RobertRobertMertonMerton

July 4, 1910 – July 4, 1910 – February 23, 2003February 23, 2003

Biographical Background Biographical Background InformationInformation

Birth name: Birth name: Meyer R. SchkolnickMeyer R. Schkolnick Born in Philadelphia to working class Jewish Eastern European immigrant Born in Philadelphia to working class Jewish Eastern European immigrant

parentsparents While growing up in Philadelphia in high school, he became a frequent While growing up in Philadelphia in high school, he became a frequent

visitor of the nearby Andrew Carnegie Library, The Academy of Music, visitor of the nearby Andrew Carnegie Library, The Academy of Music, Central Library, and the Museum of the ArtsCentral Library, and the Museum of the Arts

Best known for coining the phrases “self-fulfilling prophecy,” “role model,” Best known for coining the phrases “self-fulfilling prophecy,” “role model,” and “unintended consequences”and “unintended consequences”

It is a popular misconception that Merton was a student of Talcott Parsons, It is a popular misconception that Merton was a student of Talcott Parsons, who was actually only a junior member of his dissertation committee along who was actually only a junior member of his dissertation committee along with Carle Zimmerman, George Sarton, and Pitirim Sorokin – a man who with Carle Zimmerman, George Sarton, and Pitirim Sorokin – a man who greatly influenced Mertongreatly influenced Merton

His sociological career began at Temple University studying with George E. His sociological career began at Temple University studying with George E. Simpson and then under Pitrim A. Sorokin at HarvardSimpson and then under Pitrim A. Sorokin at Harvard

Dissertation was on the social history of the scientific development in Dissertation was on the social history of the scientific development in England in the seventeenth-centuryEngland in the seventeenth-century

Merton was married twice, including once to fellow sociologist Harriet Merton was married twice, including once to fellow sociologist Harriet ZuckermanZuckerman

He had one son and two daughters, including Robert C. Merton, who won He had one son and two daughters, including Robert C. Merton, who won the 1997 Nobel Prize in economicsthe 1997 Nobel Prize in economics

Honors and RecognitionHonors and Recognition Taught at Harvard then became a professor and chairman of the Taught at Harvard then became a professor and chairman of the

Department of Sociology at Tulane University (1939)Department of Sociology at Tulane University (1939) 1941- joined the faculty of Columbia University and became a Giddings 1941- joined the faculty of Columbia University and became a Giddings

Professor of Sociology (1963)Professor of Sociology (1963) 1974 - achieved the highest rank at Columbia University as a University 1974 - achieved the highest rank at Columbia University as a University

Professor and later a Special Service Professor upon his retirement (1979)Professor and later a Special Service Professor upon his retirement (1979) One of the first sociologists elected to the National Academy of SciencesOne of the first sociologists elected to the National Academy of Sciences First American sociologist elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of First American sociologist elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of

SciencesSciences Also a member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Also a member of the American Philosophical Society, the American

Academy of Arts and Sciences (through which he received a Parsons Academy of Arts and Sciences (through which he received a Parsons Prize), the National Academy of Education, and Academica Europaea Prize), the National Academy of Education, and Academica Europaea

1961 – received a Guggenheim fellowship1961 – received a Guggenheim fellowship 1983-88 – the first sociologist to be named a MacArthur Fellow1983-88 – the first sociologist to be named a MacArthur Fellow Was awarded with honorary degrees from over twenty institutions including Was awarded with honorary degrees from over twenty institutions including

Yale, Harvard, Columbia, Chicaco, and many universities abroadYale, Harvard, Columbia, Chicaco, and many universities abroad 1994 – received the U.S. National Medal of Science as the first sociologist 1994 – received the U.S. National Medal of Science as the first sociologist

to receive the awardto receive the award

Major TheoriesMajor Theories Theories of the middle rangeTheories of the middle range

““fills in the blanks” between empiricism and all-inclusive theoryfills in the blanks” between empiricism and all-inclusive theory Influenced by Weber and DurkheimInfluenced by Weber and Durkheim

