running head: a sports team social identity study...

A SPORTS TEAM SOCIAL IDENTITY STUDY 1

Effect of identity marketing on purchase intent and felt-autonomy:

A sports team social identity study

Victoria Andrade Guimaraes

January 2015

A thesis in the Department of Psychology submitted to the faculty of the Graduate School of Arts & Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at New York University

Running head: A SPORTS TEAM SOCIAL IDENTITY STUDY


Table of Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………..4

Introduction………..……………………………………………………………………..5

Social identity theory…………………………………………………………….5

Sports team identity………………………………….….……………………….8

Autonomy…………..………….…….……….………………………………….11

Identity marketing……………….………………………………………………17

Present study………….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….……21

Method…………..……………..…..…..………………………………..………………24

Research setting and participants…………..……………………………………25

Team identity measure………………………………………………………......25

Pilot study………………………………………………………………….…….26

Advertisement presentation……………………………………………………...27

Purchase intent ……………………………………………………………….…28

Felt-autonomy measure………………………………………………………….28

Isolating confounding variables…………………………………………………29

Expected results………………………………………………………………………….30

Sport Spectator Identification Scale……………………………………………..30

Hypothesis 1A & 1B: Fans………………………………………………………31

Hypotheses 2A and 2B: Non-fans……………………………………………….32

Hypotheses 3A and 3B: Identity defining condition…………………………….33

Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..36

General results and implications…………………………………………………36


Fans’ purchase intent and felt-autonomy: ID condition ………………………...37

Unexpected results……………………………………………………………….38

Limitations……………………………………………………………………….40

Future study……………………………………………………………………...42

Conclusions………………………………………………………………………43

References………………………………………………………………………………..44

Appendix A: Pilot study.………………………………………...……………………....52

Appendix B: Sports Team Identification Scale………………………………………….59

Appendix C: Purchase intent item……………………………………………...………..60

Appendix D: Felt-autonomy measure……………………………………………………61


Abstract

The proposed paper will study the effects of identity marketing on perceived

autonomy and purchase intent in a sports team-affiliated sample. Specifically, we propose

a new generalized construct for felt-autonomy based on self-determination and reactance

theories to analyze the purchase intent of fans and non-fans after being exposed to an

identity marketing advertisement. Through this analysis, we will conduct an online

survey that will include the Sports Spectator Identification Scale, an advertisement

presentation of three types of identity marketing messages, and a questionnaire that

includes purchase intent and felt-autonomy measures. We expect high-identification

individuals will report higher purchase intent and autonomy when presented with sports

fan identity defining marketing messages while low-identification individuals will not.

Theoretical and practical implications on sports fandom, social identities and identity

marketing are discussed.

Keywords: social identity, identity marketing, autonomy, sports team identification


Effect of identity marketing on purchase intent and felt-autonomy: A sports team social

identity study

Introduction

Identity marketing looks to increase the involvement of pre-selected groups of

consumers with their brands. It attempts to create brand-appeal by associating a social

group’s characteristics to the purchase of a product (Brumbaugh, Grier, & Aaker, 2002).

Based on psychological theory, advertisements are developed with the purpose of

attracting specific types of consumers that see in the advertised message a similarity to

their own held identities. Relevant messages would be interiorized by viewers, stored in

memory and retrieved when confronted with the possibility of engaging with the brand.

The ultimate goal of identity marketing is to influence consumers’ decision-making

processes through their sense of belonging to a social identity.

A particularly strong social identity is sports team identification, and despite the

extensive body of research dedicated to it, little is known about how persuasive messages

affect purchase intent through the perception of autonomy. The current research uses

social identity in the context of self-determination and reactance theories to evaluate the

influence of identity marketing messages on individuals belonging to sports team fan

identities.

Social identity theory

Social identity is an array of constructs that are displayed to others as qualities of

the self (Dalton & Huang, 2014). These include affiliations, beliefs, ethnic backgrounds,

preferences, values, physical traits, roles and relationships, among others, that allow for a

stable depiction of the self in terms of social categories (Deaux, Reid, Mizrahi, & Ethier,


1995). It refers to the individuals’ need to shape their sense of self through their inclusion

into social groups (Baumeister & Finkel, 2010; Tajfel, 1979). This theory operates under

the basic assumptions that people seek to acquire positive social identities through a

group membership that will either maintain or improve their self-concept; and that people

will engage in favorable comparison exercises towards the members of their group (in-

group) and unfavorable comparisons towards members of other groups (out-group). If the

membership of a social group is negatively affecting their social identification, that is

their sense of self is more valuable than belonging to a group, then individuals will either

leave or try to change the group in order to maintain a positive social identity (Lock,

Taylor, Funk, & Darcy, 2012).

The cognitive process of becoming a member of a group will be translated into

specific intergroup behaviors (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). The outcomes of these behaviors

will vary depending on the nature of the members’ evaluative behaviors, which can be

either autonomous or comparative (Tyler & Bladder, 2002). Autonomous evaluation is

based on the group’s internal beliefs, norms, and values to determine its value in relation

to an out-group; positive consequences such as citizen behaviors and group cohesion are

associated to this type of evaluation (Amiot & Aubin, 2013). On the other hand,

comparative evaluation is based on external comparisons with out-groups determining the

in-group’s value; detrimental consequences such as in-group favoritism, stereotyping,

and discrimination are associated to external evaluation. Both types of evaluation allow

for an individual to assess their belonging to the group and determine its impact on their

own selves.


Social identity theory explains the dynamic behaviors of people within and

between groups (Watkins, 2014). Due to the social nature of humanity, this theory is a

relevant and pervasive framework in which interactions of all kinds occur. In the

consumer behavior field, it has been used to increase consumer purchases and emotional

involvement with a brand (Berger & Heath, 2007; Escalas & Bettman, 2005; Oyserman,

2009). The current research studies social identity in the form sports-team affiliation to

demonstrate the predictive nature of group associations; and how this type of membership

can ignite decision-making processes through the use of distinct marketing messages.

Social identities as motivators of behavior. As mental representations of

categories, social identities can become salient in an individual’s mind through the

exposure to environmental cues (Reed, 2004). These identities will in turn influence

thoughts, behaviors, memories and judgments that will be brought to consciousness in a

coherent form (Forehand & Deshpandé, 2001). For example, finding an old pacifier

while cleaning the attic could activate the “mother” identity in a woman’s mind, and

depending on the current state of her motherhood (say she recently engaged in a fight

with her teenaged son) the subsequent thoughts, attitudes judgments, and behaviors that

arise will be interpreted through this recent viewpoint. The environmental context can

activate mental schemas laden with affect, even without conscious input. This

phenomenon can influence subsequent cognitive and behavioral activities for an

undetermined period of time (Bargh, Chen, & Burrows, 1996; Rhodewalt, 1998).

Relevant stimuli can make salient a specific construct that impact attitudinal

perceptions and behaviors (Lukatela &Turvey, 1994). Several studies have found how

identity salience influences behaviors and preferences. For example, bi-cultural American


consumers were found to respond more favorably to Hispanic products when their

Hispanic heritage was primed (Chattaraman, Lennon, & Rudd, 2010). Also, socially

distinctive minorities were found to respond more favorably to spokespeople that share

their same ethnic background than to those that do not (Forehand, Deshpandé, & Reed,

2002). Another study revealed that activating either local or global identities could affect

consumer’s preferences for either local or international products (Zhang & Khane, 2009).

