robo advisor-whitepaper

16
Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service WHITEPAPER ROBO-ADVISORS Robo-advisors are growing in popularity among millennials by providing a convenient, low cost, automated, algorithm-based investment platform to manage investment portfolios with initial investments as low as $1,000. While it is good news that millennials are starting to manage their wealth early, the growth of their wealth is highly dependent on comprehensive financial planning, not just on the portfolio put together by the robo-advisors. The strength of a portfolio can be measured by its key characteristics such as asset allocation, diversification, stock and bond risk, investment costs, and overall portfolio risk and efficiency. When we compare the portfolios from the top five robo-advisors to a benchmark portfolio with several decades of measurable performance, we find that while the robo-advisor portfolios are very well diversified, they also contain several gaps in key characteristics that should be present in well-managed portfolios. Here are the key gaps identified: Large allocation of assets to emerging markets Lack of small-cap and value tilts that earn superior returns over the long term Higher credit risk in the bond portion of the robo-advised portfolios through exposure to junk bonds Significant variations in asset allocation recommendations across os- tensibly similar risk profile offerings, particularly with respect to large allocations to either stocks or to cash The above non-risk-adverse allocations reduce overall efficiency of the portfolio, which means the investors might not be getting the optimum return possible for the risks they are taking

Upload: better-financial-education

Post on 06-Jan-2017

150 views

Category:

Economy & Finance


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

W H I T E PA P E R

ROBO-ADVISORS

Robo-advisors are growing in popularity among millennials by providing a convenient, low cost, automated, algorithm-based investment platform to manage investment portfolios with initial investments as low as $1,000. While it is good news that millennials are starting to manage their wealth early, the growth of their wealth is highly dependent on comprehensive financial planning, not just on the portfolio put together by the robo-advisors. The strength of a portfolio can be measured by its key characteristics such as asset allocation, diversification, stock and bond risk, investment costs, and overall portfolio risk and efficiency.

When we compare the portfolios from the top five robo-advisors to a benchmark portfolio with several decades of measurable performance, we find that while the robo-advisor portfolios are very well diversified, they also contain several gaps in key characteristics that should be present in well-managed portfolios. Here are the key gaps identified:

• Large allocation of assets to emerging markets

• Lack of small-cap and value tilts that earn superior returns over the long term

• Higher credit risk in the bond portion of the robo-advised portfolios through exposure to junk bonds

• Significant variations in asset allocation recommendations across os-tensibly similar risk profile offerings, particularly with respect to large allocations to either stocks or to cash

• The above non-risk-adverse allocations reduce overall efficiency of the portfolio, which means the investors might not be getting the optimum return possible for the risks they are taking

Robo-advisors are online wealth management platforms that provide auto-mated, algorithm-based portfolio management advice without the use of human financial planners. Robo-advisors have benefited greatly from the growing investor appetite for index-oriented investment products, such as index funds and ETFs.

Robo-advisors are one of the largest growing segments in the wealth man-agement industry over the last few years. As of February 2016, they were reported to have more than $50 billion of assets under management (AUM) led by passive management industry veterans such as Vanguard and Schwab, as well as venture-backed technology startups like Betterment, Wealthfront and Personal Capital.1

Robo-advice platforms provide a quick and almost-exclusively-online route to investing in a portfolio, making them particularly enticing for millennials. Robo-advisors typically require initial investments as low as $1,000 – $10,000 and charge extremely low fees — on the order of 40 bps or less annually — while including both global stock and bond exposures, making them popular with cost-conscious investors.

The convenience and low-cost nature of robo-platforms is difficult to dispute, but there has been little analysis as to the investment quality of their actual investment portfolios. How do these largely algorithm-based portfolios hold up when compared to more traditional wealth management firms’ portfolio construction methods?

The purpose of this paper is to answer this question by comparing the structure of several popular robo-advisor portfolio recommendations to a well-defined benchmark portfolio.

