#(, 6- ?67.@2 638/,

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nation be!ame !ons!ious o$ itse"$,68Nationa" se"$3a&areness in So'iet

&or5s re"ated to the mo'ement o$ so!ia" %rou(s o((osed to the

tsar,61So'iet s!ho"ars (ub"ished mono%ra(hs and "iterar# !o""e!tions

o$ the ree So!iet# o$ Lo'ers o$ Russian Literature- Arts- and S!ien!es

in St, Petersbur%- sin!e that %rou(:s mi4ture o$ !i'i! (athos and

interest in nationa" $o"5&a#s (re!eded simi"ar interest amon% the

%entr# re'o"utionaries 5no&n as the De!embrists,69Other arti!"es

hi%h"i%hted the number o$ Russian &riters &ho entered into mi"itar#

ser'i!e as (roo$ that the !ontem(orar# Binte""i%entsia $e"t united in

s(irit &ith the (easantr#,6.A, G, Tarta5o's5ii:s &or5 on the ro"e o$

13*e"ins5ii &rote about the &ar o$ 676/ in a number o$ e4tended boo5re'ie&s, The best statement o$ his 'ie&s on the &ar !an be $ound in are'ie& o$ Ocherki %orodinsko$o sra4henii- b# edor G"in5a2 -olnoe sobraniesochineniia- ;o", 1- ?Mos!o&2 AN SSSR- 698391@- 3,

14or one o$ man# e4am("es2 ;, ;, Po>nans5ii- Ocherk !ormirovaniia russkoinatsional0noi kul0tury pervaia polovina XIX veka- &hose thesis maintainsthat nationa" !ons!iousness de'e"o(ed in tandem &ith the "iberationmo'ement, ?Mos!o&2 BM#s":- 69@- ,

15or a !o""e!tion o$ (oems- see -oety)Radishchevtsy- edited b# A, Or"o'-?Lenin%rad2 So'ets5ii (isate":- 6@, Their theoreti!a" &ritin%s !an be $oundin Russkie prosvetiteli 5ot Radishcheva do 6ekabristov7- edited b# I, Ia,Sh!hi(ano'- / 'o"s,- ?Mos!o&- BM#s": 6..@- (rimari"# 'o"ume /, or amono%ra(h on their "iterar# so!iet#- see ;, N, Or"o'- Russkie prosvetiteli,&.()&'(()kh $odov- /nd (rintin%- ?Mos!o&2 GI=hL- 698@, Re"ations &iththe ourna" "on o! the 1atherlandare addressed in N, M, Mi5hai"o's5aia-Bma ?676/36767@- 8chennye 4apiski 8dmurtsko$opeda$o$ichesko$o instituta- ;o", 68- ;#(, ?69.@2 9378, Mar! Rae$$:sBi""in% the Ga( bet&een Radish!he' and the De!embrists- "lavic Revie#-82/. ?Se(t 6.@2 893168- brin%s some o$ the !on!"usions o$ So'ietresear!h into En%"ish,

16S, =hra(5o'- BRuss5aia inte""i%entsiia ' Ote!hest'ennoi 'oine 676/ %oda,


16/388

Dor(at ?Tartu@ Uni'ersit# (ro$essors in !reatin% a (atrioti! mi"ieu in

the arm# b# means o$ a mobi"e (ress a"so em(hasi>ed the

!onne!tions bet&een his sube!t and the De!embrist mo'ement,6A,

;, Predte!hens5ii ar%ued that the rhetori! o$ Bsa"'ation in &artime

(ub"ishin% had a %reat im(a!t on the De!embrists: understandin% o$

their stru%%"e a%ainst the tsar,67

Whi"e So'iet historio%ra(h# hi%h"# 'a"ued !ertain dimensions o$

the se!ond3tier it did "itt"e to un!o'er nationa" messianism- be!ause

the !reators o$ messiani! theories &ere most"# a'id su((orters o$ the

tsar, The &or"d o$ the "o#a" (ub"i! a!)uired %reat interest $or Post3

So'iet historio%ra(h#:s !on!ern &ith the Russian monar!h# as a

!ohesi'e $or!e $or the e"ite,6Ne& &or5s ha'e em("o#ed sour!es $rom

se!ond3tier &riters $or inte""e!tua"- (o"iti!a"- and !u"tura" ana"#ses,

Ri!hard Wortman- $or instan!e- "oo5ed at the ro"e o$ (ane%#ri!s and

Istoricheskii 4hurnal /2661 ?618@2 /3., See a"so the introdu!tion to Islavili otchi4nu mech i slovo9 &'&3 $od $la4ami ochevidtsev: poe4iia i

pro4a- ?Mos!o&2 So'remenni5- 67@, E, L, A$anas:e' re(eats the nationa"unit# theme in his BOsm#s"enie 'oin# 676/ %oda ' so'ermennoi ei>hurnat"isti5e i "iterature- in Otechestvennaia voina &'&3 $oda i russkaialiteratura XIX veka- edited b# ;, Iu, Troits5ii ?Mos!o&2 Nas"edie- 67@- 9,

17A, G, Tarta5o's5ii- oennaia publitsistika &'&3 $oda- ?Mos!o&2I>date":st'o2 BM#s": 6.@- /60,

18A, ;, Predte!hens5ii- BOtra>henie 'oina 676/361 %%, ' so>naniiso'remenni5o'- Istoricheskie 4apiski- 86- ?Mos!o&- 690@- /83/11,

19This is a"so the insi%ht o$ C#nthia H#"a Whitta5er- BThe Idea o$ Auto!ra!#amon% Ei%hteenth3Centur# Russian Historians- Russian Revie#992/ ?A(ri"6.@2 690,

7


17/388

!ourt "iterature in !reatin% the ritua"s that de$ined the tsar:s se"$3

(resentation,/0A"e4ander Martin:s inte""e!tua" and (o"iti!a" histor# o$

Russian !onser'ati'es has e4amined a &ide 'ariet# o$ de$enders o$

the o"d re%ime- in!"udin% the (o"iti!a" ourna"ist Ser%ei G"in5a- the

stud# o$ &hose ideas &as re'i'ed on"# re!ent"# b# a Russian s!ho"ar-

Liubo': =ise"e'a,/6ina""#- Andrei


18/388

their histori!a" mission,/8His boo5 treats !onser'ati'e dis!ourse o'er

the &ar o$ 676/ $rom the stand(oint o$ nationa" unit#- rather than

!a""in%- and $o!uses on the )uestion o$ &hether the &ar shou"d be

$ou%ht as a nationa" &ho"e or as a nation o$ united estates,/1A"thou%h

Martin e4("ains the !onser'ati'e desires to see a nationa" $orm o$

!u"tura" re%eneration- he does not !o'er the &a#s b# &hi!h

!ontem(oraries (resented the &ar e$$ort as a su!!ess$u" a!t o$

Euro(ean sa"'ation and re%eneration,


19/388

#ears is o$$ered b# *oris Gas(aro':s -ushkin0s -oetic e Wa"i!5i- (ointed out that a %eneri! be"ie$ in a

nationa" !a""in% &as ubi)uitous throu%hout the ei%hteenth and

26*oris Gas(aro'- -oeticheskii ia4yk pushkina kak !akt istorii russko$oliteraturno$o ia4yka- ?;ienna2 Gese""s!ha$t >ur Frderun% s"a&istis!herStudien- 6/@- 78366,

27On Romanti! Nationa"ism in East Euro(e- see Thomas Ni((erde#-BRomantis!her Nationa"ismus in Nachdenken =ber die deustche>eschichte- ?Muni!h2 C, H, *e!5- 67.@ 66036/9, On messianism in EastEuro(e- see Dun!an- Russian Messianism- 6

66


20/388

nineteenth !entur#, What distin%uished messianism- in his 'ie&- &as

its )uasi3re"i%ious nature, That is- the nationa" tas5 needed to be

understood as e$$e!tin% the sa"'ation o$ the human ra!e- a$ter the

$ashion o$ +esus ChristChristosbein% Gree5 $or the Hebre&

mashiach- &hen!e the En%"ish messiah,/7A!!ordin% to Wa"i!5i:s

de$inition- messianism Bis a be"ie$ in a redeemer- indi'idua" or

!o""e!ti'e- mediatin% bet&een the human and the di'ine in the

soterio"o%i!a" sa"'i$i!- mo'in% to&ard sa"'ation?9C9 (ro!ess o$

histor#,/ Wa"i!5i:s de$inition !orres(onds &e"" to the historian o$ the

idea o$ nationa"ism- Hans =ohn- &ho !onsidered messiani!

inter(retations to be $undamenta""#3re"i%ious,80Peter Dun!an:s more

re!ent de$inition- desi%ned to embra!e se!u"ar ideo"o%ies ?es(e!ia""#

o$ the Russian re'o"utionaries@- ne'erthe"ess a"so assumes that the

nationa" !a""in% is Bre"i%ious and uni'ersa" in its si%ni$i!an!e,86

Com(arison o$ Wa"i!5i:s de$inition &ith more re!ent &or5 on

28On the ori%ins and uses o$ Bmashia!h- see Wim *eu5en- BDid Israe" Needthe Messiah in Messianism throu$h History- edited b# Wim *eu5en?Mar#5no""2 Orbis- 68@- 8368,

29Andr>e Wa"i!5i- -hilosophy and Romantic Nationalism: the Case o!-oland- ?Notre Dame2 Uni'ersit# o$ Notre Dame Press- 61@- /103/16,

30

Hans =ohn- The Idea o! Nationalism: "tudy in Its Ori$ins and%ack$round- ?Ne& or52 Ma!mi""an- 611@- 18319

31Peter +, S, Dun!an- Russian Messianism- 8, His broad de$initionen!om(assed man# non3re"i%ious $orms- (rom(tin% some )uestions aboutthe e4tent to &hi!h a"" Russian thou%ht is messiani!, See I"#a Pri>e":sre'ie& o$ Russian Messianism- in "lavic Revie#- ./2/ ?Summer /008@2 876,

6/


21/388

Russian messianism ?or mi""enarianism@ #ie"ds se'era" distin!t items

that $or the (ur(oses o$ this stud# &i"" be !onsidered messiani!