Clarifying functional analysisClarifying functional analysis Functionalism is centralized in interpreting data by Functionalism is centralized in interpreting data by

consequences for larger structuresconsequences for larger structures Society is analyzed with reference to cultural and social Society is analyzed with reference to cultural and social

structures in regard to how well or badly they are integratedstructures in regard to how well or badly they are integrated Influenced by Durkheim and ParsonsInfluenced by Durkheim and Parsons

DysfunctionsDysfunctions His work implies that all institutions are inherently good for His work implies that all institutions are inherently good for

society, emphasizing the importance and existence of society, emphasizing the importance and existence of dysfunctionsdysfunctions

Approaches conflict theoryApproaches conflict theory He states that we can only explain and discover alternatives to He states that we can only explain and discover alternatives to

disfunction if we recognize the disfunctional aspects of disfunction if we recognize the disfunctional aspects of institutionsinstitutions

Major Theories (continued)Major Theories (continued) Manifest and latent functionsManifest and latent functions

Manifest functions are expected or observed consequencesManifest functions are expected or observed consequences Latent functions are those that are not recognized or intendedLatent functions are those that are not recognized or intended Merton sees attention to latent functions as increasing Merton sees attention to latent functions as increasing

understanding of greater society in going beyond individuals’ understanding of greater society in going beyond individuals’ motivationmotivation

Says that dysfunctions can also be manifest or latentSays that dysfunctions can also be manifest or latent Functional alternativesFunctional alternatives

Like other functionalists, believes that societies must have Like other functionalists, believes that societies must have certain characteristics to ensure survivalcertain characteristics to ensure survival

Merton emphasizes that other institutions are also able to fulfill Merton emphasizes that other institutions are also able to fulfill the same functionsthe same functions

This is important because sociologists have become aware to This is important because sociologists have become aware to the similarities between functions of different institutions and the similarities between functions of different institutions and “reduces the tendency of functionalism to imply approval of the “reduces the tendency of functionalism to imply approval of the status quo”status quo”

Major Theory: Deviance TypologyMajor Theory: Deviance Typology Used the term anomie (from Used the term anomie (from

Durkheim) to mean “A Durkheim) to mean “A discontinuity between cultural discontinuity between cultural goals and the legitimate goals and the legitimate means available for reaching means available for reaching them.”them.”

RitualismRitualism is the acceptance is the acceptance of the means but the forfeit of of the means but the forfeit of the goalsthe goals

RetreatismRetreatism is the rejection of is the rejection of both the means and the goalsboth the means and the goals

RebellionRebellion is a combination of is a combination of rejection of societal goals rejection of societal goals and means and a substitution and means and a substitution of other goals and means. of other goals and means.

InnovationInnovation and and RitualismRitualism are are the pure cases of anomie as the pure cases of anomie as Merton defined it because in Merton defined it because in both cases there is a both cases there is a discontinuity between goals discontinuity between goals and means.and means.

Image: Ryan Cragun 2005 (from Wikipedia)

Major Theory: Sociology of ScienceMajor Theory: Sociology of Science

Sociology of scienceSociology of science Developed the Merton Thesis which explains causes of the scientific Developed the Merton Thesis which explains causes of the scientific

revolution and the Mertonian norms of science, identified commonly by revolution and the Mertonian norms of science, identified commonly by the acronym “CUDOS”the acronym “CUDOS”

CUDOS is a set of ideas that are, in Merton’s view, the goals and CUDOS is a set of ideas that are, in Merton’s view, the goals and methods of science, including:methods of science, including:

CommunalismCommunalism - common ownership of scientific discoveries, - common ownership of scientific discoveries, according to which scientists give up intellectual property rights in according to which scientists give up intellectual property rights in exchange for recognition and esteemexchange for recognition and esteem