INTRODUCTION

1 Alessandra Malito and Ellie Zhu, “Top 5 robo-advisers by AUM,” InvestmentNews, February 25, 2016

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

2

Robo-Advisor Selection

The first step in evaluating robo-advisor portfolios is to create a sample set of firms from the robo-advisor universe. We focus on the top five service pro-viders in the U.S. as the appropriate sample set for the study (refer to Table 1 in the appendix). The primary criteria for choosing the sample set for the study are AUM, growth in AUM, number of years of service and brand name.

Portfolio Analysis Tool

We entered the portfolio asset allocation of each robo-advisor into a Portfolio Gap Analysis program that uses Morningstar databases for in-depth analysis. The Gap Analysis Program is designed to compare a specified portfolio to a benchmark portfolio and detect deficiencies as well as potential opportunities for improvement. The key characteristics of an evaluated portfolio include asset allocation, diversification, stock and bond risk, investment costs, port-folio risk and efficiency.

Portfolio Selection

Traditional advisors as well as robo-advisors provide a range of portfolios based on the risk preferences of investors, where the investor risk prefer-ence is typically characterized as conservative, moderate or aggressive. In this study, a moderate risk portfolio is used to evaluate whether the structure of the robo-advised portfolio is optimized to meet investors’ financial goals.

We obtained the asset allocation details from each robo-advisor’s webpage, based on what each robo-advisor identified for an average, moderate-risk- profile investor who is investing for retirement (refer to Tables 2 to 7 in the appendix). The asset allocation details are similar to the allocations pre-sented by a study published by Market Watch.2 The robo-advisors use auto-mated programs with detailed questionnaires to help individuals self-select into a risk profile. There is a question as to how well the robo-advisors

METHODOLOGY

2 Victor Reklaitis, “We asked 4 robo advisers and 4 human advisers for portfolios for the same investor,” MarketWatch, May 2, 2015

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low Cost-Service

3

understand the financial situation of an investor in order to accurately determine the risk profile. This critical topic will be discussed in detail in a follow-up paper.

Benchmark Selection

Loring Ward’s model portfolio asset allocation recommendations for a moderate risk investor as of September 2016 were chosen as the benchmark for evaluating the portfolio recommendations of the five robo-advisors in this study. Loring Ward’s portfolios are globally diversified as well as spe-cifically tailored to the needs of their clients by financial advisors. They are constructed with DFA mutual funds with tilts towards small-cap and value securities. They embody an Asset Class Investing philosophy that is based on almost nine decades of data, analysis and research, insights from be-havioral finance and close relationships with leading academics, including Dr. Meir Statman and Nobel Laureate Dr. Harry S. Markowitz.

Results

The Portfolio Gap Analysis we performed of the portfolio recommendations developed by the top five robo-advisors reveals significant gaps with respect to the benchmark portfolio (see Table. 1). The first observation is that Vanguard and Schwab have gaps in two of the 10 key characteristics of the portfolios. Second, the newly established firms Wealthfront, Betterment and Personal Capital have four or five gaps in the portfolios. In the next section, the gaps observed for each key characteristic are discussed in detail.

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

4 5

Table 1 — Gaps in Robo-Advisor Portfolios with Respect to the Benchmark Portfolio

Asset Allocation: One of the most important steps in efficient portfolio construction is setting the proper asset allocation. In a study conducted by academics Gary P. Brinson, L. Randolph Hood and Gilbert L. Beebower, asset allocation was found to account for 93.6% of the variation in portfolio return.3 The proper allocation must be determined with care and in context with each client’s investment goals and personal risk tolerance.

Gaps in Moderate Portfolios of Robo-Advisors

Vanguard Schwab Wealthfront Betterment Personal Capital

Asset Allocation

Global Diversification

Stock Concentration Risk

Stock Risk Analysis

Bond Quality

Bond Maturity

Management Expenses

Trading Costs

Portfolio Efficiency

Portfolio Risk Profile

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

3 Gary P. Brinson, L. Randolph Hood, and Gilbert L. Beebower. “Determinants of Portfolio Performance.” Financial Analysts Journal 42.4 (1986)

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

5

The Betterment Portfolio has the biggest gap with respect to asset allocation, with 90% in stocks and just 10% in bonds for a moderate portfolio (see Fig. 1).