!om(onents2 uni'ersa" 'a"ues- a Christian (ro!ess o$ histor#- and

nationa" mediation, Messiani! ideo"o%ies treat nationa" 'a"ues as

ha'in% a uni'ersa" !hara!ter in the sense that the# are 'a"id and

a(("i!ab"e $or a"" (eo("e ?in!"udin% !on)uered sube!ts o$ di$$erent

ethni!ities@, The be"ie$ in a Christian (ro!ess o$ histor# under%irds

messianism and (ro'ides &hat Da'id Ro&"e# !a""s the

Btrans!endenta" "o%i! o$ histor#that has an end &ith si%ni$i!ant

meanin% &hi!h de$ines the ro"e o$ the nation, ina""#- messianism

assumes that a nation or %rou( !an itse"$ trans!end the norma"

(o"iti!a" order and inter!ede &ith the su(ernatura"o$ten throu%h

su$$erin%,8/

Sin!e messianism is a be"ie$ &ith a semi3re"i%ious !hara!ter- it

$a""s &ithin the traditiona" domain o$ inte""e!tua" histor#- &hi!h

en!om(asses $ar more than (ro$essiona" (hi"oso(hers, Arthur

Lo'eo# re!o%ni>ed the need $or an interdis!i("inar# a((roa!h to the

in'esti%ation o$ ideas, B*ut the historian o$ ideas- &hi"e he o$tenest

32

These !om(onents- &hi!h rou%h"# !orres(ond to as(e!ts o$ Wa"i!5i:sde$inition- ha'e a"so been !onsidered as 5e# e"ements o$ Russianinte""e!tua" Bmi""enarianism b# Da'id G, Ro&"e#, See his KRedeemerEm(ireK2 Russian Mi""enarianism, The merican Historical Revie#60129,?De!,- 6@2 697/36.0/- es696369/, A"thou%h Ro&"e# does nots(e!i$i!a""# mention mediation- he dis!usses the !on!e(t o$ nationa" !a""in%?Bin &hi!h a 5e# (eo("e ("a#s a s(e!ia" ro"e@ &ithin a re"i%ious !onte4t,

68


22/388

&i"" see5 $or the initia" emer%en!e o$ a !on!e(tion or (resu((osition

in some (hi"oso(hi! or re"i%ious s#stem or s!ienti$i! theor#- &i"" see5

$or its most si%ni$i!ant mani$estations in art- and abo'e a"" in

"iterature,88Without attem(tin% to redu!e messianism to a Bunit3

idea- Lo'eo#:s too" o$ ana"#sis- this stud# !onsiders messianism a

$orm o$ dis!ourse about nationa" identit# that e4hibits the

!om(onents "isted abo'e, Whi"e the intermin%"in% o$ !om(onents !an

be e4("ained in (art b# !han%in% (er!e(tions o$ the &ar e$$ort- the

$orms o$ messiani! dis!ourse o&ed a %reat dea" to the anti3

re'o"utionar# sentiments s&ee(in% a!ross Euro(e and $indin%

&e"!omin% arms in Russia, Members o$ the "o#a" (ub"i! de$ined

themse"'es as the o((osite o$ Euro(ean se"$3!riti!isms and thus

(arado4i!a""# $ashioned their (ride in en"i%htened Russia $rom the

materia" o$ the Counter3En"i%htenment- es(e!ia""# its 1rench

ad'o!ates, Instead o$ "oo5in% at (atrioti! "iterature and dis!ourse as

an emanation o$ ideo"o%# that (oints to the re"ations o$ so!ia" (o&er-

I $o""o& Mar5 *e'ir in em(hasi>in% the $a!t that indi'idua"s !hoose to

em(hasi>e (arti!u"ar ideas and !on!e(ts in &a#s that so!ia" !onte4t

!annot $u""# e4("ain,81

Assumin% that the !hoi!es o$ stor#- meta(hor33Arthur O, Lo'eo#- The >reat Chain o! %ein$: "tudy in the History o! anIdea- ?Cambrid%e2 Har'ard Uni'ersit# Press- 6.1 /6str(t, 67@- 6,

34Dra&in% $rom the insi%hts o$ $o"5 (s#!ho"o%#- *e'ir maintains that (eo("eindeed inherit assum(tions and other !u"tura" ba%%a%e- but ha'e the!a(a!it# to modi$# it in un(redi!tab"e &a#s, BPeo("e a!!e(t di$$erent

61


23/388

and other de'i!es re$"e!ted menta" o(erations and &hat Lo'eo#

!a""ed Bun!ons!ious assum(tions- their "iterature !an be read as a

sour!e o$ the !ontem(orar# B!"imate o$ o(inion- e4(ressed in Car"

*e!5er:s &e""35no&n de$inition as Bthose instin!ti'e"# he"d

(re!on!e(tions in the broad sense- that 2eltanschauun$or &or"d

(attern,89Ana"#sis o$ the a"ternations &ithin the !"imate o$ o(inion o$

the &ar #ears &i"" #ie"d !on!"usions about Russia:s re"ation to Euro(e

in the s(here o$ inte""e!tua" histor# in this a%e o$ re'o"ution era and

transition,

The insi%hts o$ "iterar# !riti!ism o(en a &indo& into the !"imate

o$ o(inion under stud#, The most use$u" too" &i"" be ana"#sis o$

narrati'e stru!ture, Peter Dun!an noted in his sur'e# o$ Russian

messianism that the idea !an be understood as a nationa" m#th-

&hi!h means that messiani! dis!ourse a((ears in the $orm o$

stories,8.Thus the ode- &hi!h to !ontem(oraries &as hard"#

inno'ati'e but use$u" $or (ub"i! o!!asions- (ossesses %reat

si%ni$i!an!e $or the &a# that it to"d the stor# o$ the &ar, Re"i%ious

theories and sa# di$$erent thin%s a%ainst the ba!5%round o$ the same so!ia"stru!ture- and &e !an e4("ain &h# the# do so on"# b# re$errin% to the!reati'e &a# the# reason as indi'idua"s, BMind and Method in the Histor#o$ Ideas- History and Theory8. ?Ma# 6@2 6.367,

35The Heavenly City o! the +i$hteenth)Century -hilosophers- ?Ne& Ha'en2a"e Uni'ersit# Press- 68/@- 9,

36Dun!an- Russian Messianism,8,

69


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Bh#mns and trium(hant (ane%#ri!s !ontinued to re!ount the &ar

stor# in 'erse- on"# &ith more messiani! !om(onents as time

(ro!eeded, Un"i5e stru!tura"ist or (ost3stru!tura"ist !riti!ism- m#

intention here is not to understand the stor#:s ro"e &ithin a (oem:s

o'era"" stru!ture or to attem(t to undermine it- but to sho& ho& this

stor# re$"e!ted un!ons!ious en"i%htened and Romanti! assum(tions

and to dra& "in5s &ith &ider anti3re'o"utionar# Euro(ean

mo'ements,

Meta(hor i""uminated and sha(ed narrati'es, In the

En"i%htenment- meta(hors $or BGreat Russia abounded- and man#

a!)uired ne& meanin%s in the !"ash &ith Na(o"eon,8Whether Russia

&as understood as a Ne& Israe"- a %arden (aradise- an in!arnation o$

=ie'an Rus:- or the (eo("e ru"ed b# a ne& +esus Christ- meta(hor &as

e'er#&here in (atrioti! dis!ourse, More im(ortant"#- the !hoi!e o$

meta(hor re"ated to an author:s assum(tions about the e4(e!ted

out!ome o$ the &ar and thus (ro'ides a !ru!ia" 5e# into

understandin% the "ar%er meanin% o$ the narrati'e, Need"ess to sa#-

this a((roa!h $o""o&s the &or5 o$ "iterar# !riti!s "i5e Pau" Ri!oeur &ho

37

or an introdu!tion to the main meta(hori! usa%es o$ en"i%htenedauto!rats- see


25/388

treat meta(hor as a (oeti! and !reati'e a!t &hi!h he"(s (eo("e

orient themse"'es to&ard the &or"d b# a""o&in% them to re3des!ribe

and re3re(resent it,87

Sources

This stud# tra!5s the messiani! !om(onents o$ nationa"

identit# throu%h mani$estations in 'arious domains o$ !u"ture, The

sour!e base deri'es $rom materia"s re$"e!tin% the "o#a" (ub"i!:s

rea!tion to Na(o"eon, The stud# o$ Russian histor# in the a%e o$ theNa(o"eoni! Wars &ou"d be mu!h &ider and more bounti$u" &ere it

not $or the in'asion o$ 676/ itse"$, Count"ess o"d Russian manus!ri(ts

burned u( in the $ire that ra'a%ed Mos!o&- in!"udin% a !o(# o$ the

e(i! ta"e The in &as usin% to (re(are his

History o! the Russian "tate,8Lu!5i"#- =aram>in (reser'ed a !o(# o$

the History- endo&ed &ith "on% $ootnotes that #ie"d insi%ht into man#

in!inerated do!uments, The $ire de'astated Mos!o& Uni'ersit#-

a"thou%h someho& the uni'ersit# t#(o%ra(h# remained inta!t &hen

the sta$$ returned to assess the dama%e,10Ho&e'er- the s!ho"ar"#

38Pau" Ri!oeur-


26/388

so!ieties that had been a!!umu"atin% boo5s u( unti" the &ar sa&

their !ontents sent u( in smo5e- as did the uni'ersit#:s ourna"s-

museum- rare (ub"i!ations- and (ro$essiona" !o""e!tions,16A %rou(

im(ortant $or this stud#- the So!iet# o$ Lo'ers o$ Russian Literature

at Mos!o& Uni'ersit#- "e$t behind on"# a $e& membershi( rosters-

b#"a&s- and a%endas unti" its rene&a" in 6769,1/

The sur'i'in% ar!hi'a" sour!es that do remain $or se!ond tier

&riters in the Na(o"eoni! War (eriod #ie"ded "itt"e insi%ht into

(atrioti! dis!ourse, Re'ie& o$ a"" ar!hi'a" $und des!ri(tions $or &riters

&ith do!uments $rom 6700 to 6769 at RGALI #ie"ded most"# (ro(ert#

re!ords and manus!ri(t !o(ies o$ &e""35no&n (ie!es o$ "iterature-

usua""# un!onne!ted &ith &ar, A (otentia" reason $or the (au!it# o$

(atrioti! do!uments mi%ht be that odes &ere so standard that a

&riter mi%ht not &ant to in!"ude them in his herita%e, A"e4ander

Push5in- reno&ned as Russia:s nationa" (oet- &rote his $irst (oems

durin% the stru%%"e &ith Na(o"eon, *ut &hen his &or5s &ere $irst

!o""e!ted ?durin% his "i$etime@- he 5e(t out a (ie!e on Na(o"eon that

&as t#(i!a" $or the a%e but a((arent"# not o$ su$$i!ient artisti!

