Non-traditional Expatriate Practice, Knowledge Transfer and Organisational Learning

An Examination of the Potential of Reverse Expatriation

Discipline of Work & Organisational Studies

University of Sydney

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

the degree of Bachelor of Commerce (Honours)

October 2010

Thomas P. Binetter

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Declaration

I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and

belief, it contains no material previously published or produced by another party in

fulfilment, partial or otherwise, of any other degree or diploma at another University or

institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text.

Thomas P. Binetter 29th October 2010

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Dedicated to my parents, who gave me this cherished opportunity.

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to express his gratitude to:

Dr. John Shields, Associate Professor and Associated Dean of Postgraduate Studies in the

Discipline of Work and Organisational Studies, Faculty of Economics and Business at the

University of Sydney, who not only afforded me the privilege of supervision, but provided a

level of guidance, advice and support of which I could have only dreamed.

Dr. Suzanne Jamieson, Associate Professor in the Discipline of Work and Organisational

Studies, Faculty of Economics and Business at the University of Sydney, Dr. Marian Baird,

Professor in the Discipline of Work and Organisational Studies, Faculty of Economics and

Business at the University of Sydney and Stephen J Perkins, Professor at the Business

School, University of Bedfordshire, for their encouragement and counsel throughout the year.

My research participants who generously offered both their time and knowledgeable insights,

and last but not least, to my friends and family for their love and support.

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Abstract

The relationship between acquired knowledge and its transfer between cross-border

assignees and their organisations is a theme surprisingly under-explored in current IHRM

literature. This study explores this relationship through a new variant of expatriate

management known as reverse expatriation. Reverse expatriation refers to a process in which

a home country national goes on an expatriate assignment to specifically gain knowledgeable

insights that he or she will be able to integrate into their home organisation as 'returning

nationals'. One of the claimed advantages of reverse expatriation is that it can facilitate

organisational learning in multinational firms at all stages of their placement by means of

systematic reflexive learning at both the individual and organisational level. In recognition of

this bi-directional process, this study examines the direct relationship between expatriate

practice, knowledge transfer and organisational learning, as well as the influence of a number

of proposed moderating factors: national cultures; organisational characteristics (structural

barriers/facilitators and communicative openness/inhibition); and use of e-technologies. To

investigate these mediated and moderated relationships, the study draws on evidence

obtained by means of 23 semi-structured interviews with individual expatriates. Results

generally support the view that new forms of non-traditional expatriation, including reverse

expatriation, are able to enhance organisational learning by overcoming the 'stickiness' of bi-

directional knowledge transfer associated with traditional expatriate practice. The evidence is

also used to test eight additional hypotheses relating to the multifaceted internal and external

environment in which expatriate knowledge transfer occurs. Results here support the finding

that knowledge transfer is mediated rather than assured, with closer consideration of

organisational and wider cultural characteristics reflecting important implications for IHRM

theory and practice.

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Table of Contents

Declaration ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgements iv

Abstract v

Table of Contents vi

List of Abbreviations ix

Chapter One

Introduction 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Research Aims 2

1.3 Chapter Structure 4

1.4 Conclusion 5

Chapter Two

Existing Propositions, Evidence and Interpretations 6

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Knowledge and Knowledge Transfer 6