Universalism - according to which claims to truth are evaluated in Universalism - according to which claims to truth are evaluated in terms of universal or impersonal criteria, and not on factors such as terms of universal or impersonal criteria, and not on factors such as ethnicity, status, gender, or faithethnicity, status, gender, or faith

Disinterestedness - according to which scientists are rewarded for Disinterestedness - according to which scientists are rewarded for acting in ways that outwardly appear to be selflessacting in ways that outwardly appear to be selfless

Organized Skepticism - all ideas must be thoroughly tested and be Organized Skepticism - all ideas must be thoroughly tested and be made subject to community scrutinymade subject to community scrutiny

Merton’s PublicationsMerton’s Publications Social Theory and Social StructureSocial Theory and Social Structure (1949) (1949) The Sociology of ScienceThe Sociology of Science (1973) (1973) Sociological AmbivalenceSociological Ambivalence (1976) (1976) On the Shoulders of Giants: A Shandea PostscriptOn the Shoulders of Giants: A Shandea Postscript (1985) (1985) The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity: A Study in The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity: A Study in

Sociological Semantics and the Sociology of Science (2004) Sociological Semantics and the Sociology of Science (2004)

Manifest and Latent Manifest and Latent Functions (1957)Functions (1957)

Robert K. MertonRobert K. Merton

Distinguishing Manifest and Latent Distinguishing Manifest and Latent FunctionsFunctions

there has often been confusion between there has often been confusion between conscious motivations for social behavior conscious motivations for social behavior and its objective consequencesand its objective consequences

difference between motives and functionsdifference between motives and functions manifest functions: those objective manifest functions: those objective

consequences for a specified unit (person, consequences for a specified unit (person, subgroup, social or cultural system) which subgroup, social or cultural system) which contribute to its adjustment or adaptation and contribute to its adjustment or adaptation and were so intendedwere so intended

latent functions: unintended and unrecognized latent functions: unintended and unrecognized consequencesconsequences

Heuristic Purposes of the Heuristic Purposes of the DistinctionDistinction

clarifies the analysis of seemingly irrational dataclarifies the analysis of seemingly irrational data distinction aids the interpretation of social practices distinction aids the interpretation of social practices

which persist even though their manifest purpose is which persist even though their manifest purpose is not achievednot achieved

when group behavior does not attain its supposed when group behavior does not attain its supposed purpose, there is an inclination to attribute its purpose, there is an inclination to attribute its occurrence to lack of intelligence, innocence, etcoccurrence to lack of intelligence, innocence, etc

• Hopi rain dance does not produce rainfall, it can be labeled Hopi rain dance does not produce rainfall, it can be labeled as superstitious and the Hopi people viewed as primitiveas superstitious and the Hopi people viewed as primitive

concept of latent functions extends beyond concept of latent functions extends beyond whether or not behavior attained its purposewhether or not behavior attained its purpose directs attention towards individual personalities directs attention towards individual personalities

involved in behavior, and the persistence and involved in behavior, and the persistence and continuity of larger groupcontinuity of larger group

• the Hopi rain dance ceremonial has non-purposed functionsthe Hopi rain dance ceremonial has non-purposed functions reinforce group identityreinforce group identity

Directs Attention to Theoretically Directs Attention to Theoretically Fruitful Fields of InquiryFruitful Fields of Inquiry

confinement to study of manifest functionsconfinement to study of manifest functions sociologist will be concerned with determining sociologist will be concerned with determining

whether a practice instituted for a particular whether a practice instituted for a particular purpose does, in fact, achieve this purposepurpose does, in fact, achieve this purpose

confinement to study of latent functionsconfinement to study of latent functions sociologist will examine the familiar (or sociologist will examine the familiar (or

planned) social practice to determine the planned) social practice to determine the latent, unrecognized, functionslatent, unrecognized, functions• distinctive intellectual contributionsdistinctive intellectual contributions