uni'ersitets5aia ti(o%ra$iia- 6799@- 1/0,

41A, Iu, Andree'- Moskovskii universitet v obshchestvennoi i kulAturnoi4hi4ni Rossii nachala XIX veka- ?Mos!o&2 Ia>#5i russ5oi 5u":tur#- /000@- 60,

42N, M, Mende":son- Obshchestvo liubitelei rossiiskoi slovesnosti priMoskovskom universitete: Istoricheskaia 4apiska i materialy 4a sto let-?Mos!o&2 A, Sne%ire'a- 666@- iii3i',

67


27/388

)ua"it#,18One o$ the ri!hest !o""e!tions on inte""e!tua" "i$e in this era is

the Osta$:e's5ii Ar!hi'e ?most"# (ub"ished@- and other !o""e!tions o$

the ;ia>ems5ii $ami"#, Peter ;ia>ems5ii- a re"ati'e o$ Ni5o"ai =aram>in

and $riend o$ the maor Russian (oet A"e4ander Push5in- &as a

satirist- a o5ester- and a !#ni! &ho did not share the messiani!

'isions emanatin% $rom Mos!o& durin% the hei%ht o$ the Euro(ean

!am(ai%n a%ainst Na(o"eon, Corres(onden!e $rom the Osta$:e's5ii

Ar!hi'e is use$u" $or ud%in% the rea!tions o$ his $riends- but e'en

these do!uments be%in on"# in 676/,11The BPatrioti! War o$ 676/

$und at the Russian State Mi"itar# Ar!hi'e ?RG;IA@ !ontains

%o'ernment do!uments and (ro!"amationsmost o$ &hi!h ha'e

been (ub"ished e"se&here,19Other $unds at the manus!ri(t di'ision o$

the Russian Nationa" Librar# !ontained some sour!es !onne!ted to

43I, ;, Ro>ano'- BPatrioti!hes5aia "ir5a (oeto' tre5h (o5o"enii 'Ote!hest'ennoi 'oin# 676/36769 %%,- 8chenye 4apiski Moskovsko$ouniversiteta- ;#(, 667 ?61.@2 9,

44Osta!0evskii arkhiv knia4ei ia4emskikh- 7 'o"s,- ?St, Petersbur% 2 I>d, S,D,Sheremete'a- 673668@, See es(e!ia""# the !orres(onden!e in 'o", 6-676/3676,

45und 11 ?Patrioti! War o$ 676/@ !ontains !o(ies o$ o$$i!ia" mani$estoes-a"" o$ &hi!h &ere !om(i"ed in "obranie vysochaishikh mani!estov, $ramat,uka4ov, reskriptov, prika4ov voiskam i ra4nykh i4vieshchenii,

posliedovavskikh v techenie &'&3)&'&B $$- ?St, Petersbur%2 Mors5aiati(o%ra$iia- 676.@, Another interestin% $i"e des!ribes a !o'ert o(eration to"aun!h a nationa" u(risin% in German "ands, RG;IA $, 11- o6- d, 61-re!ent"# (ub"ished as A, Chui5e'i!h- BAna"iti!hes5ii (roe5t 'oenn#5hdeist'ii ' 676/ %, in Rossisskii arkhiv: Istoriia Otechestva v sviditel0stvakh idokumentakh- ;#(, ;II- ?Mos!o&2 BTrite Ni5it# Mi5hai"o'a BRossiss5iiar5hi'- 6.@,

6


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the &ar- but &ithout !"ear authorshi(,1.

An abundan!e o$ (rinted sour!es assisted m# in'esti%ation o$

the se!ond tier- in!"udin% some !"eri!a" "iterar# $i%ures, Mos!o&

Ar!hbisho( A'%ustin:s &artime sermons &ere !om(i"ed and (rinted

than5s to the e$$orts o$ the Mos!o& Uni'ersit# So!iet# o$ Lo'ers o$

Russian Literature, The rei%n o$ A"e4ander I &itnessed a $"urr# o$ ne&

and o$ten short3"i'ed ourna"s that %a'e 'oi!e to se!ond3tier (oets,

These in!"ude the "on%3"i'ed ?670/36780@ Herald o! +urope?estnik

+vropy@and man# short3"i'ed St, Petersbur% ourna"s, The So!iet#

&as a"so im(ortant in !om(i"in% and (ub"ishin% the &or5s o$ edor

I'ano' and A"e4ei Mer>"ia5o'- &hose (a(ers ha'e ne'er been

%athered in one ("a!e, A /3'o"ume !o""e!tion o$ 'erse dedi!ated to

the Bun$or%ettab"e #ear 676/ ran 900 (a%es o$ (atrioti! (oetr#, Its

editor- most "i5e"# ;asi"ii in a"on%side "ess reno&ned members o$ the

uni'ersit#:s Lo'ers o$ Russian Literature and e'en s!hoo"tea!hers

$rom the (ro'in!es, Pub"ished a"most immediate"# a$ter the

uni'ersit# re3o(ened- the !o""e!tion testi$ied to the ho(es $or a

rene&a" o$ "earnin% and (ro%ress in Mos!o&:s Btem("e o$ "earnin%,As $ar ba!5 as 6761- it dre& !riti!ism $rom the ta"ented !riti! Ni5o"ai

46See the Tito' !o""e!tion in the Russian Nationa" Librar#:s Manus!ri(tDi'ision- $, 9- d, 6.9.- "", /- 13.

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Gre!h ?in!identa""#- a resident o$ St, Petersbur%@ (re!ise"# $or &hat

ma5es it 'a"uab"e2 it re(resented the Bheart o$ !ontem(oraries

rather than the best o$ !ontem(orar# Russian "iterature,1It a"so

(reser'ed the &or5 o$ "itt"e 5no&n re"i%ious &riters "i5e Ni5o"ai

Sh!he%o"e' and Mat'ei A'ramo' ?an Orthodo4 (riest@, Sin!e (ost&ar

!o""e!tors too5 a %reat interest in the Patrioti! War o$ 676/- the#

bou%ht u( these (rinted sour!es- and attem(ted to ma5e $u""

bib"io%ra(hies o$ 676/ their !o""e!tions u"timate"# !ame to reside in

the Russian State Librar# ?in mi!ro$i"m@ and the Russian State

Histori!a" Librar# ?in the ori%ina"@,17

I ha'e $o!used on t#(es o$ &ritin% &here messiani!

!om(onents &ere most (resent, S(e!i$i!a""#- !ha(ters /- 1- and .

47Ma5sim Ne'>oro' de$ended the sin!erit# o$ the !o""e!ti'e authors in are("# to Gre!h, BO no'oi 5ni%e2 "obranie stikhotvorenii, otnosiashchikhsia k

ne4abvennomu &'&3 $odu, Istoricheskii, statitiecheskii, i $eo$ra!icheskii4hurnal 826J/ ?+u"#JAu% 6761@2 6..36.7,

48On the !o""e!tions at the Russian State Histori!a" Librar#- see T, =,Mish!hen5o- BGro>a d'enadtsato%o %oda,,, Mir biblio$ra!ii 6?6@2 7137,or (re3re'o"utionar# !o""e!tors attem(ts at bib"io%ra(hies- see ;atalo$russkikh kni$ po istorii otechestvennoi voiny biblioteki Ivana ;olodeeva,Otdel oennyi- ?Mins52 *, I, So"omono'a- 66/@ I, Li(randi- Opyt katalo$avsem otdel0nym sochnieniiam ob otechestvennoi voine &'&3 $oda po &'3$od- ?Mos!o&- 67.@ Otechestvennaia voina v russkoi 4hurnalistike9%iblio$raphicheskii sbornik statei, otnosiashchikhsia k &'&3 $odu- edited b#=, ;oens5ii ?St, Petersbur%2 *ere>h"i'ost:- 60.@, On the Russian Nationa"

Librar# in St, Petersbur% ?&hi!h !ontains man# more items (ub"ished"o!a""#@- see A, L, Go":dber%- BPe!hatn#e materia"# (ub"i!hnoi bib"iote5iimeni M, E, Sa"t#5o'a3Sh!hedrina o 'oine 676/ %oda- oprosy istorii.?6./@2 /073/6/ and Liudmi"a A"e5see'na Mandr#5ina et a",- ;atalo$rukopisnykh materialov o voine &'&3 $9 khraniashchikhsia v otdelerukopisei >osudartvennoi publichnoi biblioteki- ?Lenin%rad2 Pub"i!hnaiabib"iote5a Sa"t#5o'a3Sh!hedrina- 6.6@,

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dea" &ith (oetr# o$ 'arious 5inds2 mi"itar# odes- re"i%ious- and

(ane%#ri!, Sin!e the messiani! themes $ound in odes &ere

!ommon("a!e amon% the edu!ated "o#a" (ub"i! in Mos!o&- drama-

(ub"i! s(ee!hes- and !hur!h (ronoun!ements &ea'e themse"'es in

to the dis!ussion o$ nationa" identit#- nationa" mission- and romanti!

