Defi nition

Some might say that the rhetorical situation, an expression coined by Lloyd Bitzer, is the most important concept in writing.

According to Bitzer, all writing occurs within a rhetorical situation, and every rhe-torical situation has three components.

First, a rhetorical situation includes what he calls an “exigence,” or occasion for writing. More specifi cally, such an occasion carries with it both a sense of urgency and a promise that through writing, a composer can make a change to that situation.

Second (and while it may seem obvi-ous), a rhetorical situation includes an audi-ence that can be infl uenced by or react to the writing.

Rhetorical Situation

Third, a rhetorical situation by defi ni-tion has constraints, and they come in two forms. An author may bring certain con-straints to the writing, for example certain beliefs that infl uence how the author under-stands a given issue. Likewise, there are con-straints associated with the situation itself, for instance the frame of mind of the audi-ence or the environment in which they hear or read a text. Both of these constraints are part of the rhetorical situation because they can infl uence audience response and the po-tential of the writer to make change.

Importance in the Field

Although scholars disagree on which comes fi rst—the writing or the rhetorical situation—they agree that effective writers use the con-cept of the rhetorical situation throughout their composing processes. They use it as a way to frame a writing task, for example. And they use it as they compose, to be sure that their writing keeps its intended focus.

In sum, the rhetorical situation is the situation in which we all write—be it a text message; a resume; or a research project and poster.

Resources

Enos, Richard Leo. “The History of Rhetoric.” Coming of Age: The Advanced Writing Cur-riculum. Ed. Linda K. Shamoon, Rebecca Moore Howard, Sandra Jamieson, and Robert Schwegler. Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook, 2000. 81–86. Print.

Lowe, Kelly. “Against the Writing Major.” Com-position Studies 35.1 (2007): 97–98. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea A. “The Future of Writing Programs—and WPAs.” Plenary Address. Conference of the Council of WPA. Grand Hyatt, Denver. 10 July 2008. Address.

Subject

Composer Audience

Context

Text, Genre, Medium

College Composition and Communication

CCC

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Voice

Definition

Significance

Resources

Many students are familiar with the idea of voice in writing, especially given the promi-nence of voice as a criterion in high school writing tests. In some ways, the familiarity of this concept can be helpful since for many writers, creating a written voice through which to communicate with others is a use-ful way to think of writing. At the same time, writing involves more than writers express-ing themselves through voice: as important, it entails creating a voice that others can access, engage with, and interpret. And not least, voice as a concept in writing refers as well to the conventions defining it—in genres, in discourse communities, and in different media.

Most writers compose in many voices—a formal voice for academic purposes, one tai-

Albertini, John A., Bonnie Meath-Lang, and David P. Harris. “Voice as Muse, Message, and Medium: The Views of Deaf College Students.” Voices on Voice: Definitions, Perspectives, Inquiry. Ed. Kath-leen Blake Yancey. Urbana: NCTE, 1994. 172–90. Print.

Belenky, Mary Field, Blythe McVicker Clinchy, Nancy Rule Goldberger, and Jill Mattuck Terule. Women’s Ways of Knowing: The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind. New York: Basic Books, 1986. Print.

Elbow, Peter. “Voice in Writing Again: Embracing Contraries.” College English 70.2 (2007): 168–88. Print.

Eldred, Janet Carey. “The Technology of Voice.” Col-lege Composition and Communication 48.3 (1997): 334–47. Print.

Holmes, David G. Revisiting Racialized Voice: African American Ethos in Language and Literature. Car-bondale: Southern Illinois UP, 2004. Print.

Powers, John H., and Gwendolyn Gong. “East Asian Voice and the Expression of Cultural Ethos.” Voic-es on Voice: Definitions, Perspectives, Inquiry. Ed. Kathleen Blake Yancey. Urbana: NCTE, 1994. 202–25. Print.

Tardy, Christine M., and Paul Kei Matsuda. “The Construction of Author Voice by Editorial Board Members.” Written Communication 26.1 (2009): 32–52. Print.

lored to the specific rhetorical situation, for example, and an informal voice to a friend, one likely filled with familiar expressions and slang. A goal for writers, then, is to de-velop several voices and use the appropriate voice for a given task. Moreover, with the multiple languages used by many students, voice is increasingly becoming translingual, reflecting a multiplicity of experiences and cultures.

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