Impact of Merton’s TheoryImpact of Merton’s Theory The discovery latent functions represents significant increments in The discovery latent functions represents significant increments in

sociological knowledgesociological knowledge findings concerning latent functions represent a greater increment in findings concerning latent functions represent a greater increment in

knowledge than findings concerning manifest functions, because knowledge than findings concerning manifest functions, because they describe practices and beliefs which are not common they describe practices and beliefs which are not common knowledgeknowledge

Precludes the substitution of naïve moral judgments for sociological Precludes the substitution of naïve moral judgments for sociological analysisanalysis

moral evaluations in society are usually in terms of the manifest moral evaluations in society are usually in terms of the manifest consequences of a practice or a codeconsequences of a practice or a code

analysis is terms of latent functions, then, often run counter to the analysis is terms of latent functions, then, often run counter to the prevailing moral evaluationsprevailing moral evaluations

proceeding from the functional proceeding from the functional Recommendation that we should ordinarily expect persistent social Recommendation that we should ordinarily expect persistent social

patterns and social structures to perform positive functions which are at patterns and social structures to perform positive functions which are at the time not adequately fulfilled by other existing patterns and the time not adequately fulfilled by other existing patterns and structures. structures.

The “publicly criticized organization” is, under present conditions, The “publicly criticized organization” is, under present conditions, satisfying basic latent functionssatisfying basic latent functions

On Sociological Theories of the On Sociological Theories of the Middle RangeMiddle Range

What does it mean?What does it mean? Socialogical Theory refers to logically Socialogical Theory refers to logically

interconnected sets of propositions from which interconnected sets of propositions from which empirical uniformities can be derived.empirical uniformities can be derived.

Theories of the middle range-Theories of the middle range-theories that lie theories that lie between the minor but necessary working between the minor but necessary working hypotheses that evolve in abundance during hypotheses that evolve in abundance during day-to-day research and the all-inclusive day-to-day research and the all-inclusive systematic efforts to develop a unified theory systematic efforts to develop a unified theory that will explain all the observed uniformities of that will explain all the observed uniformities of social behavior, social organization, and social social behavior, social organization, and social changechange

Cont’d.Cont’d.

Middle Range Theory is principally used in Middle Range Theory is principally used in sociology to guide empirical inquiry sociology to guide empirical inquiry

Each theory is more than an empirical Each theory is more than an empirical generalization-an isolated proposition generalization-an isolated proposition summarizing observed uniformities of summarizing observed uniformities of relationships between two or more relationships between two or more variablesvariables

Role-Set TheoryRole-Set Theory

Begins with the concept that each social status Begins with the concept that each social status involves not a single associated role, but an involves not a single associated role, but an array of roles.array of roles.

Ex. UNC medical student plays not only the role Ex. UNC medical student plays not only the role of student of student vis-à-vis vis-à-vis the correlative status of his the correlative status of his teachers but also an array of other roles relating teachers but also an array of other roles relating diversely to other in the system: other students, diversely to other in the system: other students, physicians, nurses, Duke students, social physicians, nurses, Duke students, social workers, medical technicians, and the like. workers, medical technicians, and the like.

Cont’d.Cont’d.

Role-Set raises the general but definite problem Role-Set raises the general but definite problem of identifying the social mechanismsof identifying the social mechanisms

Illustrates another aspect of sociological theories Illustrates another aspect of sociological theories of the middle range.of the middle range.

Frequently consistent with a variety of so-called Frequently consistent with a variety of so-called systems of sociological theory: Marxist Theory, systems of sociological theory: Marxist Theory, functional analysis, social behaviorism, Sorokin’s functional analysis, social behaviorism, Sorokin’s integral sociology, and Parson’s s theory of integral sociology, and Parson’s s theory of actionaction

Cont’d.Cont’d.

There is always a There is always a potentialpotential for differing for differing expectations among those in a role set as to expectations among those in a role set as to what is appropriate conduct for a status-what is appropriate conduct for a status-occupantoccupant

The basic source of this potential for conflict is The basic source of this potential for conflict is found in the structural fact that the other found in the structural fact that the other members of a role-set are apt to hold various members of a role-set are apt to hold various social positions differing from those of the social positions differing from those of the status-occupant in question.status-occupant in question.