rebirth- as (ortra#ed in the (oetr#, Cha(ters 8 and 9 em("o# (o"iti!a"3

ourna"isti! sour!es &ith re$eren!es to the Euro(ean ideas that &ere

si%ni$i!ant in the Ti"sit (eriod ?6703676/@ and a$ter the in'asion

?676/36761@, The stud# !on!"udes &ith ana"#sis o$ sermons ?most"#

in 676836761@,

Plan of the Work

These !hoi!es $o""o&ed s(urts o$ (ub"ishin% &ithin the "o#a"

(ub"i!, A%ainst a ba!5dro( o$ stru%%"e to thro& o$$ ren!h !u"tura"

in$"uen!e- Russian (oets and dramatists $rom both !a(ita"s !om(osed

a host o$ (atrioti! (oems durin% the Third and ourth Coa"ition War

eras ?67093670@, This mo'ement ended abru(t"# &ith A"e4ander:s

di("omati! volte)!aceat the Treat# o$ Ti"sit in 670- a$ter &hi!h the

ren!h em(eror &as to be a!!orded a"" due res(e!t, In the #ears o$

(ea!e &ith ran!e- a "one ourna"ist- Ser%ei G"in5a- rea"i>ed the need

to mobi"i>e his !om(atriots $or &ar- to &hi!h end he de'oted his

ourna"- Russian Herald?Ruskoi estnik@, When &ar !ame in 676/- an

//


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enormous (oeti! out(our $i""ed the (a%es o$ a"" "iterar# ourna"s,

Po"iti!a" !riti!ism a"so a((eared in ourna"s durin% the Euro(ean

!am(ai%n o$ 676/36761, The !entra" !athedra" in Mos!o&- reo(ened

in 6768- be!ame the site o$ sermons out"inin% a messiani! 'ision,

ina""#- in 6761- a number o$ (ane%#ri! &or5s !e"ebrated the

a!!om("ished $a!t o$ the Bsa"'ation o$ Euro(e2 the Russian entr#

into Paris, A$ter 6761- (atrioti! "iterature o$ a"" 'arieties d&ind"ed,

Romanti! !urrents (romoted e4(erimentation in "iterature- &hi"e

!"er%#men returned to (rea!hin% to the (ea!etime needs o$ their

(arishioners,1

A$ter a ba!5%round !ha(ter des!ribin% the inte""e!tua" and

(o"iti!a" (ositions o$ the (rin!i(a" "iterar# %rou(s in the t&o !a(ita"s-

!ha(ter / sho&s ho& (oeti! and dramati! re(resentations

!ontributed to the (er!e(tion that Russia &as the "ast en"i%htened

!ountr# $ree o$ the BNa(o"eoni! #o5e and there$ore its !u"tura" as

&e"" as mi"itar# "eader, The third !ha(ter $o!uses on Ser%ei G"in5a-

&ho (ortra#ed Ba"" thin%s Russian in terms o$ +ean3+a!)ues

Rousseau:s (ro%nosis $or his o&n !u"ture, G"in5a disseminated the

notion that Russians (ossessed the 'a"ues o$ Btrue ?non349A$ter the &ar- the emotiona" (it!h and hi%h "an%ua%e o$ the &ar #earsdissi(ated, One "iterar# %rou( in (arti!u"ar- Ar>amas- treated the messiani!"an%ua%e o$ the &ar #ears as materia" $or (arod#in% their "iterar#o((onents, See Gas(aro'- -oeticheskii Ia4yk -ushkina- 607360 and 66736/6,

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re'o"utionar#@ en"i%htenment that &ere 'a"id $or a"" Euro(eans,

The $ourth !ha(ter dea"s &ith the o((osition in 676/ bet&een

Petersbur% !onser'ati'e nationa"ists and uni'ersa"ists Mus!o'ite

&riters &hose re"i%ious (oetr# !reated the $irst $orms o$ m#ths o$ a

di'ine mission to restore Euro(e, The $i$th !ha(ter re'ie&s (o"iti!a"

ourna"ism to sho& Russian inte""e!tua"s a%ain dre& on anti3

re'o"utionar# ideas in Euro(e a$ter the in'asion to de$ine the

re"i%ious mission as a restoration o$ the !ommon Ben"i%htened

tradition,

ina""#- !ha(ter si4 addresses the trium(ha" (ane%#ri!s o$ 6761

?in (oetr# and orator#@ that hera"ded 'i!tor# abroad o'er the ren!h

and sho&s ho& Romanti! ideas about Euro(e:s return to ha((iness

(ro'ided the stru!ture $or the ima%e o$ the tsar as a re!on!i"er o$

nations, Cha(ter dea"s &ith the most e"aborate messianist- the

Orthodo4 Ar!hbisho( o$ Mos!o& A'%ustin- &ho shared the Romanti!

'ision o$ Euro(e:s return to en"i%htened order and &ho !an (ro(er"#

be !onsidered the (rede!essor o$ Russian messiani! thin5in% b#

s#nthesi>in% a"" the messiani! !om(onents and the histor# o$ the

Russian nation, or A'%ustin- the (eo("e rather than the tsarinter!eded &ith hea'en to restore !i'i"i>ation, Thou%h he hard"#

!ou"d ha'e $oreseen it- he inau%urated a "on% tradition in Russian

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33/388

thou%ht o$ assi%nin% a messiani! ro"e to the (eo("e as the a%ent o$

Euro(e:s sa"'ation,

U"timate"#- the stud# o$ the rise o$ messianism in the

Na(o"eoni! Wars sho&s that Romanti! Nationa"ism de'e"o(ed as a

de$ense o$ the en"i%htened order, Tension &ith ren!h !u"ture-

e4("odin% durin% !on$"i!t and "ater &ar &ith Na(o"eon- !ertain"#

dro'e Russians to "oo5 $or ne& &a#s o$ distin%uishin% themse"'es

and their nationa" identit#- but in this (ro!ess man# (eo("e dre&

$rom (an3Euro(ean !riti!isms o$ re'o"utionar# ran!e, This

inte""e!tua" resistan!e or !ounter3En"i%htenment- as it has been

!a""ed- &as not a (o"ar o((osition, As ne& resear!h into other

Euro(ean thin5ers has sho&n- o((onents o$ thephilosophessou%ht

to re!o'er $undamenta" aims o$ the En"i%htenment that

!ontem(orar# ran!e seemed to ha'e betra#ed,90In Russia- the

se!ond3tier &riters o$ the "o#a" (ub"i! mi%ht ha'e sou%ht to sound the

50Arthur M, Me">er- BThe Ori%in o$ the Counter3En"i%htenment2 Rousseauand the Ne& Re"i%ion o$ Sin!erit#, The merican -olitical "cience Revie#02/ ?+une 6.@2 81138.0, Darrin M, M!Mahon:s +nemies o! the+nli$htenment: the 1rench Counter)+nli$htenment and the Makin$ o!Modernity- ?Ne& or52 O4$ord Uni'ersit# Press- /006@ !ontinues to 'ie& theen"i%htenment and its o((onents as a rather star5 di'ision- but his &or5

a"so de'otes attention to the &a#s that anti3philosophes!onstru!ted ne&ideo"o%ies based on memories o$ the hei%ht o$ the A%e o$ Reason2 the erao$ Louis QI;, See (a%es 6/8369/, rom a more (hi"oso(hi!a" (oint o$ 'ie&-Damon Lin5er has (ro(osed &a#s to see S!he""in%:s "ater in'esti%ations asa &a# to ans&er (rob"ems that =ant seemin%"# "e$t unreso"'ed, DamonLin5er- Brom =ant to S!he""in%2 Counter3En"i%htenment in the Name o$Reason- The Revie# o! Metaphysics912/ ?/000@2 8838,

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death35ne"" o$ the re'o"ution and the inte""e!tua" dominion o$ the

philosophes- but their messiani! 'ision o$ Russia restorin% Euro(e

&as tied to the ho(e that the (ost3Na(o"eoni! &or"d !ou"d $u"$i"" the

dee(er- more $undamenta" (romises o$ the En"i%htenment in the

domain o$ !u"ture and inte""e!tua" maturation, It &as be!ause the#

!"un% to their $aith in en"i%htened auto!ra!# so ti%ht"# that Mus!o'ite

&riters m#tho"o%i>ed the (assin% o$ the re'o"utionar# e(isode as a

Romanti! rene&a" o$ the &ho"e o$ Euro(e and a ne& !entur# o$

b"ossomin% !u"ture throu%hout Russia and Euro(e,

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Chapter ! The Literar" Societie# o$ Mo#co% and Peter#&ur'

The rei%n o$ A"e4ander I ?r, 6706367/9@ ushered in the Go"den

A%e o$ Russian (oetr#, The ran5s o$ minor &riters s&e""ed amidst

anti!i(ations that A"e4ander:s a!!ession &ou"d o(en a (ath to

(ro'in% the !"aims o$ the ei%hteenth3!entur#2 that Russia &as a

mature Euro(ean !i'i"i>ation &ith an e)ua""# di%ni$ied nationa"

"iterature,96The !ontem(orar# i"i(( ;i%e": &as stru!5 b# the 'ast

)uantit# o$ hidden (oets &ho a((eared out o$ no&here to sa"ute the

em(eror &ith "ines in 'erse,9/As the se!ond3tier e4(anded- it be!ame

embroi"ed in a !ontro'ers# o'er the "iterar# "an%ua%e and st#"e that

&ou"d be most a((ro(riate $or the e4(e!ted nationa" %reatness, This

!ontest- !ommon"# re$erred to as the stru%%"e bet&een ar!haists and

inno'ators- has ser'ed "iterar# histor# &e"" as a %uide to thedistin!tions in the most im(ortant )uestions o$ st#"e and the

e'o"ution o$ %enres, or inte""e!tua" histor#- ho&e'erit obs!ures

more $undamenta" $a!tors, The most te""in% (oint is that the "eaders

o$ both !am(s had 'er# simi"ar !onser'ati'e (o"iti!a" 'ie&s on issues

51Hans Ro%%er- National Consciousness in +i$hteenth)Century Russia-?Cambrid%e2 Har'ard Uni'ersit# Press- 6.0@- /973/.0,