By appealing to the consumer’s appropriate social identity a perception of fit is created

between the individual’s lifestyle and the brand’s persona (Chernev, Hamilton, & Gal,

2011), generating positive affect for the brand and increasing the purchase intent of the

consumer (Reed, Forehand, Puntoni, & Warlop, 2012). Hence, identity is a powerful

motivator of behavior and can be used to increase consumer purchases and emotional

involvement with a brand.

Sports team identity

Team identification is a particularly strong, long lasting, and steady social identity

(Wann & Branscombe, 1993). It is defined as a fan’s emotional connection to a sports

team. The team becomes central in the self-perception of a fan and is seen as an extension

of the individual. According to Wann (2006), positive psychological consequences are

associated with team identification: engaging in group-based activities can increase the

wellbeing of individuals; higher self-esteem; greater conscientiousness; and, reduced

feelings of anger and fatigue. There are also negative consequences linked to team

identification, such as an increased tendency to violent and cheating behaviors (Wann,

2006). The exclusive characteristics pertaining this social identity allow for self-

identification to create robust emotional connections to the brand and to adopt a team as a


central facet of a fan’s sense of self. Fans have group-based self-esteem (Branscombe &

Wann, 1991), in-group bias (Wann & Branscrombe, 1995), in-group favoritism (Lee &

Ferrerira, 2011) and perceive their own abilities in accordance with the team’s

performance (Hirt, Zillmann, Erickson, & Kennedy, 1992).

Several team characteristics provide fans with social identity benefits. Individuals

are more likely to choose historically successful teams with highly relevant players in

order to enhance their social status and self-esteem (End, Dietz-Uhier, Harrick &

Jacquemotte, 2002). Because identification often occurs at a young age and is influenced

by family and socialization agents during childhood, strong team loyalty is often

imprinted in an individual’s self-schema and is charged with nostalgic emotional content

(Aiken & Koch, 2009). Also, selecting teams that were originally introduced by family or

friends improves relationships within the individual’s social circle and allows for a better

sense of psychological wellbeing.

In research, team identification has been used to predict consumer behavior (Lock

et al. 2012); therefore a greater analysis of the identification process is needed for a

deeper understanding of this unique social identity.

Team identification process. According to Lock and his colleagues (2012), team

identification is a developmental process with four stages: cognition, attraction,

attachment, and allegiance. Cognition occurs when an individual is presented to a team

through socialization agents, which are usually family and friends, but can also include

traditional media (television, radio, print) and social media outlets (Facebook, Twitter,

Instagram, YouTube). This stage is characterized primarily by a sense of awareness and

comprehension of what the team represents. The second stage, attraction, occurs after


there has been an evaluation of several teams and one is recognized as highly attractive.

In this stage the individual draws similarities from the team to her own identity, and

several social identity benefits are evaluated to determine which team has the higher level

of attraction. Attachment occurs when the team gains enough significance in the person’s

life, an accumulation of team-related experiences allow for the creation of an

unconditional bond that does not rely on the characteristics analyzed during the attraction

stage. Individuals in this stage have internalized the team as a part of themselves.

Finally, in the allegiance stage the team occupies a central position in a person’s self-

concept. Team-identification is now a permanent presence in an individual’s life and will

be used to derive meaning from life events; fans in this stage are known to be a part of a

team’s fan club and have an increased knowledge of information related to the team

(Lock et al. 2012). The process of team identification reveals the depth of the relationship

team-fans. The psychological factors involved in the creation and maintenance of such

identity are associated with a person’s sense of self-esteem, self-concept, self-worth and

position in the social world: thus, team-identification is a strong driver of behavior.

Consumptive consequences of team identification. Sports teams are brands that

benefit not only from generalized brand-consumer interactions but also from the loyalty

of avid fans: “victory translates into retail benefit” (Burton, 2004, p.260). In terms of

consumption, fans generate positive economical impacts on their team’s budget (Bauer,

Sauer, & Schmitt, 2005) through low price sensitivity (Sutton, MacDonald, Milne, &

Cimperman, 1997) and higher levels of team-oriented purchases (Trail, Fink, &

Anderson, 2003). Also, individuals with high team identification report higher purchase

intent of team sponsors’ products (Madrigal, 2000) than non-fans.


Autonomy

The need to follow a unique path, separate from the influence or expectations of

others is the social phenomenon of autonomy (Wiggins, 1991). A person is said to be

autonomous if she pursues her internal motivations (Deci & Ryan, 2000b) without

requiring approval from society. Autonomy is present in consumption decision-making,

research has shown that individuals prefer cultural objects that signal autonomy by

avoiding brands that become too popular, that is “coolness” is attributed in part to

autonomic decision-making (Warren & Campbell, 2014); in other words, autonomous

behavior is intricately related to consumptive choices.

Even though autonomy has been associated with distinct concepts and theories,

for the purposes of the current research, we will revise its two theoretical treatments:

autonomy as resistance to coercive influence (reactance theory), and autonomy as self-

determination and psychological need (self-determination theory).

Autonomy: reactance theory. Reactance theory, also know as reactive autonomy

(Koestner and Losier, 1996), views autonomy as a natural resistance to external forces or

coercive influence. The main premise of this theory is that humans need to feel free in

their life decisions and they need to feel that the origin of their behaviors, feelings or

thoughts is internal. Humans’ have an innate need for freedom; they want to engage

without coercion in decision-making activities (Rucker, Galinsky, & Dubois, 2011). If

individuals feel their reactive autonomy compromised, that is they feel their freedom of

choice is prevented by an external and unwanted force, then they will exert reactant

behaviors towards such force (Clee & Wicklund, 1980).


Reactance is an energy that drives behavior towards a restoration of felt freedom

(Brehm & Brehm, 1981). The key aspect that produces reactance is the identification of

an unwanted influence on behavior; however if the communication is perceived as

benign, helpful, informative, or in a generally positive way, reactance is unlikely to occur

(Clee & Wicklund, 1980). Persuasive communications, such as the ones found in

marketing messages and advertisement campaigns, can be identified as threats to freedom

by individuals and could trigger reactant behaviors aimed at reasserting their autonomic

choices. The magnitude of the reactant behavior will depend on the perceived degree of

the persuasive intent, that is the clearer it is that a message is trying to influence behavior

the more likely individuals will respond reactively to such message (Pavey & Sparks,

2009). In a previous study researchers found that perceived autonomy is related to the

quality of the marketing messages, the more specific they are the more likely a reactant

behavior will occur (Bhattacharjee, Berger, & Menon, 2014).

The present study tries to determine how marketing messages would influence

decision-making behavior without causing reactance. Creating an effective message is a

challenging undertaking; it relies on a balance between providing enough information to

sway preferences but without appearing to be a coercive agent. The difficulty increases

when considering that reactance is conceptualized as a trait characteristic; which means

that the propensity to engage in a reactant varies among individuals (Brehm & Brehm,

1981). This study aims to determine to what extent an identity-marketing message

(external source) can influence individuals that share a strong social identity without

causing reactant reactions.


Autonomy: Self-determination theory. Self-determination theory portrays

humans as “active, growth-oriented organisms who are naturally inclined towards

integration of their psychic elements into a unified sense of self and integration of

themselves into larger social structure” (Deci & Ryan, 2000b, p. 229). Within this theory,

the concept of self-determination refers to an individual’s perception of control over her

own life. It is a subjective construct that is measured in a continuum and evaluates levels

of behavior engagement.