The Schwab Portfolio has an unnecessarily large ‘cash-drag’ for our hypo-thetical investor, with nearly 8.5% of the money in cash.

Fig. 1 — Asset Allocations in the Betterment and Schwab Intelligent Portfolios Have Significant Gaps Compared to the Benchmark Portfolio

Global Diversification: On the general issue of global diversification there does not appear to be a gap in the robo-advisor portfolios, but it is important to note that robo-advisors have allocated more of their portfolios to emerg-ing markets as exhibited by Wealthfront in Fig. 2. Emerging markets have higher volatility due to currency risk, inflation risk, institutional risk, liquidi-ty risk and political risk. From Loring Ward’s capital market assumptions the Sharpe ratio, which is the ratio of an asset’s return over risk, is lesser for emerging markets compared to U.S. stocks and developed international stocks.4 This means even though investing in emerging markets could generate higher returns, it also increases the risk of each of these moderate portfolios. Hence it is recommended to allocate 6% or less to emerging market securities as observed in the benchmark portfolio.

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

4 “Asset Class Capital Market Assumptions Methodology,” Loring Ward Portfolio Strategy and Research

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

6

Schwab Intelligent Portfolio

Betterment Loring Ward Portfolio

Fig. 2 — Global Diversification in Wealthfront’s Portfolio Compared to LW Portfolio

Stock Concentration Risk: Stock concentration risk refers to undiversified company-specific risk. All the robo-advisors were very well diversified with the top 10 stocks accounting for less than 10% of the portfolio resulting in low stock concentration risk. To give an example, the Schwab Intelligent Portfolio has nearly 7,000 stocks and the top 10 stocks represent only 5.75% of the portfolio (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 — Stock Concentration Risk in Schwab Intelligent Portfolio Compared to LW Portfolio

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

6 7

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

Stock Risk Analysis: The benchmark portfolio emphasizes small-cap and value stocks in an effort to increase the return potential of the stock allocation. Research by Professors Eugene Fama and Ken French established size and value as two key factors that contribute to expected return.5 The robo-advisor portfolios had lower small-cap and value stock weightings than the benchmark portfolio. The stock style matrix for all the robo-advisor portfolios compared to the benchmark portfolio is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 — Stock Style Risk Across Robo-Advisor Portfolios Compared to LW Portfolio

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

5 Eugene F. Fama and Kenneth R. French “The cross-section of expected stock returns”, The Journal of Finance, Vol. XLVII, No. 2, 1992

Vanguard Schwab Wealthfront

Betterment Personal Capital

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

8

Bond Risk: There are two primary risk factors that contribute to the level of volatility in bonds: credit quality and maturity. Historical evidence shows us that investors have not been adequately compensated for extending the credit quality of their bond portfolio below investment-grade (i.e. a credit rating below BBB). While low-quality bonds have a higher average yield, during periods of deep recession their risk of default and loss of principal is higher than invest-ment-grade companies. The benchmark portfolio we used for comparison is comprised 100% of investment-grade bonds. We observed that the bond quality of the robo-advisor portfolios is lower on average, with some including junk grade bonds, as observed in Fig. 5.

Robo-advisors don’t have any gap with regards to maturity or global diversification in their bond portfolio.

Fig. 5 — Bond Risk Across Robo-Advisor Portfolios Compared to LW Portfolio

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

Vanguard Schwab Wealthfront

Betterment Personal Capital

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

9

Current Portfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Portfolio costs: Management expenses and transaction costs are less than 40 bps for the robo-advisors, except Personal Capital that charges 89 bps for wealth management.

Portfolio efficiency: A portfolio is efficient if the investor gets the maximum return for risk that they are willing to take. The risk and return estimates for different asset classes used to construct the portfolio are best estimates; therefore a range of returns is possible for a specific risk, even for an efficient portfolio. This range of returns for different risks results in an efficient range of diversified portfolios.