52, ,;i%e":-apiski- ;o", 8- ?Mos!o&2 Arte": (isate"ei =ru%- 6/7 ;o"s, I3II-r(t, Cambrid%e2 Orienta" Resear!h Partners- 61@- /.03/.6, orA"e4ander:s !oronation- at "east 80 minor (oets !ontributed 'erses $or the!e"ebration, See Ri!hard S, Wortman- "cenarios o! -o#er: Myth andCeremony in Russian Monarchy- 'o", 6- ?Prin!eton2 Prin!eton Uni'ersit#Press- 69@- 67- $ootnote 66,

/


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"i5e ser$dom and the (o&er o$ the auto!ra!#, In addition- man#

(arti!i(ants in the se!ond3tier "iterar# so!ieties $e"t stron%

reser'ations about the inno'ators: a((roa!h &ithout a!!e(tin% the

ar!haists: so!io3(o"iti!a" o(inions or 4eno(hobi! tenden!ies, Writers

!ou"d ree!t the Euro(eani>ed st#"isti! a((roa!h o$ the inno'ators

&ithout ree!tin% the herita%e o$ Peter the Great:s Euro(eani>ation,

Thou%h Mos!o& is o$ten identi$ied &ith sentimenta"ism and ne&

!urrents $rom Euro(e- the main $a!tors !ondu!in% to the rise o$

messianism ha'e "ess to do &ith the inno'ators than &ith the &ide

%rou( o$ (eo("e &ho sa& di$$erent &a#s to !ontest ren!h in$"uen!e

o'er their !u"ture,

Resistance to Russian Gallomania

A$ter the stru%%"es &ith $orei%n !u"tura" in$"uen!e in Russia- the

tas5 o$ de'e"o(in% "iterature seemed a !ru!ia" (art o$ nationa"

identit#, Russian nob"es &ere $or!ed to ado(t $orei%n manners

throu%hout the ei%hteenth3!entur#- and the &ides(read in$"uen!e o$

the ren!h "an%ua%e e'entua""# en!oura%ed Russian !u"tura"

o((osition, rom the time o$ Peter the Great- other Euro(ean

in$"uen!es had eno#ed transient as!endan!# in Russian !u"ture,

Peter himse"$ &as interested in the Dut!h- and that "an%ua%e at one

time !ou"d ha'e been )uite (ro$itab"e $or a #oun% ran53see5er,98

53Marinus A, Wes- Classics in Russia &(()&'**: %et#een T#o %ron4e

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Em(ress Anna II ?r, 6803610@ s&it!hed to German tastes, Her

(o"iti!a" ad'isor Ernst +ohann *iron- ho&e'er- dre& the ire o$ the

nobi"it# &ho be%an to arti!u"ate resentment at the ru"e o$ $orei%ners,

Thou%h German in$"uen!e (rom(ted nationa" resentment- ren!h

tastes- $ashions- de!orations- and s(ee!h be!ame $ar more $irm"#

entren!hed durin% the subse)uent rei%ns o$ E"i>abeth ?r, 61636./@

and Catherine the Great II ?r, 6.836.@, E"i>abeth "o'ed ren!h

!uisine- !ham(a%ne- and $ashionsand her tastes &ere mat!hed b#

the s(read o$ ren!h re$inement amon% the aristo!ra!#. Catherine

e4!eeded E"i>abeth b# intensi$#in% !onne!tions &ith the &or"d o$

ren!h ideas, She !ondu!ted !orres(onden!e &ithphilosophes-

o$$erin% to (rint the +ncylcopedia- and o$$erin% to hire D:A"embert as

the tutor to her son Pau", A"thou%h that em("o#ment o((ortunit#

!o""a(sed- the em(ress did se!ure the ser'i!es o$ a S&iss urist

rdri! Csar de La Har(e- &ho he"(ed im(art Re(ub"i!an

s#m(athies to the $uture auto!rat A"e4ander I, Wor5s b# the ren!h

philosophes&ere (rinted and distributed &ide"# in Russia be$ore the

ren!h Re'o"ution, More im(ortant"#- nob"es be%an to s(ea5 ren!h

re%u"ar"# in the !a(ita"s and maor re%iona" !ities- ren!h be!ame the

Horseman- ?=F"n- Leiden- Ne& or52 E, +, *ri""- 6/@- 6/, See a"so IuriiLotman- BThe Poeti!s o$ E'er#da# *eha'ior- in A"e4ander D, and A"i!iaStone Na5himo's5#- eds,- The "emiotics o! Russian Cultural History- ?Ne&

or52 Corne"" Uni'ersit# Press- 679@- .,

/


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"an%ua%e o$ !hoi!e $or the instru!tion o$ !hi"dren- and ren!h "i%ht

no'e"s o!!u(ied #oun% readers $ar more than an#thin% Russian,91

E'en &hen Russian so"diers &ent out to $i%ht the ren!h- the#

resemb"ed them in dress, In a $amous (assa%e $rom his memoirs-

Ca'a"r# O$$i!er Denis Da'#do' re!ounted ho& he had to ettison his

o$$i!ia" uni$orm and don a 5a$tan in order to %ain the trust o$ the

(easants &hen he &anted to underta5e (artisan raids a%ainst the

ren!h,99

Natura""#- resistan!e emer%ed a%ainst ren!h dominan!e o$

manners and the inte""e!t, On sta%e- satires a$$orded the nob"es a

!han!e to "au%h at their !ountr#men:s ine(t $orei%n mannerisms, In

Ia5o' =nia>hin:s Mis!ortune !rom a Coach?6@- a master and

mistress de!ide not to se"" a ser$ be!ause he 5ne& t&o &ords o$

ren!h- im("#in% that his abi"it# to ada(t $orei%n &a#s %a'e him

some di%nit#, Denis on'i>in:s %ri$adier?6.7@ (resented a

(otentia""#3adu"terous s!enario bet&een a #oun% $o( &ho s(outs a

54;, O, ="iu!he's5ii- ;urs Russkoi istorii- ;o", 9( ?Mos!o&2 %osudarst'ennoesotsia":no3e5onomi!hes5oe i>date":st'o- 68@- 671367. Ro%%er- NationalConsciousness- 603607, Gar# Mar5er- ho&e'er- su%%ests that these tra!tsmost "i5e"# died a (ea!e$u" death- unso"d on boo5store she"'es- &hi"e

traditiona" re"i%ious"#3themed (ub"i!ations had a mu!h &ider audien!e, Seehis -ublishin$, -rintin$, and the Ori$ins o! Intellectual


39/388

hand$u" o$ ren!h "ines and a Coun!i"or:s &i$e &ho sees the "ad as a

man o$ re$inement,9.One o$ the main themes in these (rodu!tions

&as the inabi"it# o$ ran!o(hi"e Russians to s(ea5 ren!h !orre!t"#-

e'iden!ed b# the (re$a!e o$ I'an date":st'o BNau5a- 67/@- 6/1368/,

57I, S,


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somephilosophes0&or5s- he set be$ore himse"$ the tas5 o$ raisin%

the !ountr#:s edu!ationa" "e'e" &ithout "ettin% Ga""omania (oison it,

He and his $reemason !o""ea%ues- in!"udin% some o$ the most

im(ortant Mos!o& Uni'ersit# administrators and $reemasons "i5e

Mi5hai" =heras5o'- I'an Tur%ene'- and Mi5hai" Mura'e'- (ub"ished

Mornin$


41/388

(ub"ishin% (ro'ided an out"et $or !riti)ue o$ thephilosophes:ideas

&ithout ree!tin% Euro(eani>ation or "earnin% &ho"esa"e,

This !riti!a" s(irit e4(anded to its $u""est at Mos!o& Uni'ersit#-

&here No'i5o' rented a (rintin% (ress, He b# no means si%na"ed a

ree!tion o$ Euro(e or the En"i%htenment, To the !ontrar#- as a

re!ent s!ho"ar has su%%ested- Mos!o& Uni'ersit# &as the

embodiment o$ Bs!ho"ar"# s(a!e bet&een Russian and Euro(e,.0The

uni'ersit# (ro'ided students &ith the $ee"in% that the# &ere

a!!om("ishin% (art o$ the %reat tas5 o$ ame"ioratin% Russia:s !u"tura"

"e'e" b# means o$ ne& $orei%n (ra!ti!es, Euro(ean uni'ersities:

traditions de$ined student "i$e2 de"i'erin% (ub"i! s(ee!hes- (er$ormin%

("a#s- and $ormin% s!ho"ar"# %rou(s,.6Whi"e (ro$essors did not ha'e

the !or(orate autonom# o$ their !ounter(arts in Euro(e- the# sti"" ran

most a$$airs throu%h the Uni'ersit# Coun!i",./Under the trusteeshi( o$

I'an Tur%ene'- Mos!o&:s !onne!tions &ith GFttin%en Uni'ersit# &ere

ti%htened, His su!!essor- Mi5hai" Mura':e'- sou%ht to brin% in the

$ruits o$ German s!ho"arshi( b# in'itin% e"e'en German (ro$essors,

The uni'ersit# administration a"so (ut a hi%h (remium on edu!atin%

60

A, Iu, Andree'- Moskovskii universitet v obshchestvennoi i kulAturnoi4hi4ni Rossii nachala XIX veka- ?Mos!o&2 Ia>#5i russ5oi 5u":tur#- /000@- 73,

61;, ;, Ponomare'a- 8niversitet dlia Rossii : v4$liad na istoriiu kulAtury XIIIstoletiia- ?Mos!o&2 Russ5oe s"o'o- 6@- /93/,