Cont’d.Cont’d.

The assumed structural basis for the The assumed structural basis for the potential disturbance of a role-set gives potential disturbance of a role-set gives rise to a double question: Which social rise to a double question: Which social mechanisms, if any, operate to counteract mechanisms, if any, operate to counteract the theoretically assumed instability of the theoretically assumed instability of role-sets and, correlatively, under which role-sets and, correlatively, under which circumstances do these social circumstances do these social mechanisms fail to operate, with resulting mechanisms fail to operate, with resulting inefficiency, confusion, and conflict? inefficiency, confusion, and conflict?

Total Systems of Sociological Total Systems of Sociological TheoryTheory

Cont’d.Cont’d. Not enough preparatory work has been done to Not enough preparatory work has been done to

formulate a general sociological theory broad formulate a general sociological theory broad enough to encompass the vast ranges of enough to encompass the vast ranges of precisely observed details of social behavior, precisely observed details of social behavior, organization, and change and fruitful enough to organization, and change and fruitful enough to direct the attention of research workers to a flow direct the attention of research workers to a flow of problems for empirical research.of problems for empirical research.

Early sociology grew up in an intellectual Early sociology grew up in an intellectual atmosphere in which vastly comprehensive atmosphere in which vastly comprehensive systems of philosophy were being introduced on systems of philosophy were being introduced on all sides.all sides.

Cont’d.Cont’d.

Attempts to create total systems of Attempts to create total systems of sociology is a goal that is often based on sociology is a goal that is often based on one or more misconception of the one or more misconception of the sciencessciences

Cont’d.Cont’d.

1.1. The first misinterpretation assumes that systems of The first misinterpretation assumes that systems of thought can be effectively developed before a great thought can be effectively developed before a great mass of basic observations has been accumulatedmass of basic observations has been accumulated

2.2. The second misinterpretation about the physical The second misinterpretation about the physical sciences rest on a mistaken assumption of historical sciences rest on a mistaken assumption of historical contemporaneity- contemporaneity- that all cultural products existing at that all cultural products existing at the same moment have the same degree of maturitythe same moment have the same degree of maturity

3.3. The third misconception is sociologist sometimes The third misconception is sociologist sometimes misread the actual state of theory in the physical misread the actual state of theory in the physical sciencessciences

Utilitarian Pressures for Total Utilitarian Pressures for Total Systems of SociologySystems of Sociology

The conviction among some sociologist that we must, The conviction among some sociologist that we must, here and now, achieve a grand theoretical system not here and now, achieve a grand theoretical system not only results from a misplaced comparison with the only results from a misplaced comparison with the physical sciences, it is also a response to the ambiguous physical sciences, it is also a response to the ambiguous position of sociology in the contemporary society.position of sociology in the contemporary society.

The misplaced masochism of the social scientist and the The misplaced masochism of the social scientist and the inadvertent sadism of the public both result from the inadvertent sadism of the public both result from the failure to remember that social science, like all science, failure to remember that social science, like all science, is continually developing and that there is no providential is continually developing and that there is no providential dispensation providing that at any given moment it will dispensation providing that at any given moment it will adequate to the entire array of problems confronting adequate to the entire array of problems confronting men. men.

Cont’d.Cont’d.

The urgent of immensity of a practical The urgent of immensity of a practical social problem does not insure its social problem does not insure its immediate solutionimmediate solution

Necessity is only the mother of invention; Necessity is only the mother of invention; socially accumulated knowledge is its socially accumulated knowledge is its fatherfather

Total Systems of Theory and Total Systems of Theory and Theories of the Middle RangeTheories of the Middle Range

Cont’d.Cont’d.