Wealthfront and Betterment portfolios are not within the efficient range, as seen in Figure 6.

Fig. 6 — Betterment and Wealthfront Portfolios are Below the Efficient Range

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

10%

90%

8.5%

21.5%

5%

65%

2%

65%

33%Cash

Bond

Stock

Other

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

LessRiskShortest Longest

Hig

hestC

redi

t Qua

lity

Duration

Low

est

MoreRisk

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Small

Large

Growth Value

MSCI World Market (MSCIAC World Index)

CurrentPortfolio

Recommended Portfolio

Charles Schwab Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

Total Stocks 7,097 9,514 2,417Top 10 Stocks 5.75% 7.59% 1.84%Cash E�ciency 0.08 0.99 0.91

Global Market Wealthfront Portfolio

Loring Ward Portfolio

Gap

% Weight % Weight % Weight % WeightU.S. Core Equity 44 53 56 3International Core Equity 43 33 38 5 Emerging Core Equity 13 14 6 8 Not Classified 0 0 0 0

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

Ann

ualiz

ed R

etur

ns

Standard Deviation0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

E�cient Range

Recommended

Current

U.S. Market

U.S. Fixed Income

Cash

Wealthfront

Betterment

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

10

Portfolio Risk: Financial independence at retirement requires taking into consider-ation factors with fiduciary implications, such as the future earning potential of the client and current and future liabilities — such as student loans, home mortgage, children’s education plans, moving to a different state for retirement and several other unique situations. Holistic financial planning needed to ensure financial in-dependence at retirement is essential to understand the risk profile of an investor and eventually the portfolio risk. Thus, holistic financial planning becomes the most critical first step of the wealth management experience.

Moreover, the financial regulatory landscape is constantly changing and the new fiduciary requirements that are about to be mandated by the Department of Labor (DOL) are significant. In a recent white paper, Melanie Fein, an attorney who served as senior counsel to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, suggests that robo-advisors may not be able to meet the fiduciary stan-dards largely because they don’t always provide portfolio analysis that examines the risk and reward features of an investment in the context of the portfolio as a whole, and as part of an overall investment strategy that considers other invest-ments, assets, liabilities, sources of incomes and other resources.6

Robo-advisors provide a free automated advisory service that attempts to under-stand the basic financial needs of the clients. However, experienced registered investment advisors typically have a deep conversation with their clients regarding future financial needs and can build a comprehensive financial plan for a nominal fee. An in-depth conversation with an experienced advisor is important for millen-nials to help them picture multiple, complex future financial scenarios, and we believe it more than justifies the nominal fees charged for future potential financial independence.

6 “Robos and the challenges of fiduciary advice” white paper by Investment News

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

11

Robo-advising is an innovative service that will most likely have an impact on future money management. The low asset minimums and low fees gear the service towards millennials who cannot yet afford to invest with a traditional financial advisor. While inexpensive, the portfolios of these robo-advisors appear to be constructed inefficiently and may expose young investors to risks they may not fully understand.

Robo-advised portfolios provide global diversification, and have a large portion of assets allocated to emerging markets, significantly increasing portfolio risk. Their lack of small and value tilts also lowers the potential of their returns. These port-folios also have bond risk due to exposure to low quality junk bonds and longer duration bonds. The deficiencies in the robo-advisor portfolios show that these investors might have risk in achieving their future financial goals.

Finally, the robo-advisors lack the benefits of holistic wealth management with a real-life advisor who takes into account specific situations with fiduciary implications, such as moving to another state in retirement or personal situations such as plan-ning for a special needs child or for specific charitable bequests. We believe that holistic wealth management is the key to achieving future financial independence for many investors.