62At "east unti" 6766- see Andree'- Moskovskii universitet- !h, /,

88


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Russian #outh abroad and re!ruitin% them $or ser'i!e in the

uni'ersit# stru!ture u(on their return,.8A"thou%h German (ro$essors

dominated Mos!o&:s !am(us unti" the ear"# nineteenth3!entur#- the

e$$orts o$ administrators "i5e Mi5hai" Mura':e' did (a# o$$2 in the

6760s and 67/0s- Russian (ro$essors tau%ht German Idea"ism to the

#oun% minds o$ the BE4traordinar# De!ade &hen Russian thou%ht

de'e"o(ed the S"a'o(hi"e and Westerni>er s!hoo"s o$ thou%ht,

I$ !ontainin% ren!h in$"uen!e &as a maor !on!ern in hi%her

edu!ation- it &as e'en more so $or &riters- &ho re!o%ni>ed that the#

needed somethin% (ositi'e and di%ni$ied to !ounter(ose to ren!h

su!!esses, No'i5o':s an!ient do!uments mi%ht ha'e testi$ied to a

(ast di%nit#- but &hat s(o5e to (resent su!!esses This &as a tas5

that "iterature !ou"d he"( a!!om("ish, Russian &riters o$ten !om(ared

ea!h other in s("endor and ta"ent to bards o$ a%es (ast, The

(o"#math Mi5hai" Lomonoso' &as !om(ared to no "ess ?and no doubt

more@ than ;ir%i"- Ma"herbe- Pindar- and Ci!ero,.1Perha(s

!ontem(oraries re!o%ni>ed the e4!esses o$ this 5ind o$ (raise b#

"audin% the minor dramatist Ni5o"ai Ni5o"e' as the BNe& Mi"ton

be!ause both &ent b"ind, Poets es(e!ia""# sou%ht to de$ine a s(e!ia""e'e" in so!iet#- &here the# !ou"d s(ea5 "i5e (ro(hets2 to ad'ise

63Andree'- Moskovskii universitet-87- ./3.8- 7730,

64Ro%%er- National Consciousness- /9,

81


43/388

=in%s and s(ea5 on beha"$ o$ the (eo("e, Peter had !om("eted a "on%

(ro!ess o$ sube!tin% the !hur!h to state (o&er- and his (ane%#rist

eo$an Pro5o(o'i!h had !on'erted re"i%ious tea!hin% into se!u"ar

(ro(a%andi>in%, Writers &ere su((osed to $o""o& suit- but as the

!entur# (ro%ressed- the# assumed the o"d re"i%ious $un!tion o$

inter(retin% truth $rom on hi%h and sou%ht to !"aim autonom# a(art

$rom !ourt,.9Ga'rii" Der>ha'in (ro'ided the star5est e4!"amation o$

the (oet:s ri%ht to de$ine the %ood 5in% in an ode $or the birth o$

$uture Tsar A"e4ander, He en!oura%ed A"e4ander to be Ba man on the

throne- meanin% to re!o%ni>e his o&n human "imits as an

en"i%htened monar!h,..He a"so denoun!ed the (ro$"i%a!#-

drun5enness- s"oth- and %amb"in% o$ the !ourt&ith su!h

admonitions 5e(t sa$e b# !orres(ondin% (raise $or Em(ress

Catherine as the e(itome o$ en"i%htened 'irtue- un!ontaminated b#

!ontem(orar# 'i!es,.

Thou%h endo&ed &ith a stron% sense o$ se"$3&orth- the &ou"d3

be %iants "a!5ed a hi%h"#3de'e"o(ed "iterar# "an%ua%e and thus the

'er# materia" &hi!h &ou"d !ondu!e to nationa" %reatness, Prior to

65

Iurii M, Lotman- BO!her5i (o istorii russ5oi 5u":tur#- in I4 istorii russkoikul0tury9 Tom I: XIII)nachalo XIX veka- ?Mos!o&2 Ia>#5i Russ5oi 5u":tur#-/000@- 7938,

66Wortman- "cenarios o! -o#er- 61736.9,

67Lin!o"n- %et#een Heaven and Hell- 139,

89


44/388

Peter the Great- O"d Chur!h S"a'oni! &as (rimari"# the &ritten

"an%ua%e- &hi"e Russian &as s(o5en as 'erna!u"ar, Peter:s re$orms

introdu!ed a !i'i! C#ri""i! s!ri(t and im(orted- trans"iterated- or

modi$ied $orei%n &ords to !reate an administrati'e 'o!abu"ar#

needed to run the ne& im(eria" a((aratus, The !i'i" ser'i!e

"an%ua%e- ho&e'er- sounded )uite di$$erent $rom the o"d S"a'oni!-

&hi!h in time had %ro&n )uite distant $rom 'erna!u"ar Russianin

some !ases- in!om(rehensib"e e'en to the !"er%# Throu%hout the

ei%hteenth3!entur#- Russian (oets had debated the merits o$

deri'in% ne& &ords out o$ o"der ones $rom S"a'oni! te4ts- but a

ne&er method &as de'e"o(ed b# the Mos!o& Sentimenta"ists in &hat

be!ame 5no&n as the Ne& St#"e,.7The "eaders o$ the Sentimenta"ists

&ere Ni5o"ai =aram>in and I'an Dmitrie', Their (ub"i!ation- the

Mosco# ?ournal ?Moskovskii hurnal, 6636/@- brou%ht to the

Russian (ub"i! &or5s b# su!h authors as Goethe- S!hi""er- Wie"and-

=ot>ebue and +ames Ma!Pherson:s Ossian Tales, Sentimenta"

"iterature shi$ted a&a# $rom bombasti! odes to&ard more intimate

and (ersona" dimensions o$ "i$e, Its (ra!titioners (re$erred sa"ons-

"adies- and e'enin%s on the estate rather than o$$i!ia" ser'i!e and(ub"i! (ane%#ri!s, A midd"e3!"ass (henomenon throu%hout most o$

Euro(e- sentimenta"ism a((ea"ed to Russians &ho &ere si!5 o$ the

68Ro%%er- National Consciousness- 736/9,

8.


45/388

bureau!ra!# and the &or"d o$ ser'i!e,.=aram>in:s a((roa!h to

sentimenta" "iterature sha(ed the midd"e ?"iterar#@ "an%ua%e b#

%i'in% ren!h &ords Russian $orms or renderin% (honeti! e)ui'a"ents

o$ the ren!h, He a"so smoothed out &ord order and s#nta4 in &a#s

that in!reased tenderness and de"i!a!# at the e4(ense o$ %ra'it# and

seriousness,0?O$ !ourse- on ne&s o$ &ar- =aram>in too re'erted to

the o"d $orms- hi%h sube!t matter- and e"e'ated tone see !hs, / and

.@,

In the nineteenth !entur#- tensions o'er the Ne& St#"e bro5e

out &ith rene&ed $or!e and (o"iti!a" o'ertones, One $a!tor addin% to

the hei%htened tension &as that ren!h in$"uen!e had not abated

and in some &a#s dee(ened, The ren!h Re'o"ution had soured

Catherine:s enthusiasm $or thephilosophes- but it hard"# bro5e the

s(e"" o$ ren!h !u"ture &ithin Russia itse"$, On hearin% ne&s o$ the

(o(u"ar !a(ture o$ the *asti""e- Russians &ere dan!in% in the streets-

(rintin% s(ee!hes and ne&s(a(ers- and donnin% re'o"utionar#

!"othes, The su!!ess o$ the Re(ub"i! and the re'o"ution:s turn to

a%%ressi'e &ar natura""# turned the Russian !ourt a%ainst the

69

*oris Gas(aro'- -oeticheskii ia4yk pushkina kak !akt istorii russko$oliteraturno$o ia4yka- ?;ienna2 Gese""s!ha$t >ur Frderun% s"a&istis!herStudien- 6/@- /.03/.6,

70A"e4ander Martin- Romantics, Re!ormers, Reactionaries: RussianConservative Thou$ht and -olitics in the Rei$n o! le/ander I,?De=a"b2North I""inois Uni'ersit# Press- 6@- 80,

8


46/388

ren!h- but !ourt and !ountr#side a!!e(ted man# @mi$r@s, Russian

nob"es (ossessed a s(e!ia" s#m(ath# $rom those $"eein% ran!e- $or

the# e)uated the re'o"utionar# 'io"en!e &ith the Pu%a!he' u(risin%

o$ 68369, The !ourt (ro'ided an e4!e""ent o((ortunit# $or

mi%rs to "i'e in Russia &ithout needin% to "earn the "an%ua%e,

Tea!hin% &as the most !ommon a"ternati'e- a"thou%h re$u%ees

bou%ht "and in the !ountr#side and $ounded their o&n ren!h

(ro'in!ia" theaters, The brie$ rei%n o$ Pau" I brou%ht ba!5 Prussian

uni$orms- but his assassination and the a!!ession o$ A"e4ander

)uashed the Germani! e"ements,6

One o$ the &a#s that the Ne& St#"e !ame under atta!5 re"ated

dire!t"# to !onser'ati'e $ears about nationa" de!"ine in the $a!e o$ the

ren!h Re'o"ution, Admira" A"e4ander Shish5o' sa& in the Mos!o&

Sentimenta"ists: Ne& St#"e a threat to the sur'i'a" o$ the Russian

"an%ua%e and there$ore to Russian !i'i"i>ation, In an 6708 treatise-

Shish5o' insisted that the Ne& St#"e:s a((ro(riation $rom ren!h

stunted the or%ani! de'e"o(ment o$ nationa" "an%ua%e and !u"ture,

oun%sters- edu!ated b# %o'ernesses and $ashionab"e s!hoo"s- read

ren!h no'e"s and ("a#&ri%hts instead o$ their o&n, Presumin% thatthe re'o"ution had e4hibited the baseness o$ ren!h nationa"

71Emi"e Haumant-


47/388

!hara!ter- Shish5o' "i5ened its in$"uen!e in "an%ua%e- domesti!

edu!ation- sa"ons- and boo5s to a (oison and a monstrous s(irit-

&hi!h &ou"d in$e!t Russia- &ea5en it- and !ause its do&n$a"",/To

&ard o$$ this disaster- !ontro" o$ "an%ua%e &as a to( (riorit#,

Shish5o':s theoreti!a" &or5s ar%ued that basi! b"o!5s o$ the

traditiona" "an%ua%e ?amon% the !ommon (eo("e and hi%h !"eri!a"

&or5s@ shou"d ser'e as the basis $or bui"din% !om("e4 ne& meanin%s

in the midd"e3"an%ua%e, *# rea!hin% ba!5 $or the &ea"th o$ the

an!estra" "an%ua%e- Russia !ou"d a'oid de(enden!e and remain a

stron% nation- $ree o$ re'o"ution, The (ro!ess o$ deri'in% the ne&

terms $rom ar!hai! sour!es earned Shish5o' and his a""ies the "abe"

BAr!haist- as o((osed to the BInno'ators- &hose st#"isti!