The perception of self-determination depends on three factors: regulation, locus of

causality, and motivation. Regulation refers to the agent that originates the behavior;

locus of control is the extent to which an individual believes she has power over the

events that are affecting her (Heider & Simmel, 1944). And motivation is the energy that

guides behavior. All three concepts (motivation, regulation and locus of control)

correspond to different point within the self-determination continuum (see Figure 1) and

are further explained below.

Non-self-determined Self-

determined

Motivation Extrinsic Intrinsic Regulation External Introjected Identified Integrated Intrinsic Locus of External Somewhat Somewhat Internal Internal Causality external internal

Perceived Behavior

Figure 1: The self-determination continuum (adapted from Ryan and Deci, 2000b, p. 237)


Motivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. Extrinsic motivation requires

reinforcements to produce behaviors, whereas intrinsic motivation sees the behavior as

reinforcement in of itself (Deci & Ryan, 2000a). If individuals are offered monetary

reinforcement for behaviors then their initial intrinsic motivation will become reduced.

The money (reinforcement) would be seen as an extrinsic motivator and hence the

perceived motivation would be predominantly extrinsic; which will lead to a reduced

perception of self-determination. In other words, extrinsic motivation is associated with a

non-self-determined sense of self, whereas intrinsic motivation is associated with a

heighted sense of self-determination.

Regulation can be external, introjected, identified, integrated, and internal.

External regulation occurs when the behavior’s origin is known to be outside of the

individual; for example, when a poet at heart is paid to write obituaries, it is very likely

that he is only writing obituaries because of the external motivation of a salary.

Introjected regulation involves external origins of behavior that are accepted by the

individual and rarely questioned; an example would be a wife who carries the weight of

household maintenance in her family, she is not intrinsically motivated to keep her home

clean and food on the table, but still does her best to keep up with society’s expectations

of her role. Identified regulation is endorsing an external guide of behavior; for example,

a young college student decides to become vegan to life a healthier life, she knows

veganism is external to her and she did not innately create such motivation, but still she

endorses it as her own. Intrinsic regulation occurs when an individual guides his own

actions without external influence; an example would be an older man who goes fishing


during the weekends, he is motivated only by the act of fishing and believes that catching

a fish is unnecessary to enjoy himself.

Finally, the types of locus of control are also perceived as part of a continuum. An

internal locus of control is associated with intrinsic motivation and regulation, which

would lead to an increased sense of self-determination. For lower self-determination, the

locus of control is gradually positioned outside of the self; when regulations are

integrated the adoption of external norms is viewed as directed by the self, hence the

locus of control is maintained inside of the individual. For identified regulation, the locus

of control is partially internal because the individual is not consciously identifying the

origins of behavior as external. Finally, for external regulation the locus of control would

also be external, which if overwhelmingly present could lead to learned helplessness,

depression and other deleterious consequences on the psychological wellbeing of an

individual (Baumeister & Finkel, 2010).

The current research uses the SDT framework to assess the decision-making

processes of sports team-affiliated individuals. Their intent and decision-making

processes will be measured to determine how external influences (marketing messages)

are perceived. The concepts of regulation, motivation and locus of control will allow us

to further understand the relationships between influence and subsequent behaviors. We

expect that depending on the strength of their initial affiliation, all three factors involved

in the SDT continuum will be swayed towards a type of self-determination perception.

SDT also identifies basic psychological needs that are to be satisfied in order for

individuals to engage in goal-oriented behavior, and hence reflect psychological growth

and wellbeing. Autonomy (sense of self-determination) and relatedness (sense of


connection to other individuals) are two of these innate needs that allow for motivation to

be imbued in human life (Deci & Ryan, 2000b). Autonomy is associated with relatedness

in the sense that psychological wellbeing depends greatly on the relationship with others.

A balance between autonomous and collective behaviors is needed to achieve personal

growth; this interaction can lead to greater openness to suggestive information (Pavey &

Sparks, 2009). In the current research relatedness is determined by belonging to a social

identity, we expect that this factor will reduce the need for autonomy in high-

identification sports fans, creating a greater openness to the marketing messages that are

specifically related to their fandom.

SDT is not dissociated from reactance theory, Deci and Ryan recognize that

exposure to an excessively controlling environment (coercive influences) would result

defensive behaviors such as withdrawal or avoidance (2000b); behaviors that could be

associated to Brehm’s psychological reactance. Reactance theory and SDT are not

mutually exclusive frameworks. A unified version of autonomy, using concepts from

both self-perception theory and reactance theory will be used for the purpose of this

study. Felt-autonomy is defined as a psychological state associated to self-determination

(including the concepts of motivation, regulation and locus of control) and perceived

freedom. High felt-autonomy reveals a heightened sense of self-determination, intrinsic

motivation, intrinsic regulation, internal locus of control and an unthreatened perceived

freedom (low reactance); on the other hand, low felt-autonomy is related to non-self-

determination, extrinsic motivation, non-intrinsic regulation (either external, introjected,

identified or integrated), external locus of control and a threatened perceived freedom

(high reactance). Even though reactance is presented predominantly as a trait


characteristic (Brehm & Brehm, 1981), it is also related to situational circumstances and

can be brought about by situational cues. Also, previous research on the influence of

information on intentions measured both autonomy (based on SDT) and reactance, the

authors concluded that high self-determination autonomy and low reactance were

associated to information acceptance (Pavey & Sparks, 2009). The definition of felt-

autonomy attempts to associate two theories under one overarching psychological

construct.

Identity marketing

Identity marketing attempts to influence consumption activities through the use of

messages directed at specific subsets of the population (Aaker et al. 2000). It is used to

increase market share of a product or brand by creating advertisements aimed at identities

held by consumers. As a process of scrutinizing the consumers’ shared characteristics

(psychographic and demographic), it allows for the extraction of valuable information

that can be used to increase brand preference through advertisements (Oyserman, 2009).

The most relevant premise of identity marketing is that consumers will have greater

affinity for a product or brand if they see in it a similarity to their unique personal

identities. This marketing strategy creates an echo of the characteristics of consumers

through the features of the advertisement campaign, which will enhance the

persuasiveness of the messages and increase the likeliness of positive behavioral

reactions towards the brand.

New technological advances, stereotypical misconceptions, non-relevant

audiences and a reduced sense of control are some of the areas of concern related to

identity marketing campaigns. Nowadays marketers use several tools to enhance their


identity marketing outcomes. Novel techniques such as auto-installing data-tracking

programs are constantly following consumer behavior online (Chai, Shen, Xiao, Zhang,

Zhao, & Ta, 2012). Traditional retail stores are using these programs as well but for in-

store monitoring, they use the GPS location systems in their customers’ cellular phones to

measure their location and bombard them with promotions relevant to their aisle

movement. The goal of the data collection is to gain insights on how consumers make

decisions and more importantly, what types of consumers make what types of decisions.

The negative consequences of these strategies, such as invasion of privacy and other

ethical predicaments can ultimately hurt the brand’s perception and purchase

engagement.

Stereotypes are useful mental shortcuts that allow individuals to rapidly classify

the world, but when they are erroneously used in identity marketing the consequences can

be dramatic. Marketers and researchers can use superficial knowledge to determine the

framework of campaigns and expect the market to behave according to their

misconstrued expectations. For example, recent research has revealed that the majority of

Hispanic-Americans prefer to be addressed in the English language instead of Spanish

(Fulgoni & Lella, 2014). “Latino-ness” appears to be much more than just the use of a

common language. Still, many marketers would use a common narrative in both Hispanic

and non-Hispanic targeted advertisements, and hope that changing the language from

English to Spanish will be enough to appeal to the Hispanic social identity. Clearly, in-

depth research of the social identity and avoidance of stereotypical strategies are needed

to create an effective target campaign.