Our major tasks today is to develop theories Our major tasks today is to develop theories applicable to limited conceptual ranges- applicable to limited conceptual ranges- theories, for example, deviant behavior, the theories, for example, deviant behavior, the unanticipated consequences of purposive unanticipated consequences of purposive action, social perception, reference groups, action, social perception, reference groups, social control, the interdependence of social social control, the interdependence of social institutions – rather than to seek immediately the institutions – rather than to seek immediately the total conceptual structure that is adequate to total conceptual structure that is adequate to derive these and other theories of the middle derive these and other theories of the middle range. range.

Cont’d.Cont’d.

If sociological theory is to advance significantly, it must If sociological theory is to advance significantly, it must proceed on these interconnected planesproceed on these interconnected planes

1.1. By developing special theories from which to derive By developing special theories from which to derive hypothesis that can be empirically investigatedhypothesis that can be empirically investigated

2.2. By evolving, not suddenly revealing, a progressive By evolving, not suddenly revealing, a progressive more general conceptual scheme that is adequate to more general conceptual scheme that is adequate to consolidate groups of special theoriesconsolidate groups of special theories

Theories of the middle ranges hold the largest Theories of the middle ranges hold the largest promise.promise.

Social Structure and Anomie (1938)Social Structure and Anomie (1938)

Measure of “structural constraints on the Measure of “structural constraints on the ability to obtain socially valued goods, ability to obtain socially valued goods, such as wealth, shape the possible range such as wealth, shape the possible range of individual responses.”of individual responses.”

Cultural GoalsCultural Goals Institutional NormsInstitutional Norms

……cont. Cultural and Institutionscont. Cultural and Institutions All societies governed in some way – All societies governed in some way –

HOW governed (institutions, folkways, HOW governed (institutions, folkways, etc.) determines integration and cultural etc.) determines integration and cultural valuesvalues

Anomie – “normalness”Anomie – “normalness” Demoralization Demoralization (deinstitutationalization) – (deinstitutationalization) –

two parts of social group not highly two parts of social group not highly integratedintegrated

America and success…

Deviant BehaviorDeviant Behavior

Social strata – greatest pressure on lowestSocial strata – greatest pressure on lowest Occupational opportunities largely Occupational opportunities largely

confined to manual laborconfined to manual labor Because NO realistic out, cause for deviant Because NO realistic out, cause for deviant

behaviorbehavior Bigger cause: cultural emphasis and Bigger cause: cultural emphasis and

social structure inconsistenciessocial structure inconsistencies(1) Incentives for success(1) Incentives for success(2) Limited mobility towards goal(2) Limited mobility towards goal

Modes of AdaptationModes of Adaptation Cultural goalsCultural goals Institutionalized meansInstitutionalized means

I.I. ConformityConformity ++ ++

II.II. InnovationInnovation ++ --

III.III. RitualismRitualism -- ++

IV.IV. RetreatismRetreatism -- --

V.V. RebellionRebellion +/-+/- +/-+/-

Typology of modes of individual adaptation

+ = acceptance

- = rejection

+/- = rejection of current values, replacement with others

CONFORMITYCONFORMITY

Social order is maintained because modal Social order is maintained because modal behavior of members represent the behavior of members represent the cultural patterns, even if secularly cultural patterns, even if secularly changingchanging

Behavior Behavior basic values basic values society society Society does NOT exist if no “deposit of Society does NOT exist if no “deposit of

values shared by interacting individualsvalues shared by interacting individuals Most common and widely diffusedMost common and widely diffused Keeps society “rolling”Keeps society “rolling”

INNOVATIONINNOVATION

Emphasis on success-goal Emphasis on success-goal wealth and wealth and powerpower

““occurs when the individual has occurs when the individual has assimilated the cultural emphasis upon the assimilated the cultural emphasis upon the goal without equally internalizing the goal without equally internalizing the institutional norms governing ways and institutional norms governing ways and means for its attainment”means for its attainment”

Drives both: business-like striving one Drives both: business-like striving one side of mores and sharp practices beyond side of mores and sharp practices beyond the moresthe mores