(re$eren!es $o""o&ed the Mos!o& Sentimenta"ists,8

These t&o (ositions had $ar3rea!hin% im("i!ations &ithin the

domains o$ !u"ture and (o"iti!s, *rie$"# (ut- the sentimenta"ists

seemed to $a'or a Euro(ean orientation- $eminine in$"uen!es- and

ren!h "an%ua%e mode"s- &hi"e the ar!haists $a'ored mas!u"init#-

Btraditiona" Russian habits- (iet#- and "ess o$ a Euro(ean

72A, S, Shish5o'- "obranie sochinenii i perevodov admirala "hishkova,Rossiiskoi imperatorskoi akademii pre4identa i ra4nykh uchenykhobshchestv chlena- ;o", / ?St, Petersbur%2 Im(erators5aia Rossiss5aiaA5ademiia- 67/1@- 139,

73The !"assi! dis!ussion o$ these terms and ho& the# !an be used inre"ation to Romanti! &riters is Iu, N,T#niano'- BAr5haist# i Push5in- in

rkhaisty i Novatory- ?Lenin%rad2 Priboi- 6/@- /836/6,

8


48/388

orientation,1 rom the (ers(e!ti'e o$ "iterar# histor#- the inno'ators

seemed more (ro%ressi'e ?at "east in the sense o$ a!!e(tin% the

e'o"ution o$ %enres@- &hi"e the ar!haists $uti"e"# resisted ne&

!urrents,9rom a Mar4ist (ers(e!ti'e- $o""o&ers o$ Shish5o'

embodied rea!tion- &hi"e the adherents o$ =aram>in &ere

(ro%ressi'e $or their time b# hera"din% the &a# to&ard Romanti!ism

and Rea"ism, Hen!e the stru%%"e o$ ar!haists and inno'ators &ou"d

be understood as an ideo"o%i!a" &ar bet&een su((orters o$

Euro(eani>ation and $euda"3abso"utism,.This di'ision a"so (rodu!ed

the im(ression that Shish5o' and =aram>in embodied a "on%er

!u"tura" due" bet&een the Northern !a(ita" o$ Russia- St, Petersbur%-

and the o"d !u"tura" !a(ita" Mos!o&, St, Petersbur%- !onstru!ted on"#

a !entur# ear"ier- &as asso!iated &ith the Euro(eani>ed state

administration- &hi"e Mos!o&- a!!ordin% to some obser'ers- retained

the $ee" o$ a "ar%e e4tended $ami"# and (er(etuated an!ient

traditions,Shish5o':s o((osition to =aram>in- noted i"i(( ;i%e":-

74Martin- Romantics, Re!ormers, Reactionaries- 80,

75+ohn Mersereau +r,- Bes ;ir%inia- There Was a Russian Romanti!Mo'ementin The rdis ntholo$y o! Russian Romanticism- edited b#Christine A, R#de" ?Ann Arbor2 Ardis- 67.@- 96/,

76Istoriia russkoi literatury v trekh tomakh- edited b# D, D,*"a%oi?Mos!o&JLenin%rad2 A5ademiia Nau5 SSSR- 6.8@- 86- 96398,

77Emi"e Haumant-


49/388

seemed as a (er("e4in% ironi! atta!5 o$ Euro(ean Russia on O"d

Russia $or $orsa5in% the nati'e "an%ua%e, To ;i%e":- Petersbur% had

done $ar more to !orru(t Russian "etters,7

Whi"e Shis5o'ite3=aram>inist di'ision he"(s e4("ain the %enera"

meanin% o$ the terms as (eo("e used them in (o"emi!s o$ the time- it

does not ser'e &e"" as a mode" o$ re"ations amon% the !ontem(orar#

"iterar# %rou(s, As *oris Gas(aro' noted- the Ne& St#"e (ro(onents

!ounted 'er# $e& (artisans durin% the &ar #ears- and the inno'ators

be!ame Bor%ani>ed on"# in 6769 &ith the $oundation o$ the "iterar#

so!iet# Ar>amas,Whi"e other %rou(s in the se!ond3tier did not

ne!essari"# subs!ribe to Shish5o':s theories- the# &ere not $u""

ad'o!ates o$ =aram>in either, oun%er so!ieties in Mos!o& and

Petersbur% $eared that the sentimenta"ism2 &as not serious enou%h

and dis!ounted !i'i! 'irtue in $a'or o$ (ersona" im(ressions, Instead-

the# sou%ht to de'e"o( "iterature that (reser'ed the %ra'itas

ne!essar# $or the de$ense and (ride o$ $ather"and, These o((ositions

o'er de'e"o(in% a nationa" "iterature &orth# o$ Euro(ean re(ute &ere

a"" (art o$ the &ider stru%%"e a%ainst the dominan!e o$ ren!h

!u"ture, +ust as ren!h dominan!e in so!iet# %re& stron%er ear"# in78, , ;i%e":-apiski- ;o", 6- ?Mos!o&2 Arte": (isate"ei =ru%- 6/7 ;o"s, I3II-r(t, Cambrid%e2 Orienta" Resear!h Partners- 61@- /06,

79Ar>amas &as somethin% o$ a ba&d# drin5in% !"ub, or a ba"an!ed re'ie&-see *, Ho""in%s&orth- BAr>amas2 Portrait o$ a Literar# So!iet#, "lavonic and+ast +uropean Revie#?6..@2 8038/.,

16


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A"e4ander:s rei%n- so did the "iterar# o((osition, *e$ore the $irst

!"ashes &ith Na(o"eon in 6709- (arties &ere mobi"i>ed,

Moscow and the Moderate Enlightenment

T&o #ears be$ore Shish5o' denoun!ed the Ne& St#"e in his

Treatise- =aram>inism be!ame the obe!t o$ heated debate amon%

the #oun% %eneration at Mos!o& Uni'ersit#:s Nob"e *oardin% S!hoo",

There a riend"# Literar# So!iet# ?6ru4heskoe literaturnoe

obshchestvo@ !on%re%ated durin% the rei%n o$ Tsar Pau" ?r, 6.36706@, Members in!"uded the (re3Romanti! ;asi"ii


51/388

be!ause he &rites s("endid"# in his o&n &a# rod, Let the Russians

ha'e !ontinued to &rite &orse and not as interestin%"#- but the#

&ou"d ha'e been o!!u(ied &ith most im(ortant sube!ts- the# &ou"d

ha'e &ritten more ori%ina""#- im(ortant"#- not so mu!h !on$ormed to

(ett# &a#s,70The desire $or %ra'itas and &ei%ht "ater ins(ired edor

I'ano' ?a !"ose $riend o$ ;oei5o'- Mer>"ia5o'- and ;aram4in@ to

re&rite one o$ =aram>in:s stories &ith more e"e'ated "an%ua%e-

(o"iti!a" !ontent- and de!"amations about 'irtue,76St#"isti!

di$$eren!es did not (re'ent the t&o $rom dinin% to%ether- ho&e'er,

Whate'er other &riters thou%ht o$ =aram>in:s a((roa!h to

"an%ua%e- the# !ertain"# !ou"d admire his inde(endent "i$e st#"e, As

an autodida!t- =aram>in had s(ent some time at Mos!o& Uni'ersit#

and &or5ed &ith the $reemasons be$ore tra'e"in% to Euro(e- &ritin%

do&n his im(ressions- startin% ourna"s- and then (ursuin% a nationa"

histor#, This !areer (ath- &hi"e "a!5in% a %uaranteed sa"ar#- sa'ed

him $rom a "i$e o$ drud%er# in a %o'ernment bureau!ra!#, It a"so

80uoted in Iurii M, Lotman- BA, , Mer>"ia5o' 5a5 (oet- in I4brannye stat0I-;o" /- ?Ta""inn2 A"e5sandra- 6/@- /8.,

81BI'ano'- edor edoro'i!h- in Russkie -isateli &'(()&.&- ;o", / ?!it#2

(ub- #ear-@ 8713879, In the ear"# 6700s- I'ano' !om(osed a ("a# on asube!t o$ one o$ =aram>in:s stories2 the ta"e o$ Martha- an an!ientma#oress o$ No'%orod- &ho resisted Mus!o'ite !on)uest, The (ro3Re(ub"i!an s(ee!hes in Martha(re'ented it $rom rea!hin% the sta%e?a"thou%h it &as a""o&ed to be (rinted a$ter t&o #ears@, See L, I, Gite":man-B:;o":noe obsh!hest'o "iubite"ei s"o'esnosti nau5 i 5hudo>hest': i teatr-Teatral0noe nasledstvo?69.@2 8,

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meant that his se"$3identit# de(ended on more than ran5&hi!h in

Im(eria" Russia determined modes o$ address- trans(ort- and other

$a!ets o$ (ri'ate "i$e,7/He &as b# no means outside o$ the (o"iti!a"