Another reason for failed campaigns is to unknowingly present a strategically

developed advertisement to a non-relevant consumer audience. That is for example,

broadcasting a television advertisement depicting a specific Asian-American identity

through a channel that has another predominant audience (non-Asian-American), such as

Black Entertainment Television (whose primary viewership is the African-American

public). The consequences of failed identity marketing on the perception of a product can

vary, from distraction to consciously ignoring its message and even to questioning the

products’ relevance in the consumers’ life (Aaker et al. 2000). This last consequence is of

great importance to marketers, since the advertisement could not only fail to create a

positive attitude towards the brand but also cultivate a self-questioning of the usefulness

of the brand. It could lead to mixed results, with the targeted consumer increasing her

purchases and the non-targeted consumer decreasing her purchases.

The present research will focus on message-based persuasion attempts in target

marketing. Message specificity has been linked to reactive behaviors when the message

ties a specific identity to a consumptive behavior (Bhattacharjee et al. 2014). Reactive

behaviors occur when individuals experience a reduced sense of freedom; thus intent to

influence a purchase leads to negative evaluations of a product or brand (Clee &

Wicklund, 1980). Also, research has shown individually made decisions are linked to

higher satisfaction with the outcome and positive affect (Deci & Ryan, 2000b; Botti &

McGill, 2006) when compared to externally influenced decisions. That is, individuals

will be more satisfied with their decisions if the feel their behaviors were self-determined,

with an internal locus of control, intrinsic motivation and intrinsic regulation.


In identity marketing, when messages are highly specific and clearly describe the

relationship between identity and behavior there is a high risk of negative evaluation of

the advertised product. Individuals will not want to engage in consumption behaviors if

they can clearly identify the origin of their behavior to an external source (Bhattacharjee

et al. 2014). In other words, contextual cues can create a lower freedom perception when

people are involved in decision-making processes (Moller, Ryan & Deci, 2006). The

problem with this common error is that it is difficult to determine the required specificity

of the message that will engage a consumer through her identity but at the same time

avoid behavioral backlash.

In the current study, there will be an analysis of the effect of advertisement efforts

to persuade behavior of consumers who are not intrinsically motivated to interact with the

brand. If consumers have a previous relationship to the brand that is central to their self-

concept, such as team-identified individuals, their reaction to a highly specific message

should not be considered as a threat to their freedom. Previous research has shown that

when there is a strong pursuit of psychological wellbeing, a fundamental aspect of a

team-identified individual, the psychological need of relatedness supersedes the need for

autonomy and augments openness (Ryan & Deci, 2000b); also, that when persuasive

information is perceived to be positive it will not be perceived as a threat (Clee &

Wicklund, 1980), and it is very likely that fans will perceive information related to their

teams as positive. Finally, that there is a heightened sense of self-determination when

there is intrinsic motivation to engage in a behavior (such as wanting to express fandom),

even when the origin of the behavior is outside of the individual (integrated regulation)

and the locus of control is perceived as somewhat external of the self.


Present study

Brands hope to attract more consumers and influence their behaviors by using

targeted-identity relevant messages in their promotional material (Oyserman, 2009). The

objective of marketing messages is to appeal to the consumer; most consumers will

experience higher appeals when their social identities are targeted (Reed, 2004). There

are innumerous types of identity-relevant messages used by marketers, however for the

purpose of this study we will be focusing only in two (previously identified by

Bhattacharjee and colleagues, 2014): identity defining and identity referencing. The

identity-defining (ID) message uses specific words to illustrate an identity shared by

consumers; it addresses the consumer directly and links engaging in a behavior with

having an identity, an example is “Real Ecuadorians choose DirecTV to watch the World

Cup”. In contrast, the identity-referencing (IR) message, simply alludes to an identity

held by consumers, and does not specifically links a behavior to such identity, for

example “DirecTV: all of Ecuador’s national team games in one place”. Both messages

address the Ecuadorian identity, the ID message associates having DirecTV with being a

true Ecuadorian; whereas the IR message simply implies that Ecuadorians should prefer

DirecTV without saying that to be an Ecuadorian one should engage in a specific

behavior. The effect these two types of messages have on purchase intent1 will be used

experimentally in a team-identified sample to determine the efficacy of marketing

identity messages on influencing fan’s possible behaviors.

The aim of this study is to expand the literature on the effect social identity and

message types have on purchase intent and felt-autonomy. Although many efforts have

been made to illustrate the relationship between social identities and consumer’s


preferences, the interaction between felt-autonomy, marketing messages and purchase

intent has not been studied in a sports team affiliation context. One previous study

conducted predominantly on non-team affiliated populations served as a framework for

the current research, Bhattacharjee and colleagues (2014) concluded that explicit

identity-marketing messages decrease the consumer’s autonomy and purchase likelihood.

However, because of two unique aspects of the current study (1) team-identification is a

robust and enduring social categorization that allows for unique attitudes and behaviors;

and (2) the perceived influence of ID messages related to their social identity is not

classified as threatening by fans; we propose alternative hypotheses for the impact of

identity messages on this population.

High team-identification individuals (fans) will have a lower need for felt-

autonomy and a higher need for identification when in a team-related context, thus ID

messages will prove more persuasive to influence purchase intent than IR or control (CL)

messages.

H1A: High team-identification individuals will report higher purchase intent

when presented with an ID messages advertisement than when presented with IR

or CL message advertisements (p. intentID > p. intentIR; p. intentID > p. intentCL).

Fans’ need for autonomy is superseded by their need for relatedness, at the same

time they have integrated any information originated in their team (integrated regulation),

intrinsic motivation to belong to the team and their locus of control is perceived as

internal or somewhat internal (their decisions to engage in behaviors related with the

team originates from within).


Because of the centrality of team-identification in the fans’ social selves, we

predict that felt-autonomy will not be affected when targeting high team-identification

individuals with ID message in the form of advertisements. We expect that fans exposed

to IR or ID messages will have the same overall felt-autonomy experience because both

marketing messages (ID: linking their fandom to a consumption behavior; IR: simply

hinting this connection) would be classified as positive information; they will be infused

with the positive affect related to their fandom and will not be identified as threatening to

their freedom nor their self-determination. Therefore, Fans will not feel a need to engage

in reactant behaviors in either condition.

H1B: High team-identification individuals will report similar felt-autonomy when

presented with ID, IR or CL messages in the form of advertisements

(f. autonomyID ≈ f. autonomyIR ≈ f. autonomyCL).

In contrast, low team-identification individuals will negatively evaluate identity-

defining marketing messages because of their lack of commitment with the team as a

social identity. This will increase the possibility of their need for reactance, which in turn

would reduce purchase intent. In other words, non-fans will perceive explicit marketing

messages as a threat to their freedom of choice. At the same time, their need for

autonomy will be greater than a need for relatedness; thus they will give greater

importance to feeling in control of their life choices than to feel like they belong to a

social category.

H2A: Low team-identification individuals will report lower purchase intent when

presented with ID messages than when presented with IR or CL messages in the

form of advertisements (p.intentIR>p. intentID; p. intentIR> p. intentCL).


H2B: Low team-identification individuals will report lower felt-autonomy when

presented with ID messages than when presented with IR or CL messages in the

form of advertisements

(f. autonomyIR >f. autonomyID; f. autonomyCL > f. autonomyID).

