RHETORICAL TERMS

All Lists

Alliteration The repetition of sounds, especially

initial consonants in tow or more neighboring words (as in “she sells sea shells). The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

Analogy A similarity or comparison between two different

things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

Ex. He that voluntarily continues ignorance is guilty of all the crimes which ignorance produces, as to him that should extinguish the tapers of a lighthouse might justly be imputed the calamities of shipwrecks.” - Samuel Johnson

Anaphora (uh-naf-er-uh)

One of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is repeated at the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences.

Ex. “It was the best of times; it was the worst of times.”

“They are masters who instruct us without rod or ferule, without angry words, without clothes or money.” – Richard de Bury

Allusion A direct or indirect reference to something

which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.

Ex. “Plan ahead: it wasn’t raining when Noah built the ark” - Richard Cushing

Apostrophe A figure of speech that directly addresses an

absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect is to give vent to or display intense emotion, which can no longer be held back:

Ex. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “ Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /England hath need of thee.”

Colloquial/colloquialism (kuj-loh-kwee-uhl)

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

Allegory The device of using character and/or

story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction lie hope or freedom.

Ex. “Animal Farm” George Orwell

Ambiguity (am-bi-gyoo-i-tee) The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

Atmosphere The emotional mood created by the

entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.

Anecdote A short narrative detailing particulars of

an interesting episode or event. The term most frequently refers to an incident in the life of a person.

Antithesis (an-tih-theh-sis)

Figure of balance in which two contrasting ideas are intentionally juxtaposed, usually through parallel structure; a contrasting of opposing ideas in adjacent phrases, clauses, or sentences. Antithesis creates a definite and systematic relationship between ideas.

Ex. “He is no fool who gives what he cannot keep to gain that which he cannot lose” – Jim Elliot

“That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind” - Neil Armstrong

Coherence

A principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible. Words, phrases, clauses within the sentence; and sentences, paragraphs, and chpters in larger pieces of writing are the unit that by their progressive and logical arrangement, make for coherence.

Antecedent (an-tuh-seed-nt)

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP Language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can sand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element to the other. You should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.

Conceit A fanciful expression, usually in the form

of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

Asyndeton (uh-sin-di-tuhn):

consists of omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. This can give the effect of unpremeditated multiplicity, of an extemporaneous rather than a labored account. Asyndetic lists can be more emphatic than if a final conjunction were used.

Ex. On his return he received medals, honors, treasures, titles, fame.

They spent the day wondering, searching, thinking, understanding.

Chiasmus (kahy-az-muhs)

(From the Greek word for “criss-cross,” a designation based on the Greek letter “chi,” written X). Chiasmus is a figure of speech in which two successive phrases or clauses are parallel in syntax, but reverse the order of the analogous words.

Ex. “The land was ours before we were the land’s” - Robert Frost (N, V, Pro: Pro, V, N)

“Pleasure’s a sin, and sometimes sin’s a pleasure” – Lord Byron

Connotation

The nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

Aphorism A terse statement of know authorship

which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.

Juxtaposition When two words, phrases,

images, ideas are placed close together or side by side for comparison or contrast.

Parallelism It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of

words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. A famous example of parallelism begins Charles Dickens’s novel A Tale of Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity . . .”

The effects are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.

Metonymy A term from the Greek meaning “changed label”

or “substitute name.” It is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it.

A news release that claims “the White House declared” rather that “the President declared” is using metonymy. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional response.

Paradox A statement that appears to be

self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.

Invective

An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language

Hyperbole A figure of speech using

deliberate exaggeration or overstatement.

Metaphor Figure of speech using implied

comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity.

Diction Related to style, this refers to the

writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness.

This, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style.

Euphemism From the Greek for “good

speech,” these are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept.

“Passed away” instead of “died”

Hypophora Figure of reasoning in which one or

more questions is/are asked and then answered, often at length, by one and the same speaker; raising and responding to one’s own question(s). A common usage is to ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use the paragraph to answer it.

Irony The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really

meant. The difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language;

(1) In a verbal irony, the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) true meaning. (2) In

situational irony, events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and the readers think ought to happen.

(3) In dramatic irony, facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction, but know to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it’s used to create poignancy or humor.