2.2.1 Knowledge and International Human Resource Management (IHRM)

2.2.2 Definitional Constraints and Implications for Theory and Practice

2.2.3 The Emergent Literature on Knowledge Management in IHRM

2.2.4 Types of Knowledge: Tacit & Explicit

2.2.5 Insights Offered by the "Knowledge-based View of the Firm"

2.2.6 Internal 'Stickiness'

2.2.7 Expatriates, Repatriates and Knowledge Transfer

2.3 Reverse Expatriation - An Under-examined Dimension of IHRM 14

2.4 The Knowledge Gap on Reverse Expatriation and Knowledge Transfer 18

2.5 Moderating Influences on Knowledge Transfer 20

2.5.1 National Cultures and Power Distance

2.5.2 National Cultures and Adjustment

2.6 Organisational Characteristics and Knowledge Transfer - Organisational 23

Culture and Communicative Openness / Inhibition

2.6.1 Organisational Culture

2.6.2 Organisational Culture and Learning Development

2.6.3 Organisational Culture, Learning and Communicative Openness

2.7 Organisational Characteristics - Structural Barriers / Facilitators 26

2.8 Communicative e-Technologies 29

2.9 Conclusion 32

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Chapter Three

Research Hypotheses and a Proposed Integrative Model 33

3.1 Introduction 33

3.2 Key Hypotheses 34

3.2.1 Reverse Expatriation, Knowledge Transfer, Organisational Learning

and Competitive Advantage

3.2.2 National Cultures

3.2.3 Cross Border Placement and Organisational Characteristics

3.2.3.1 Structural Barriers/Facilitators

3.2.3.2 Communicative Openness

3.2.4 Communicative e-Technologies

3.3 Towards an Integrative Model 40

3.4 Conclusion 42

Chapter Four

Research Methodology 44

4.1 Introduction 44

4.2 Research Design and Method 44

4.3 Interviewee Recruitment 45

4.4 Interviewee Sample 45

4.5 Interview Process 48

4.6 Informant Anonymity 49

4.7 Conclusion 50

Chapter Five

The Relationship Between Expatriate Practice, Knowledge Transfer and

Organisational Learning: Results and analysis 51

5.1 Introduction 51

5.2 Evidence on Cross-Border Placement in General, Knowledge Transfer and

Organisational Learning 51

5.2.1 Respondent's Commentary on Knowledge Arising from Cross-Border

Placement Generally

5.2.2 Overcoming 'Stickiness': Organisational Initiatives Concerning The

Transfer of Knowledge

5.3 The Specific Value of Reverse Expatriation in Knowledge Transfer and 58

Organisational Learning (H1a and H1b)

5.4 Conclusion 62

Chapter Six

The Influence of National Culture, Organisational Characteristics and

e- Technology: Results and analysis 63

6.1 Introduction 63

6.2 National Cultures (H2a and H2b) 63

6.2.1 National Cultures and Expatriate Practice

6.2.2 Cross-Cultural Training Between National Cultures

6.2.3 Findings Relating to the Role of National Culture

6.3 Organisational Characteristics 68

6.3.1 Structural Barriers/Facilitators (H3a and H3b)

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6.3.2 Organisational Characteristics - Communicative Openness/Inhibition

(H4a and H4b)

6.3.2.1 Organisational Culture and Communicative Openness

6.3.2.2 Organisational Culture and Reflexivity

6.4 Use of e-Technologies 76

6.4.1 The Potential Value of e-Technologies in Expatriate Practice

6.4.2 e-Technologies Used in Cross-Border Assignments

6.4.3 e-Technologies and Face-to-Face Contact

6.5.4 e-Technology, Knowledge Transfer and Organisational Learning

6.4 Conclusion 82

Chapter Seven

Conclusion 83

7.1 Introduction 83

7.2 Major Findings 83

7.3 Implications for IHRM Theory 86

7.4 Implications for IHRM Practice 87

7.5 Limitations and Scope for Further Research 88

7.6 Conclusion 90

Bibliography 91

Appendix

Appendix A - Interviewee Data 103

Appendix B - Interview Schedule 106

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List of Abbreviations

HR Human Resources

HREC Human Research Ethics Committee

HRM Human Resource Management

IHRM International Human Resource Management

IT Information Technology

MNC Multi-National Corporation

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

PD Geert Hofstede's Cultural Dimension of Power Distance

PDI Geert Hofstede's Power Distance Index

VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol

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Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction

While the management of expatriate employees is now one of the central concerns of

human resource management in multinational firms, the treatment of acquired knowledge

and its transfer between returning cross-border assignees and their organisation is a

dimension of expatriate management that warrants closer consideration. This transfer of

knowledge is of considerable importance to expatriate effectiveness since it stands to

maximise the employing firm's return on investment from cross border placement. A survey

of recent studies in the IHRM literature suggests a considerable degree of fragility in this

relationship, with organisational learning initiatives designed to fully adopt, transfer and

utilise the knowledge gained from expatriates seemingly falling well short of expectations.