Furthermore, fans and non-fans are likely to experience identity-defining

messages differently. Fans will experience ID messages as positive, non-threatening

information and will be open to its influence when presented in the context of their team

identity. This will be represented by higher purchase intent and higher felt-autonomy than

non-fans. On the other hand, non-fans will be threatened by ID messages and will present

reactant behaviors to resist persuasion; which will be represented by lower purchase

intent and lower felt-autonomy than fans.

H3A: High team-identification individuals will report higher purchase intent

when presented with ID messages than low team-identification individuals.

(For ID messages: p.intentFans>p. intentNon-fans)

H3B: High team-identification individuals will report higher felt-autonomy when

presented with ID messages than low team-identification individuals.

(For ID messages: f. autonomyFans >f. autonomyNon-fans).

Method

This study will use an online survey structure to reach a high number of

participants related to the fandom social identity. The survey will include a team-

identification measure, an advertisement with a distinct marketing message, and a brief

questionnaire. The questionnaire will include a purchase intent item and a felt-autonomy

measure. All of the components of the survey are explained in detail below.


Research setting and participants

Following the team selection method used by Watkins (2014), three NBA teams

will be approached to perform this study: Miami Heat, New York Knicks and Dallas

Mavericks. We expect that all teams will cooperate and provide their fan databases for

survey distribution. A total of 12 000 invitations (4 000 per team) to participate in the

study will be sent to the sports’ fans, they will receive a link over e-mail asking them to

go online and answer the survey. Finally, the participants who respond would

automatically enter a promotional contest to win a tablet (one per team affiliation).

Team identity measure

The Sports Spectator Identification Scale (SSIS) (Wann & Branscrombe, 1993) is

a proven reliable and valid measure of sports fan identification (Bernache-Assollant,

Bouchet & Lacassagne, 2007), it consists of 7 items in an 8-point scale (1=low team

identification, 8=high team identification). The scores range between 7 (lowest) to 56

(highest). Because of the theoretical implications of the stated hypotheses, we will use the

SSIS scores to discriminate between high and low team-identification individuals.

Hypotheses 1A and IB: Fans. Due to our interest in purchase intent on high

identification fans, we will use SSIS scores to rule out low and medium team

identification individuals. Based on previous research (Wann & Branscrombe, 1993) we

determined a minimum total value of 49 as a cut-off score (all items were answered with

a 7 or 8) for high team identification individuals. As a result, for this part of the study we

will only use the data of participants who score 49 or higher in the SSIS.

Hypotheses 2A and 2B: Non-fans. We are interested in the reported levels of

purchase intent and autonomy by non-fans only, we will use SSIS scores to rule out high


and medium team identification individuals. Based on previous research (Wann &

Branscrombe, 1993) we determined a minimum total value of 21 as a cut-off score (all

items were answered with a 1, 2 or 3) for low team identification individuals. As a result,

for this part of the study we will use the data of participants who score 21 or lower in the

SSIS.

Hypotheses 3A and 3B: Fans and non-fans

We are interested in the reported levels of purchase intent and autonomy by fans

and non-fans that were exposed to the ID condition. We will use SSIS scores to identify

both high and low team identification individuals in the same form that it was used

previously, with high-identification individuals scoring 49 or higher on the SSIS and low-

identification individuals scoring 21 or less on the SSIS.

Pilot study

Due to the relevance of the marketing messages presented to the participants to be

either identity defining (ID) or identity referencing (IR), it is necessary to determine the

differences between these messages through a pilot study. Although the marketing

messages used in these study were specifically designed for the sports team identity, the

overall structure of the pilot study will follow Bhattacharjee and colleagues’ method

(2014) in which undergraduate students were used to rate the marketing messages in a

continuous scale ranging from identity-referencing to identity-defining. Similarly, we

will give 50 undergraduate participants detailed explanations of the differences between

two types of marketing messages: ID and IR. We will then ask them to rate 12 marketing

messages (researchers had previously classified 4 as ID, 4 as IR and 4 as CL) in a


continuous 7-point scale (where 1= non identity, 4= identity referencing and 7=identity

defining).

We expect a one-way ANOVA to determine that differences in the marketing

message scores are statistically significant, with p<.05. Furthermore, we expect the mean

of the previously defined identity-defining messages (M = 7) to be larger than the mean

of the previously defined identity-referencing messages (M = 4) and than the previously

determined control messages (M = 1). These results will determine that the messages

originally designated as identity defining or identity referencing by researchers were

identified as such by participants, and thus will validate our operational definitions in the

field.

Advertisement presentation

The participants will be presented with one randomly assigned advertisement

from a selection of three possibilities, each with a different type of marketing message

(derived from the pilot study results): identity defining (ID), identity referencing (IR) or

control (CL). The ID advertisement will have an explicit customized message that links

having an identity to engaging in a purchase behavior (for example: “If YOU are a REAL

Miami Heat fan then…”), the IR advertisement will have a message that alludes a

connection between an identity and purchase behavior engagement (for example:

“Basketball fans prefer…”), and finally the CL advertisement will have a non-identity

message (for example: “A great product…”). All advertisements will present the same

product image and visuals features, the only difference will the type of marketing

message.


Purchase intent measure

The participants will be asked to answer a purchase intent item, originally

developed by Bhattacharjee and his colleagues (2014). This item uses a 7-point scale

(“How likely are you to purchase this product”, 1= very unlikely, 7= very likely), and

estimates the likelihood of a future purchase. For the purpose of this study, the purchase

intent mean (PIM) score will be used to determine the mean value of purchase intent of

all participants in each condition (ID, IR or CL).

Felt-autonomy measure

The felt-autonomy measure will consist of 4 items, all with a 7-point scale. Three

will measure autonomy according to SDT and one will measure reactive autonomy.

Based on Pavey and Sparks SDT autonomy measure (2009, p.290), 3 items were

developed: “I feel that my choice is based on my true interests”, “I feel that my choice

expresses my true self”, “I feel that I make my own decisions” (1 = not at all true, 7 =

very true); these items would show a good inter-item reliability with the original Pavey

and Sparks measure, and we expect a high alpha coefficient, α=. 85. The measure of

reactive autonomy will consist of only 1 item: “This product allows me to freely express

who I am”, rated in a 7-point scale (1= strongly disagree, 7= strongly agree), were a

higher value would indicate lower reactance (Bhattacharjee et al. 2014, p. 297).

The felt-autonomy total value (FATV) will be used to determine the self-reported

level of autonomy by participants after reporting purchase intent. The FATV consists of

the raw values addition of the two sub-scores, the SDT autonomy score and the reactive

autonomy score. The highest value for the FATV is 32 and the lowest value is 4; a high

FATV would indicate high self-determination perception (including intrinsic motivation,


intrinsic or integrated regulation and internal or somewhat internal locus of control) and

high felt-freedom (low reactance); a low value for FATV would indicate high non-self-

determination perception (including extrinsic motivation; external, introjected or

identified regulation; and external or somewhat external locus of control), and low felt-

freedom (high reactance).

Isolating confounding variables

Theoretically, the differences in SSIS scores could be mediated or affected by

variables other than the level of affiliation felt by the respondents. For example, having

females scoring lower on the SSIS than males could actually reveal that high and low

identification individuals are influenced by gender; or if New York Knicks fans would

tend to score higher than other teams’ fans, would show that the Knicks fandom is

stronger than the other measured fandoms. Hence, there is a need to determine if there is

a significant effect of team affiliation or gender on SSIS scores.