Figurative LanguageWriting or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid. (Similes and metaphors)

Pedantic An adjective that describes

words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

Loose Sentence A type of sentence in which the main

idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence.

Denotation The strict, literal, dictionary

definition of a word, devoid of any emotion attitude, or color.

Genre The major category into which a

literary work fits. (Prose, Poetry, and Drama)

Prose: novels and short stories, non-fiction essays, biographies, autobiographies

Poetry: lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc.

Drama: Tragedy, comedy, farce, etc.

Homily This term literally means

“sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

Narrative The telling of a story or an

account of an event or series of events.

Imagery The sensory details or figurative

language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, this uses terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery.

Words that appeal to the senses!

Oxymoron Groups of apparently

contradictory terms are paired together for effect. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.”

Inference / InferTo draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented.

Periodic Sentence A sentence that presents its central

meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. For example: “Ecstatic with my AP score, I let out a loud, joyful shout!” The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence.

Litotes (understatement) From the Greek word “simple” or

“plain.” A figure of thought in which a point is affirmed by negating its opposite.

Ex. He’s no fool (which implies he is wise).

Not uncommon (which implies that the act is frequent)

Rhetoric From the Greek for “orator,” this

term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

Syllogism From the Greek for “reckoning together,“ this

is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second, “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows;

  Major premise: All men are mortal Minor premise: Socrates is a man. Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Synecdoche Is a type of metaphor in which the part stands

for the whole, the whole for a part, the genus for the species, the species for the genus, the material for the thing made, or in short, any portion , section, or main quality for the whole or the thing itself (or vice versa).

If we had some wheels [whole vehicle], I’d put on my best threads [clothes] and ask for Jane’s hand

[hopefully her whole person] in marriage.

Symbol/symbolism Generally, anything that represents

itself and stands for something else. Usually it is something concrete – such as object, action, character, or scene – that represents something more abstract.

Tone Similar to mood, this describes the

author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. It is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and somber.

Prose One of the major divisions of genre,

this refers to fiction and non-fiction, including all its forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.

Personification A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. It is used to make these abstractions, animal, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

Sarcasm

From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” this involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony is a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic, that is, intended to ridicule. When well done, this can be witty and insightful; when done poorly, it’s simply cruel.

 

Rhetorical modes

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows:

Exposition (1) The purpose is to explain and analyze

information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics.

Argumentation (2) The purpose is to prove the validity

of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action.

Description (3) The purpose is to re-create, invent, or

visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture that being described..

Narration (4) The purpose is to tell a story or

narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing. These four modes are sometimes referred to as mode of discourse.

Polysyndeton Figure of addition and emphasis which

intentionally employs a series of conjunctions not normally found in successive words, phrases or clauses; the deliberate and excessive use of conjunctions in successive words or clauses. The effect is a feeling of multiplicity, energetic enumeration, and building up – a persistence or intensity.

Wit In modern usage, intellectually amazing language that surprises and delights. the speaker’s verbal power creates ingenious and perceptive remarks.

Repetition The duplication, either exact or

approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

Rhetorical Question

Differs from hypophora in that it is not answered by the writer because its answer is obvious or obviously desired, and usually just a yes or no answer would suffice. It is used for effect, emphasis, or provocation, or for drawing a conclusionary statement from the fact at hand.

UndertoneAn attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface, for example, a work may have threatening undertones.

Transition A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used

especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, this helps effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly and on the contrary. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition. We will discuss these methods later.

 

Syntax The way an author chooses to

join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. This is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of this as the groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words.

Semantics The branch of linguistics that

studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

Point of view In literature, the perspective from which a

story is told. There are two general divisions: (1) the first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. 2) the third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.” There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: omniscient and limited omniscient.

Understatement The ironic minimizing of fact. It presents

something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.

Ex. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake interrupted business somewhat in the downtown area.

Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse. – Jonathan Swift

Theme The central idea or message of a

work, the insight it offers into life. Usually it is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, it may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

Thesis In expository writing, this statement is

the sentence or a group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proved the thesis.

 

SatireA work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule.

StyleThe distinctive way in which a writer uses language: a writer’s distinctive use of diction, tone, and syntax.