RITUALISMRITUALISM

Scaling down/abandoning cultural goals for Scaling down/abandoning cultural goals for personal aspirationspersonal aspirations Although one attempts to not have cultural influences, Although one attempts to not have cultural influences,

they abide by institutional normsthey abide by institutional norms Not generally considered to represent a social Not generally considered to represent a social

problemproblem Fairly frequent because largely dependent upon Fairly frequent because largely dependent upon

one’s achievementsone’s achievements Ritualist: familiar and instructiveRitualist: familiar and instructive

Ex: “I’m satisfied with what I’ve got,” “Don’t aim high Ex: “I’m satisfied with what I’ve got,” “Don’t aim high and you won’t be disappointed”and you won’t be disappointed”

……cont. RITUALISMcont. RITUALISM

Private escapePrivate escape Able to avoid dangers and frustrations of Able to avoid dangers and frustrations of

cultural normscultural norms Hold on to safe routines and institutional Hold on to safe routines and institutional

normsnorms Lower-Middle ClassLower-Middle Class

Parents exert pressure to children about Parents exert pressure to children about moral mandates of societymoral mandates of society

Upward social mobility not easy to obtainUpward social mobility not easy to obtain

RETREATISMRETREATISM

Least commonLeast common ““inin the society but not the society but not ofof it” it”

Ex: outcasts, vagabonds, chronic drunkards, drug Ex: outcasts, vagabonds, chronic drunkards, drug addicts, etc.addicts, etc.

Individuals have been assimilated by standards Individuals have been assimilated by standards of both cultural goals and institution of both cultural goals and institution not not accessible accessible individual is shut off individual is shut off

Escape mechanisms: Defeatism, quietism, Escape mechanisms: Defeatism, quietism, resignationresignation

……cont. RETREATISMcont. RETREATISM

Solution for deviant person: abandon both Solution for deviant person: abandon both goals and means and become asocialized.goals and means and become asocialized.

Condemned because “non-productive Condemned because “non-productive liability”liability”

Positive side – minimal frustrations while Positive side – minimal frustrations while seeking rewardsseeking rewards Negative – socially disinheritedNegative – socially disinherited

Adaptations are largely private and Adaptations are largely private and isolatedisolated

REBELLIONREBELLION

Collective adaptationCollective adaptation Presupposes alienation from reigning Presupposes alienation from reigning

goals and standardsgoals and standards Ressentiment Ressentiment vs. vs. RebellionRebellion

(1) hate, envy, hostility(1) hate, envy, hostility (2) powerlessness to express feelings(2) powerlessness to express feelings (3) continual re-experiencing hostility(3) continual re-experiencing hostility

……cont. REBELLIONcont. REBELLION RebellionRebellion

Involves genuine transvaluationInvolves genuine transvaluation Experience of frustration leads to full denunciation of Experience of frustration leads to full denunciation of

previously prized valuespreviously prized values Ex: grapes..Ex: grapes..

Key difference: ressentment condemns the Key difference: ressentment condemns the object being craved; rebellion condemns cravingobject being craved; rebellion condemns craving

More likely to occur if: Institutional system is a More likely to occur if: Institutional system is a barrier to satisfaction goals.barrier to satisfaction goals.

Goal: to stay a part of society, but transition Goal: to stay a part of society, but transition between social groupsbetween social groups

……cont. REBELLIONcont. REBELLION

Myths: source of frustrationMyths: source of frustration Conservative counter-myth – not in basic Conservative counter-myth – not in basic

structure of societystructure of society Conservative myth – “nature of things,” any Conservative myth – “nature of things,” any

societysociety Rebellion and Conservativism work Rebellion and Conservativism work

together – move toward/away from together – move toward/away from adaptationadaptation

Rising class, not depressed class.Rising class, not depressed class.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONSDISCUSSION QUESTIONS

What is considered deviant behavior What is considered deviant behavior today? Are there similarities between the today? Are there similarities between the 1930s and the present? If there are 1930s and the present? If there are differences, what made them change?differences, what made them change?