This study examines the phenomenon of expatriate-related knowledge transfer, highlighting

the factors that may influence the effectiveness with which knowledge is transferred, the

issues surrounding knowledge dissemination and integration, and the ramifications this has

for expatriate management more broadly. This thesis draws together two hitherto distinct

conceptual orientations, namely theories on expatriate practice and organisational learning,

with the aim of proposing new possibilities that result from this re-conceptualisation.

The study pays particular attention to the phenomenon of reverse expatriation, a

practice which has so far attracted only limited research interest. Reverse expatriation, the

most recent instance of non-traditional expatriation, explores the role of 'returning nationals'

(Rego 2008:1) who are able to utilise and integrate their gained global knowledge back into

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their home (i.e. place of origin) organisation. This form of expatriation promises to widen

the possibilities for knowledge transfer by way of a reflexive, bi-directional approach to the

knowledge that is gained from the various stages of assignment, from pre-departure through

to formal repatriation. This, in turn, stands to extend the capacity of non-traditional

expatriation by opening new avenues by which knowledge may be transferred and

integrated to the benefit of the multinational organisation.

1.2 Research Aims

All research is itself a journey of learning, and this thesis is no different in that

respect. The study originally intended to examine the use of reverse expatriation in practice,

however the concept's infancy and relative obscurity as a documented practice necessitated

an alteration in research focus to discussion of the significant potential of reverse

expatriation. Despite this, the study offers relevant insights into the phenomenon, as our

sample consists of a diverse range of non-traditional expatriate practitioners who were able

to offer valuable insights into the latent potential of reverse expatriation. As such, the study

helps to illuminate the challenges of reverse expatriation by connecting its (still limited)

conceptual treatment in the academic literature with current IHRM practice. Additionally,

by exploring reverse expatriation as a developing practice, this study sheds new light on its

role in the dissemination of knowledge and the role this has for IHRM effectiveness in

broader contexts.

This thesis also connects a number of typically detached conceptions pertinent to a

study of knowledge transfer and its relevance to the use of non-traditional expatriation in

contemporary IHRM. In exploring the role of knowledge transfer as a mediator between

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expatriate practice and organisational learning, we investigate a number of hypothesised

moderators of this relationship, including the roles of national culture, organisational

structure, culture and use of e-technology. This approach allows for a stipulation of some of

the environmental conditions that may be most (or least) conducive to effective knowledge

transfer. In turn, this permits identification of the particular organisational environment, or

environments, that may be best suited to the use of non-traditional expatriate practice.

Specifically, the main aims of this thesis are:

to consider the potential of reverse expatriation as a tool to overcome the 'stickiness'

of knowledge transfer in contemporary IHRM theory and practice;

to explore the role of national culture as a moderating influence on cross-border

knowledge transfer;

to analyse the effect that certain organisational structures have on expatriate practice,

knowledge transfer and organisational learning;

to investigate the importance of communicative 'openness' as a moderating influence

on knowledge transfer; and

to survey the contemporary use of e-technologies as an additional mechanism of

knowledge transfer.

These key aims are considered through the utilisation of nine research hypotheses that serve

as the core research component of this thesis.