CONCLUSION

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

12 13

Table 1 — Robo-Advisor Universe with Total AUM of $50 Million or More7

Robo-Advisor Services AUM ($million)7

Vanguard Personal Advisors 37,000

Schwab Intelligent Portfolio 7,400

Betterment 4,000

Wealthfront 3,000

Personal Capital 2,500

Asset Builder 671

Future Advisor (owned by Blackrock) 250

Rebalance IRA 225

Liftoff 150

SigFig 70

WiseBanyan 50

Etrade Adaptive Portfolio NA (started in 2016)

Fidelity Go NA (started in 2016)

APPENDIX

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

13

7AUM as of Q1 2016

Table 2 — Asset Allocation for a Moderate Portfolio Developed by Wealthfront

Asset Allocation Wealthfront

Name of Investment Ticker % of Portfolio

U.S. StocksVanguard Total Stock Market ETF VTI 20.0%

Vanguard Dividend Appreciation ETF VIG 15.0%

Foreign StocksVanguard FTSE Developed Markets ETF VEA 17.0%

Vanguard FTSE Emerging Markets ETF VWO 13.0%

BondsiShares iBoxx USD Investment Grade Bond ETF LQD 15.0%

iShares J.P. Morgan USD Emerging Markets Bond ETF EMB 8.0%

Other Vanguard REIT ETF VNQ 12.0%

Table 3 — Asset Allocation for a Moderate Portfolio Developed by Betterment

Asset Allocation Betterment

Name of Investment Ticker % of Portfolio

U.S. Stocks

Vanguard Total Stock Market ETF VTI 16.2%

Vanguard Value ETF VTV 16.2%

Vanguard Mid-Cap Value ETF VOE 5.2%

Vanguard Small-Cap Value ETF VBR 4.5%

Foreign StocksVanguard FTSE Developed Markets ETF VEA 37.5%

Vanguard FTSE Emerging Markets ETF VWO 10.5%

Bonds

Vanguard Total International Bond ETF BNDX 3.6%

Vanguard Total Bond Market ETF BND 3.2%

iShares iBoxx USD Investment Grade Bond ETF LQD 1.7%

Vanguard Emerging Markets Government Bond ETF VWOB 1.6%

Fees: Investors pay a management fee of 0.35% for their first $10,000 with New York City–based Betterment, or $3 a month if they’re not auto-depositing at least $100 a month. The next $90,000 costs you 0.25%, and beyond that the fee is 0.15%.

Fees: Investors don’t pay a management fee for their first $10,000 at Palo Alto, Calif.–based Wealthfront, and above that amount the fee on assets is 0.25%.

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

14

Basis Point: Basis point (BPS) refers to a common unit of measure for interest rates and other percentages in finance. One basis point is equal to 1/100th of 1%, or 0.01% (0.0001), and is used to denote the percentage change in a financial instrument.

Sharpe Ratio: The Sharpe ratio is a risk-adjusted measure of return. It is calculated using the standard deviation and excess return to determine the return per unit of risk.

Standard Deviation: Standard Deviation is a statistical measurement of dispersion about an average, it depicts how widely the returns have varied over a certain period of time.

Table 4 — Asset Allocation for a Moderate Portfolio Developed by Personal Capital

Asset Allocation Personal Capital

Name of Investment Ticker % of Portfolio

U.S. Stocks Domestic Equities NA 44.0%

Foreign Stocks International Equities NA 19.0%

BondsDomestic Fixed Income NA 20.0%

Foreign Fixed Income NA 5.0%

OtherCash NA 1.0%

Alternative Investments NA 11.0%

Table 5 — Asset Allocation for a Moderate Portfolio Developed by Schwab Intelligent Portfolio