Team affiliation. An analysis of variance will be conducted to compare the SSIS

scores between the all three team-affiliations in the study: Miami Heat, New York Knicks

and Dallas Mavericks. We expect that the mean SSIS values for Miami Heat fans (M =

35), New York Knicks (M = 35) and Dallas Mavericks (M = 35) to be similar, revealing a

non-significant ANOVA result, p>.05. According to these projected results, team

affiliations would not affect SSIS scores

Gender. A t-test will be applied to the data to determine if there is a difference in

SSIS scores between the female and male samples. We expect that the mean SSIS value

for both females (M = 35) and males (M = 35) would be similar enough to indicate non-


significant differences, p>.05. These projected results reveal that gender would not have

any effect on SSIS scores

Expected results

Previous research shows an average response rate of 20% to e-mal surveys

(Kaplowitz, Hadlock & Levine, 2004) hence we expect 800 respondents per team, and a

total of 2 400 respondents. Of the 2400 respondents, 800 would be assigned to the ID

condition, 800 to the IR condition and 800 to the CL condition.

Sport Spectator Identification Scale

We expect that 50% of the respondents will score 49 or higher on the SSIS: their

higher affiliation would motivate them to engage in behaviors associated with their team

and thus it is more likely that most of the respondents will be high-identification (Wann,

2006). Also, we expect greater amount of respondents with scores ranging from 21 to 49

than below 21; that is more medium-identification than low-identification individuals.

We are assuming that medium-identification individuals will be more motivated and will

show more engagement with the team than low-identification individuals. The SSIS

scores will render 1200 respondents as high-identification individuals, 720 as medium-

identification individuals, and 480 as low-identification individuals (see Table 1 for

detailed information). For the purpose of this study, only high and low identification

scores will be analyzed; the analysis of data corresponding to fans will be under

Hypothesis 1 and the analysis corresponding non-fans will be under Hypothesis 2.


Table 1

Fan and non-fan identification summary results

High-identification Medium-Identification Low-Identification

SSIS score 52.2 35 14

Number of

respondents

1200 720 480

Note: SSIS = Sport Spectator Identification Scale.

Hypothesis 1A & 1B: Fans

There will be a total of 1200 respondents scoring higher than 49 in the SSIS

(M=52.2), classifying them as high-identification individuals. All of them will be

presented with either an ID message (n = 400), an IR message (n = 400) or a control

message (n = 400). The expected results for Hypotheses 1A and 1B are summarized in

Table 2.

Purchase intent. We expect participants in the ID condition will present a higher

PIM score (M = 7) than participants in the IR condition (M = 4) or the CL condition (M =

2). An analysis of variance will determine a significant effect of message exposure on

the purchase intent item score, with p<. 05. A Tukey HSD post hoc test will identify the

significant differences between ID and IR manipulations, and between ID and CL

manipulations; IR and CL manipulations will not reveal a significant difference. We

expect these findings to support our first hypothesis (1A) that high team-identification

individuals will report a higher overall PIM score when exposed to ID advertisements in

comparison to IR and CL advertisements.


Felt-autonomy. We expect no significant difference in scores between the three

experimental conditions: the FATV score (M = 18) of participants in the ID condition

will be similar to the FATV score of participants under the IR condition (M = 18) and the

CL condition (M = 16). An analysis of variance will reveal a non-significant effect of

message exposure on the FATV, with p>. 05. These results would support Hypothesis

1B, no significant differences will be found in FATV among all three experimental

groups.

Hypotheses 2A and 2B: Non-fans

We expect a total of 480 respondents to score lower than 21 in the SSIS (M=14),

which would classify them as low-identification individuals, or non-fans. All of them will

be randomly presented with either an ID message (n = 160), an IR message (n = 160) or a

control message (n = 160). The expected results for Hypotheses 2A and 2B are

summarized in Table 2.

Purchase intent. We expect participants in the ID condition will present a lower

PIM score (M = 2) than participants in the IR condition (M = 4) or the CL condition (M =

3). An analysis of variance will reveal that there is a significant effect of message

exposure on PIM scores, with p<. 05. A further analysis of the data using the Tukey HSD

test will determine significant differences between ID and IR respondents, and between

ID and CL respondents; the differences in PIM scores between IR and CL respondents

will be significant. These findings would support Hypothesis 2A: low team-identification

individuals will report a lower PIM score when exposed to ID advertisements in

comparison to IR and CL advertisements.


Felt-autonomy. We predict a significant difference in FATV between the

experimental conditions. ID participants will have a lower FATV score (M = 7) than IR

participants (M = 14) and the CL participants (M = 16). An analysis of variance will

reveal a significant effect of message exposure on the FATV, with p>. 05, supporting

Hypothesis 2B: descriptive messages (ID) are perceived as more threatening to freedom

and influencing non-self-determined behaviors than IR or CL messages.

Table 2

Summary of expected results for fans and non-fans

Fans Non-fans

ID IR CL ID IR CL

SSIS score 52.2 52.2 52.2 14 14 14

PIM score 7 4 2 2 4 3

FATV 18 18 16 7 14 16

Note: SSIS = Sport Spectator Identification Scale; PIM = Purchase intent mean; FATV =

Felt-autonomy total value; ID= identity defining condition; IR = identity referencing

condition; CL = non-identity condition

Hypotheses 3A and 3B: Identity defining condition

Both high and low-identification respondents will be analyzed in this section in

order to determine if there is a significant difference amongst purchase intent and felt-

autonomy due to the presentation of an identity defining marketing message (n = 560;


400 fans, 160 non-fans). The results for Hypotheses 3A and 3B are illustrated in Figure 2,

Figure 3, and Table 3.

Purchase intent. We predict that a t-test will determine the difference between

fans and non-fans in the ID condition to be significant at a .05 level. Fans will have

higher PIM score (M = 7) than non-fans (M = 2) These projected results would support

Hypothesis 3A; the identity defining message reduces the PIM score in non-fans but

augments the PIM score in fans.

Felt-autonomy. For this analysis, a mean value of the FATV will be calculated

(FAMV = Felt-autonomy mean value) in order to have the same scale values for purchase

intent and felt-autonomy. A significant difference between fans and non-fans will be

determined by a t-test, with a significance level of .05; the FAMV for fans (M = 4.5) will

be higher than the FAMV for non-fans (M = 1.74). These results will support Hypothesis

3B: descriptive messages (ID) are perceived as more threatening to freedom and

influencing non-self-determined behaviors by non-fans than fans.

Table 3

Means of purchase intent and felt-autonomy measures under the identity defining

condition

Fans Non-fans

PIM 7 2

FAMV 4.5 1.74

Note: PIM = Purchase intent mean; FAMV = Felt-autonomy mean value


Figure 2: Purchase intent mean score of fans and non-fans according to

experimental condition.

Figure 3: Felt-autonomy mean value of fans and non-fans according to

experimental condition.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

ID IR CL

Purc

hase

Inte

nt M

ean

Scor

e

Experimental Condition

Fans

Non-fans

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

ID IR CL

Felt-

Aut

onom

y M

ean

Valu

e

Experimental Condition

Fans

Non-fans


Discussion

General results and implications

The current research was designed to determine the link between sport team

identification and purchase intent through identity message types. The results are

expected to reveal that in the context of team affiliation, high identification individuals

will report higher PIM scores when presented with identity-defining messages instead of

identity-referencing or non-identity messages. Fan identities (high-identification) will be

revealed to guide consumer behavior and influence an individual’s purchase intent and

felt-autonomy. These results would show that when fans perceive information related to

their team-identity, even if this information is highly specific and could be perceived as

threatening to their freedom and non-self-determining, they will not experience reactance

nor will they report lower felt-autonomy. Thus, strong social identities could remediate

the reactance effect that a low freedom of choice and non-self-determination perceptions

have on behavior.