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1.3 Chapter Structure

The following chapter reviews the key literature relevant to the study. Beginning

with an examination of scholarly approaches to knowledge, that chapter addresses the

existing literature on knowledge transfer and its role as a key link between expatriate

practice and organisational learning. The chapter also provides a discussion of the potential

of non-traditional forms of expatriation, specifically reverse expatriation, as a means of

enhancing the organisational benefits of cross-border placement. This is followed by an

analysis of the literature related to key ancillary factors that may influence this relationship,

namely national culture, organisational characteristics (structural barriers/facilitators and

communicative openness/inhibitors) and e-technology.

Building on existing ideas and evidence, Chapter 3 draws the key variables together

into a tentative explanatory model. This model depicts the mediating relationship between

expatriate practice, knowledge transfer and organisational learning, and the moderating

influences which may impact these elements. The chapter also specifies our key hypotheses

and research aims.

Chapter 4 describes the methodology used to generate evidence to test the above

hypotheses. This includes discussion of the chosen semi-structured interviewing qualitative

approach, the sampling procedure used, data relating to the interviewees, (including

placement, country of origin, other country experience, job roles and other relevant

demographics), and the manner in which data was recorded and analysed.

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Chapters 5 and 6 present the results of the research and discuss its relevance to

answering our key research hypotheses, with Chapter 5 addressing our primary hypotheses

(H1a and H1b) and Chapter 6 addressing the remaining hypotheses. Results indicate

significant support for the use of reverse expatriation as a mechanism to overcome the

'stickiness' of knowledge transfer in cross-border placements, and evidence the most ideal

conditions that may assist in making this transfer as seamless as possible.

The concluding chapter entails some concluding remarks, limitations and scope for

future research. The concluding remarks contain a summary of collected findings and

discussion of implications for IHRM theory and practice. Additional suggestions include

encouraging the use of reverse expatriation as a useful form of additional cross-border

knowledge transfer and promoting certain organisational environments in which reverse

expatriation may best operate. Limitations of the study are described, creating an

opportunity for further research.

1.4 Conclusion

This introductory chapter established the key focus of this thesis. The following

chapter explores the relevant literature associated with these core issues, which will serve as

a basis for its empirical research.

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Chapter 2

Existing Propositions, Evidence and Interpretations

2.1 Introduction

An examination of the developing literature on knowledge transfer and its potential

role in organisational learning demonstrates that this is a complex and multifaceted area of

study. This chapter examines the existing literature on knowledge, including its

management and transfer, expatriate practice, including novel forms of expatriate

management and discussions on relevant organisational characteristics (particularly

structural barriers/facilitators and communicative openness/inhibition, national culture and

use of e-technologies). This review of current research will also serve to highlight critical

gaps and ambiguities in existing concepts and evidence on the association between cross-

border placement, knowledge transfer and organisational learning.

2.2 Knowledge and Knowledge Transfer

2.2.1 Knowledge and international human resource management (IHRM)

This section examines existing studies of the nature and significance of knowledge

and its transfer in contemporary IHRM. Consideration is given to conceptual discussions of

knowledge, its variants, uses, and the problems associated with its application in traditional

expatriate management. Complementing this analysis will be a consideration of reverse

expatriation, including its fragmentary treatment in the literature and its recent application to

IHRM practices. This will then enable the formulation of a number of key propositions

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regarding where the literature may be furthered with a view to developing new insights for

knowledge transfer and its role in expatriate management and, ultimately, organisational

learning.

2.2.2 Definitional constraints and implications for theory and practice

While one does not have to go far in the literature to see knowledge management

regarded as "one of the key organisational strategies of the firm" (Beaverstock, 2004:157),

what is surprising is the variety of interpretations and vagueness that surrounds its precise

definition. Bonache and Zarraga-Oberty note that whilst the term knowledge management is

"widely used by practitioners and academics, it is usually relatively loosely defined in the

literature" (2008:157). Brown and Duguid expand on this to suggest that the literature

"presents a sharply contrasting and even contradictory view of knowledge"(2001:198) while

Bonache and Brewster label knowledge management as "context generalisable" (2001:149).