Asset Allocation Schwab Intelligent Portfolio

Name of Investment Ticker % of Portfolio

U.S. Stocks

Schwab Fundamental U.S. Large Company ETF FNDX 11.0%

Schwab U.S. Large-Cap ETF SCHX 8.0%

Schwab Fundamental U.S. Small Company ETF FNDA 7.0%

Schwab U.S. Small Cap ETF SCHA 4.0%

Foreign Stocks

Schwab Fundamental International Large Company ETF FNDF 8.0%

Schwab International Equity ETF SCHF 5.0%

Schwab Fundamental International Small Company ETF FNDC 5.0%

Schwab Fundamental Emerging Markets Large Company ETF FNDE 5.0%

Schwab Emerging Markets Equity ETF SCHE 4.0%

Schwab International Small-Cap Equity ETF SCHC 3.0%

Bonds

U.S. Corporate High Yield Bonds SHYG 8.0%

VanEck Vectors Emerging Markets Local Currency Bond EMLC 7.0%

Vanguard Mortgage-Backed Securities ETF VMBS 3.0%

Vanguard Total International Bond ETF BNDX 2.5%

SPDR Barclays Intermediate Term Corporate Bond ETF ITR 1.0%

Other

Cash N/A 8.5%

iShares Gold ETF IAU 5.0%

Schwab U.S. REIT ETF SCHH 3.0%

Vanguard Global ex-U.S. Real Estate ETF VNQI 2.0%

Fees: Does not charge a management fee.

Fees: Investors pay a management fee of 0.89% to Personal Capital for the first $1 Million, and it progressively decreases to 0.49% for clients that invest more than $10 Million.

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

15

Table 6 — Asset Allocation for a Moderate Portfolio Developed by Vanguard

Asset Allocation Vanguard

Name of Investment Ticker % of Portfolio

U.S. StocksVanguard 500 Index Admiral VFIAX 22.0%

Vanguard Extended Market Index Admiral VEXAX 8.5%

Vanguard Small Cap Value Index Admiral VSIAX 9.5%

Vanguard Total Stock Market Index Admiral VTSAX 5.0%

Foreign Stocks Vanguard Total International Stock Index Admiral VTIAX 20.0%

BondsVanguard Intermediate-Term Bond Index Admiral VBILX 2.0%

Vanguard Long-Term Investment Grade Admiral VWETX 3.0%

Vanguard Total International Bond Index Admiral VTABX 8.0%

Vanguard Total Bond Market Index Admiral VBTLX 20.0%

Vanguard Short-Term Bond Index Admiral VBIRX 2.0%

Table 7 — Asset Allocation for a Moderate Portfolio Developed by Loring Ward

Asset Allocation Loring Ward

Name of Investment Ticker % of Portfolio

U.S. Stocks

DFA US Core Equity 1 I DFEOX 15.0%

DFA US Large Cap Value I DFLVX 12.0%

DFA US Small Cap I DFSTX 8.0%

Foreign Stocks

DFA International Value I DFIVX 14.0%

DFA International Small Company I DFISX 7.0%

DFA Emerging Markets Value I DFEVX 5.0%

BondsDFA Five-Year Global Fixed Income I DFGBX 17.0%

DFA One-Year Fixed Income I DFIHX 16.0%

OtherCash N/A 2.0%

DFA Real Estate Securities I DFREX 4.0%

Fees: Investors pay a management fee that is dependent on the client’s assets as well as the client advisor’s assets with Loring Ward. Clients with assets less than $500,000 pay a management fee between 0.5% and 0.65% based on the client advisor’s assets with Loring Ward. Management fees progressively decrease as the client’s assets increase. Clients with assets greater than $5 Million pay a management fee between 0.1% and 0.2% based on the client advisor’s assets with Loring Ward.

Fees: Investors pay a management fee of 0.3% to Vanguard for the benefits of a Vanguard advisor, a customized financial plan and ongoing portfolio management.

ROBO-ADVISORS: Looking Beyond the Low-Cost Service

The risks associated with investing in stocks and overweighting small company and value stocks potentially include increased volatility (up and down movement in the value of your assets) and loss of principal.Diversification neither assures a profit nor guarantees against loss in a declining market.LWI Financial Inc. (“Loring Ward”) is an investment adviser registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission. Securities transactions are offered through its affiliate, Loring Ward Securities Inc.,member FINRA/SIPC. Dimensional Fund Advisors is an investment advisor registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission and is unaffiliated with LWI Financial Inc. B 16-060 (9/18)

10 Almaden Blvd., 15th Floor, San Jose, CA 95113 800.366.7266 | loringward.com