The expected results would represent a partial contradiction to Bhattacharjee and

his colleagues’ findings (2014). Since they found that targeting individuals with specific

identity marketing messages would result in reactant behavior towards the advertised

product. In their study they used a variety of participants, including sports fans from a

university team, but they failed to use a measure for identity strength (for example the

SSIS). Hence they assumed that their participants were fans without experimentally

evaluating their fandom. In the current study we used a fandom measure conjointly with

the different marketing messages (identity defining and identity referencing) to

appropriately evaluate the effect that identity marketing has on high (and low)


identification sports fans. These results illustrate that the sports fandom is a separate

construct from other possible identities used in the mentioned study (i.e. environmentally

conscious individuals) and that marketing attempts should use differentiated strategies

when trying to appeal to this identity.

Overall, we expect that fan identities would be recognized as an inherently

different strong influencer of behavior. The results of these study will be valuable not

only to sports teams and their sponsors, but to businesses across the globe. A consumer’s

social identity can become activated by a great variety of circumstances, and if such

identity is strong enough it could have similar characteristics to fan identity. In marketing

campaigns could prove to be a successful strategy even for industries far removed from

sports teams.

Fans’ purchase intent and felt-autonomy: ID condition

We predicted that high-identification individuals exposed to identify-defining

messages would reveal higher purchase intent and felt-autonomy (lower reactance).

According to SDT there are two factors that influenced this behavior: psychological

needs and the self-determination continuum. The fundamental psychological needs

driving motivation are autonomy and relatedness; in the case of fans, the need for

relatedness will be greater than the need for autonomy when their social identity is

brought to consciousness. The need for belonging to the social group and be recognized

as a member of the fandom would become more important than the need to feel

autonomous; and even fans could feel higher autonomy by actively pursuing their internal

motivation to belong. In terms of the SDT continuum, it is likely that after indicating

purchase intent fans will feel self-determined. It is likely that the locus of control will be


perceived as “somewhat internal”, since the origin of the action is clearly external from

the individual (the advertisement), or as “internal”, since they might feel that the need of

engagement comes from their inner fandom experience. At the same time, the fans’

motivation to indicate a high purchase intent (and subsequent behavior) will be intrinsic,

since their fandom is not imposed nor externally rewarded and their intent is associated

with their motivational drive of belonging to a social identity. The third element of the

SDT continuum is regulation, and we expect that regulation will be perceived as

integrated or intrinsic. Integrated regulation will be experienced if the origin of

persuasion is known to be external (the advertisement) but the fan internalized its

message and claims ownership over it. Intrinsic regulation will be experienced if the fan

did not perceive the origin of the behavior as external, the fan would see the need for

engagement with their fandom as originating from internal motivation and not the

external persuasive message.

Unexpected results

There is an alternative possibility for this study: Our predictions could be

contradicted by the data. This could happen in several ways. One could be that there are

not enough respondents who score low on the SSIS to have a significant analysis of the

data for Hypotheses 2A and 2B. If this were the case, the solution would be to extend the

timeframe allocated for data collection and find alternative ways of motivating

individuals who are low-identification fans to participate in the study.

Non-significant results could also contradict our predictions. For high-identity

fans, there are three possibilities. One would be that the differences in PIM between the

ID, IR or CL conditions were found to be non-significant. That is, the presentation of the


three different marketing messages did not affect the purchase intent that individuals

reported in the questionnaire. These results would indicate that identity-marketing

messages have no bearing on individuals’ intention to purchase, and that other aspects of

advertisements could have a greater impact on influencing identity-related behavior.

Another possibility for high-identification individuals is that the FATV scores for

the ID, IR and CL conditions were found to be significant. If the results show higher felt-

autonomy for ID than for IR and CL (f.autonomyID > f.autonomyIR; f.autonomyID >

f.autonomyCL), then the incongruity with our initial prediction would only be partial.

Message presentation would have had an effect on felt-autonomy, this would indicate that

the formulation of Hypothesis 1B was too conservative. Specific target marketing

messages would have been established to strongly influence high identification

individuals’ sense of self-determination: those presented with ID messages experienced a

higher felt-autonomy than those presented with IR messages.

A third possibility is that the FATV scores for high-identification individuals turn

out to be statistically significant and in an opposite direction from our initial prediction

and theoretical forecasts (f.autonomyID < f.autonomyIR; f.autonomyID < f.autonomyCL).

That is, marketing message presentation would have a deleterious impact on the

individuals’ autonomy perception. Furthermore, high-identification individuals could

engage in reactant behaviors when presented with ID messages even in the context of

their preferred teams. The consequences of this possibility would change marketing

campaigns in the sports market; any attempts to influence the purchase behaviors of team

fans through identity-relevant messages would be futile and could even backfire


(resulting in conscious decisions to engage in behaviors opposite of what is proposed by

the advertisement campaigns).

For low-identity individuals, the two alternative possibilities would include

results regarding the PIM and FATV scores that do not match the initial predictions. The

PIM scores could be found to be significant but not in the predicted direction

(p.intentIR>p. intentID; p. intentIR> p. intentCL), this differential effect of identity-

marketing messages in a low-identification sample could show that the level of

identification with the specific team is irrelevant. Also, non-significant PIM scores would

indicate that identity-marketing messages have no effect on the non-fans’ intention to

purchase, and that non-identity related characteristics of advertisements are more relevant

in influencing behaviors. Additionally, no difference in FATV scores between CL, IR

and ID manipulations would represent an unexpected result. This would mean that felt-

autonomy is not affected by the specificity of identity-marketing messages. Our initial

prediction was erroneous, low-identification individuals would not be negatively affected

by ID messages, in fact there would be no effect of marketing messages at all.

Consequently, these results would mean that marketing campaigns destined at sports fans

would have to be centered on features different from the quality of the messages in order

to appeal to individuals with low team identification.

Limitations

This section includes an analysis of the measures that will be used in this study

(SSIS, FATV and PIM) and the possible problems with the sample and data collection.

SSIS. The Sports Spectator Identity Scale has been consistently used to determine

the levels of fandom an individual has in relation to his or her favorite team, still it has a


few limitations. Currently many researchers in other fields (i.e. school achievement,

industrial psychology, family therapy) have been using multidimensional scales to assess

identification, while the SSIS offers a one-dimension measurement of identification

(Wann & Pierce, 2003). Also, the scale may give the impression of non-neutrality

because of the absence of a clear neutral point; this could force respondents to make a

selection that conveys value, even if they have no actual preference. Nevertheless, this

scale represents a time-efficient way of measuring fan identification that avoids

respondent fatigue and renders valid information.

PIM item. Following the advertisement presentation two scaled items will be

presented to the participants: the PIM and the felt-autonomy item. The problems with

using the PIM are that the researchers cannot know if the participants are being honest,

and even if they are honest revealing a favorable intention does not necessarily equal a

future purchase. However, previous research has shown a link between intent and

behavior commitment (Morrison, 1979; Chauduri & Holbrook, 2001).