&or"d- and in $a!t- bo"d"# ad'ised Tsar A"e4ander on his

administration:s short!omin%s,78*ut =aram>in &as interested in

trans$ormin% the !ountr# throu%h aestheti!s- rather than

%o'ernmenta" s!hemes, In this sense- the (roe!t o$ nationa"

en"i%htenment demanded inde(endent %eniuses &ho !ou"d rea!h the

(ub"i! and e"e'ate its taste,

Man# o$ the "esser35no&n &riters in Mos!o& in the ear"# 6700s

"a!5ed !onne!tions to the tsar and the $inan!es to %o abroad- but

the# had a 5een sensiti'it# $or their 'an%uard ro"e in the aestheti!3

edu!ationa" de'e"o(ment o$ Russia, To a!!om("ish their mission-

the# 'a"ued inde(enden!e $rom (o"iti!s and bureau!ra!# in order to

&rite and (ub"ish,71Some (eo("e !ame $rom obs!ure ba!5%rounds

&here a norma" nob"eman:s "i$est#"e &as not mu!h &ithin rea!h,

82See note Error2 Re$eren!e sour!e not $oundbe"o&,

83Iurii Lotman has ar%ued that =aram>in $e"t that a ru"er &as de$ined b# his(ersona" 'irtues and to"d the tsar &here his short!omin%s a$$e!ted the

!ountr# ne%ati'e"#, See his ;aram4in- ?Saint3Petersbur% 2 KIs5usst'o3SP*K-6@- 9.397,

84In his "on% introdu!tor# essa# to ;aram4inEs Memoir on ncient andModern Russia9 Translation and nalysis- tr, Ri!hard Pi(es- ?Ne& or52Atheneum- 6..@- Pi(es e4("ains &h# =aram>in eno#ed $reedom !rom(o"iti!s- not in it, See 8/388,

11


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edor I'ano'- $or e4am("e- &as the son o$ a (oor nob"e &ho "e$t him

no inheritan!e, Thou%h he $u"$i""ed a ser'i!e ob"i%ation &ith the

(resti%ious Semeno's5ii Re%iment- in!"udin% a tour o$ S&eden- he

s&it!hed to !i'i" ser'i!e in the 60s, Most nob"es &ou"d ha'e

(re$erred the $"air- (om(- and ad'enture o$ the mi"itar# to the "i$e"ess

bureau!ra!#- but I'ano' used the mo'e to a!)uire a Bsemi3$i!titious

(ost that a""o&ed him to de'ote more time to !u"tura" matters,79

Ser%ei G"in5a made a simi"ar !hoi!e, He had studied at the e"ite

In$antr# Cor(us S!hoo"- ser'ed in a Guards: re%iment- and !ou"d

e4(e!t to inherit (ro(ert# in!"udin% ser$s, In 6700- ho&e'er- he

de!ided that his inde(enden!e &as more 'a"uab"e than !on'entiona"

so!ia" e4(e!tations, He de!"ined his $athers: inheritan!e and "i'ed as

a nob"e &ithout ran5- dabb"in% in edu!ation and then in the Mos!o&

"iterar# &or"d, ?G"in5a inter(reted his o&n a!t as (roo$ o$ his

uns&er'in% $aith in (ro'iden!e,7.@ In the ear"# 6700s- I'ano' and

G"in5a both started &ritin% $or the sta%e in Mos!o&- &here the# met

a host o$ a!tors ?a"" o$ &hom had no ran5@ and A"e4ei Mer>"ia5o'-

then a #oun% instru!tor at Mos!o& Uni'ersit#,

Mer>"ia5o':s so!ia" ba!5%round &as e'en more ("ebeian than85Lotman sa#s that in 6- he too5 a (osition in Bsemi$i!titious stateser'i!e, BI'ano'- edor edoro'i!h- 871,

86S, N, G"in5a-apiski "er$ei Nikolaevicha >linki- ?St, Petersbur%2 Russ5aiaStarina- 679@- 60,

19


54/388

those o$ I'ano' and G"in5a, The son o$ a mer!hant $rom a sma"" to&n

near a monaster#- Mer>"ia5o' &as (ro(e""ed into Mos!o& and the

(ath to hi%her edu!ation be!ause o$ ta"ent, At the a%e o$ 68- he

&rote an ode in the (ub"i! s!hoo"s $or a trium(h o'er S&eden ?&hi!h

I'ano' had he"(ed a!!om("ish@, The &or5 attra!ted the e#e o$ I'an

I'ano'i!h Panae'- a (ro'in!ia" $reemason and dire!tor o$ the (ub"i!

s!hoo"s &ith !onne!tions to the !ourt, He sent in Mer>"ia5o':s (oem

to Catherine the Great &ho ordered it to be (ub"ished and Mer>"ia5o'

to be trans$erred to Mos!o& on the %o'ernment:s e4(ense, rom a

student at the Nob"e *oardin% S!hoo"- he as!ended to Dean o$

Russian Literature at Mos!o& State Uni'ersit#- a (osition that he he"d

unti" 6780, His non3nob"e ori%ins meant that a!hie'ement &as

!entra" $or Mer>"ia5o'2 in the uni'ersit# stru!ture- an ordinar#

(ro$essor a!)uired the im(eria" ran5 ne!essar# to !"aim hereditar#

nobi"it#,7Sti""- he a((roa!hed his "iterar# endea'ors(ro$essor-

trans"ator- theorist- and &riteras an inde(endent man &or5in% $or

the %enera" %ood,

or these men and their $riends- inde(enden!e meant

distan!in% onese"$ $rom the bureau!ra!#- and the aristo!rati!nobi"it#- and !hoosin% to ser'e the ather"and &ith their (en, Losin%

ran5 natura""# !aused (rob"ems, G"in5a had di$$i!u"t# oinin% a mi"itia

87Lotman- BMer>"ia5o' 5a5 (oet- /8/,

1.


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in 670. be!ause he "a!5ed o$$i!ia" tit"e and "and, In a broader sense-

ho&e'er- the inde(endent &riters ran into the "imits o$ the &e""3

de$ined nob"e &or"d, Russian nob"es (ossessed an intri!ate and 'ast

s#stem o$ &a#s o$ ta"5in%- beha'in%- dressin%- and dan!in% ?!ertain

o$$i!ers &ou"d %o to ba""s to ma5e a statement b# notdan!in%@,77

Mer>"ia5o' !ou"d ne'er $u""# !on$orm to this &or"d, Im(eria" $iat

%ained his entran!e into the Nob"e *oardin% S!hoo", His !"ose

$riendshi(s &ith the aristo!rati! Tur%ene' brothers and the #oun%

"ia5o' did not e'en $o""o& (ro$essoria" !on'entions-

mu!h "ess nob"e ones, His $riend Ni5o"ai Tur%ene' admitted that

Mer>"ia5o' s(o5e in the de(artment ?ka!edra@ the &a# he did in a

!o$$eehouse ?ko!einia@,0A!!ordin% to Iurii Lotman- none o$

Mer>"ia5o':s $riends outside the riend"# Literar# So!iet# &ere

nob"es,6In 6701- he &as !a""ed to St, Petersbur%- &hi!h shou"d ha'e

88Iurii M, Lotman- %esedy o russkoi kul0ture: %yt i traditsii russko$odvorianstva 5XIII)nachalo XIX veka7- ?St, Petersbur%- 61@- 8..,

89See $or instan!e his !orres(onden!e &ith


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%i'en him the !han!e to boost his "iterar# !areer and be!ome a tutor

$or the tsare'i!hes- but it !ame to nau%ht, The %u"$ se(aratin% the

a!ademi! (ro$essor $rom the nob"es a"so (re'ented him $rom

re!ei'in% the hand o$ the dau%hter o$ the ;e":iamino'3


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ni%hts &ith his o"d !omrades Mer>"ia5o' and in:s $ormer ourna"s- the Herald o! +urope,

With a readershi( in the thousands- Herald o! +urope&as the $irst

(ro$essiona" "iterar# ourna" to sur'i'e &ithout %o'ernment subsidies,

=a!heno'5sii &as (art o$ Mer>"ia5o':s &ide !ir!"e o$ students-

adun!ts- and (ro$essoria" a!)uaintan!es at the uni'ersit#- &here

issues boun!ed ba!5 and $orth,1In 6766 and 676/- the "iterature and

drin5in% shi$ted o'er to I'ano':s house, A ne& addition &as edor

=o5osh5in- &ho "i5e I'ano' had shi$ted out o$ ser'i!e in the 60s,

He &as a (ri'ate sta%e (rodu!er rather than a dramatist- &hose

stentorian 'oi!e &as a"&a#s (o(u"ar $or sta%ed readin%s, These

meetin%s &ere e4(anded in 676836761 to in!"ude other minor &riter3

bureau!rats "i5e Ni5o"ai I":in and Iuri Do"%oru5ii- as &e"" as ;asi"ii

Push5in and Peter ;ia>ems5iiaristo!rati! t#(es &ho "ater $ormed

the Binno'ator %rou( Ar>amas,

In 6766- the trustee o$ Mos!o& Uni'ersit# !reated a site &here

the in$orma" %rou(s !ou"d assemb"e, The So!iet# o$ Lo'ers o$ RussianLiterature at Mos!o& Uni'ersit# ?herea$ter Uni'ersit# So!iet#@-

94A, Iu, Andree'- Moskovskii universitet v obshchestvennoi i kulAturnoi4hi4ni Rossii nachala XIX veka, ?Mos!o&2 Ia>#5i russ5oi 5u":tur#- /000@ 8,

1


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instituted b# the uni'ersit# re!tor- sti"" ad'o!ated the idea" o$ semi3

inde(enden!e, Its $irst !hair &as the maor ar!hite!t o$ the Mos!o&

*oardin% S!hoo":s edu!ationa" (ro%ram2 Anton Pro5o(o'i!h3

Antons5ii, His o(enin% s(ee!h %rounded the so!iet#:s "on%3term

ho(es on the (romise o$ so!ia" !oo(eration &ith the monar!h#, He

noted that the %rou(:s $orerun

russian messianism during the napoleonic wars

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