Felt-autonomy. The felt-autonomy questionnaire was created for the present

study using items previously developed and validated by Bhattacharjee and colleagues’

(2014) and Pavey and Sparks (2009). And the current questionnaire will be correlated

with these measures previous to its use in the study. Still, the four items are limited in

depth of information they reveal. The questionnaire renders a superficial one-

dimensioned evaluation of autonomy related to their expressed purchase intent: it can be

argued that a marketing message could have broader effects on autonomy perception than

what is measured by four items. Nevertheless, the simplicity and easy application of the

questionnaire and the strong correlation with other measures in previous studies reveal it


to be ideal for the current research. We want to discover how perceptions of autonomy

change in the very moment of indicating purchase intent; we do not want to conduct a

profound autonomy-intent study. Also, we believe the measure will reduce bias caused by

respondent fatigue.

Sample and data collection. We predict the sample to be composed of

predominantly high-identification individuals. This could be a disadvantage for

Hypotheses 2A and 2B, since it is likely that the majority of our respondents will score

high on the SSIS. Nevertheless, due to a large sample size and an open-to-all team

newsletter sign-up, we expect to have enough participants to score low on the SSIS to

have significant results in the second part of the study. Another limitation linked to an

online survey structure is that high identifiers will be more motivated to respond to a

team-related survey than low identifiers. We purposely included the promotional message

(“Participate in this study and you will have a chance to win a new tablet!”) to

incentivize low identifiers to participate in this study and thus have more diverse sample

in terms of identification (and subsequent SSIS scores).

Future study

In a future study, other fandoms (e.g. Harry Potter fans, Star Wars fans, Comics

fans, etc.) could be used to determine the relevancy of message specificity in marketing

campaigns using the same framework presented in the present study. Additionally, a

more in-depth study of sports fandom could be performed where a selection of

advertisements could be presented to the participants instead of only one. Each

advertisement could have a longer and in-depth questionnaires in order to determine the

attitudes and intent purchase towards the advertisements presented in a multidimensional


form. Measuring multiple constructs at once could provide a more realistic picture of the

role of sports fandom in purchase intent. Another possibility is to measure behavior and

not only intent, by providing participants with the possibility of a purchase after viewing

an advertisement could reveal more externally validated results.

Conclusions

The main purpose of this study is to assess the impact of specific and referencing

marketing messages on purchase intent and felt autonomy, in a sport-affiliated sample.

We expect that high-identification individuals will be highly influenced by identity

defining messages when they involve their social identity, increasing their purchase intent

and felt-autonomy perceptions. The sports fandom social identity will be revealed to be

inherently different from other types of social identities, with a higher need for belonging

that supersedes the need for autonomous or reactant behaviors.


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Footnote

1Because the current research will measure intention and not an actual behavior, it

is relevant to clarify the relationship between purchase intent and purchase behavior.

Research has shown that purchase intention is highly correlated with the sale of a

product; measuring intention is the best predictor of behavior amongst many other

possible psychological constructs associated with future behavior (Morwitz, 2012). In

fact, purchase intent is considered a mediating variable between a consumer’ attitude

towards a product and its purchase (Morrison, 1979). Hence, intention measurements are

valid and accurate predictors of future purchase behaviors.


Appendix A

Pilot study: Originally developed by Bhattacharjee and his colleagues in 2014. Advertising Classification Exercise You are an advertisement executive working at a company famous for its identity marketing strategies (targeting consumers through the identities they held). The types of identities the company works with include family roles (moms, daughter, sons, fathers, etc.), political affiliations (republicans, democrats, independents), gender roles (female, male), cultural heritage (Latino, Asian American, African American, etc.) and many others. Your boss has given you a task to develop a new approach to identity marketing. He wants you to classify a wide variety of advertising messages into the following three categories: Identity-referencing messages merely make reference to the target consumer identity. That is, these messages simply mention the target identity and suggest how the brand meets these needs. Identity-defining messages define the terms of identity expression. That is, these messages link being a certain type of person, or having a desirable trait associated with an identity, with buying one particular brand. Non-identity defining messages have no bearing on an individual’s perceived identity. That is, these messages do not define nor reference a specific consumer identity. For each of the messages below, please rate the extent to which it is characteristic of an identity-defining message, an identity-referencing message or if it is a non-identity message. Also, please explain which words made you identify them as such. 1. If you call yourself an Eagle’s fan, you gotta have DirecTV! How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Not at All Very Much So How much is this message like an identity-defining message (ties having a certain identity to buying one particular brand)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Not at All Very Much So


How much is this message like a non-identity message (does not define or reference a certain identity to buying a particular brand or making it relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 2. DirectTV the TV you want, the way you want it How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10


Not at All Very Much So How much is this message like a non-identity message (does not define or reference a certain identity to buying a particular brand or making it relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 3. Gamefly. For video game lovers. How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10





Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 4. Gamefly. You call yourself a gamer? You have to have it! How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10



Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 5. Burger King: good food for parents on the go How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10





Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 6. Gamefly all the variety you need How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10



Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 7. DirecTV. All the sports you love, all in one place. How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10





Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 8. Legit designers watch only HGTV How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10



Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 9. Burger King: Eat like a man. How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10





Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 10. HGTV the channel for designers! How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10



Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 11. HGTV, creating lifestyle How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10





Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________ 12. The burger you yearn for: Burger King How much is this a non-identity message like an identity-referencing message (simply references an identity and suggests how a brand is relevant)? _____________________________________ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10



Not at All Very Much So In classifying these messages, what clues in each message were most helpful? ________________________________________________________________


Appendix B Sport Spectator Identification Scale Instructions: Please type the name of your favorite sport team below (it can be from any sport at any level or an individual in an individual sport such as auto racing or figure skating). Please be very descriptive in your response (e.g., the Atlanta Braves Major League Baseball team). _______________________________________________________ Now, please answer the following questions based on your feelings for the team listed above. There are no "right" or "wrong" answers, simply be honest in your responses. 1. How important to YOU is it that the team listed above wins? Not important 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Very important 2. How strongly do YOU see YOURSELF as a fan of the team listed above? Not at all a fan 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Very much a fan 3. How strongly do your FRIENDS see YOU as a fan of the team listed above? Not at all a fan 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Very much a fan 4. During the season, how closely do you follow the team listed above via ANY of the following: a) in person or on television, b) on the radio, c) television news or a newspaper, or d) the Internet? Never 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Almost everyday 5. How important is being a fan of the team listed above to YOU? Not important 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Very important 6. How much do you dislike the greatest rivals of the team listed above? Do not dislike 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dislike very much 7.How often do YOU display the team's name or insignia at your place of work, where you live, or on your clothing? Never 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Always


Appendix C Purchase intent item - taken from Bhattacharjee et al. 2014, p. 297. Please answer the following question. “How likely are you to purchase the advertised product?”

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very unlikely

Unlikely Somewhat unlikely

Neither likely nor unlikely

Somewhat likely

Likely Very likely


Appendix D Felt-autonomy measure - Based on Pavey and Sparks SDT autonomy measure (2009, p.290); Bhattacharjee and colleagues reactive autonomy measure (2014, p. 297). Please answer the following items. 1. I feel that my choice is based on my true interests

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not at all true

Not true Somewhat not true

Neutral Somewhat true

True Very true

2. I feel that my choice expresses my true self




True Very true

3. I feel that I make my own decisions




True Very true

4. This product allows me to freely express who I am

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly disagree

Disagree Somewhat disagree

Neither agree nor disagree

Somewhat agree

Agree Strongly agree

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