Kostova's definition regards knowledge management as representing "particular ways of

conducting organisational functions that have evolved over time under the influence of an

organisation's history, people, interests and actions and that have become institutionalised in

the organisation" (1999:5). Though broad, Kostova's definition provides a useful starting

point encompassing the input, output and throughput processes (Bonache and Zarraga-

Oberty, 2008:5) that constitute the management of knowledge in contemporary

organisations.

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2.2.3 The emergent literature on knowledge management in IHRM

An analysis of existing treatments of knowledge transfer in international

assignments suggests that the issue is under-scrutinised by researchers. Riusala and Suutari

have noted that the increasing global integration of business activities has created a situation

where requirements for learning effective knowledge transfer methods and processes have

become even more important than in the past (2004:743). Yet, despite this, these authors

comment that the expatriate's role in this process remains largely misunderstood (Ibid.).

This is also noted by Tahvanainen who adds that "the research literature in this area is

scarce" (2000:268), and also by Beaverstock, who described progress in the field "slow"

(2004:157). Further, Bonache and Brewster comment that the "area has long been criticised

as lacking analytical rigor" (2001:146). Brewster, Sparrow and Harris suggest that this could

be due to an initial IHRM focus on the management of expatriates rather than their use as

drivers of knowledge transfer (2005:950). These authors also suggest that increasing

reliance on strategic partnerships and joint ventures, coupled with trends towards

localisation, has made the need to understand how IHRM is delivered in different country

contexts increasingly important (Ibid).

The treatment of knowledge in the IHRM literature has lead the way for new

applications to take place, including its potential to be applied to expatriate management.

Bonache and Brewster's seminal 2001 article examines the relationship between knowledge

transfer and expatriate management at a conceptual level. These authors suggest that since

characteristics of knowledge directly affect expatriation policies, "the transfer of expatriates

can be hypothesized as a form of knowledge transfer" (2001:162). They support this claim

by suggesting that of the three elements transferred within multi-national enterprises

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(product, capital and knowledge), knowledge bears the closest connection to human

resources (Ibid:146). The connection established by Bonache and Brewster acknowledges

knowledge transfer as a natural fit and suitable as a mechanism for use in international

assignments (Ibid). In turn, these considerations have opened new possibilities for further

study of knowledge and its relationship to expatriate management in HRM.

2.2.4 Types of Knowledge: Tacit & Explicit

The developing literature on knowledge has in recent years focused on a breakdown

into two distinct categories, each with ramifications for its potential transfer and role in

IHRM. Tacit knowledge represents that which is "embedded in the experience and skills of

the organisation's members and is only revealed through its application" (Bonache and

Zarraga-Oberty, 2008:7).This can be contrasted with explicit knowledge which is "highly

codified and transmittable in formal, systematic language" (Dhanaraj et al, 2004:430),

making it more resistant to the potential integration problem that may affect tacit knowledge

due to the former's "inherent communicability" (Grant, 1996:379).

Although Nonaka and Takeuchi's "knowledge conversion" model (1995:643)

acknowledges the possibility of transfer between the two knowledge forms, expatriate

management is largely concerned with tacit knowledge, since it is deeply rooted in the

individual's experiences gained from his or her international assignments (2001:149). This

quality, however, makes tacit knowledge less visible and demonstrable, creating an

environment where interpersonal communication and sharing is difficult (Ibid:149). As

such, it has been characterised in the literature as a "slow, costly and uncertain [process that]

may require numerous individual exchanges" (Riusala and Suutari, 2004:747-748) and

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hence, as being largely unusable. Even so, tacit knowledge has considerable potential in

cross-border assignments due to its interconnectedness with an expatriate's learned and/or

gained experience.

2.2.5 Insights offered by the "knowledge-based view of the firm"

The "emerging view of the multinational firm as an institution for integrating

knowledge" (Riusala and Suutari, 2004:748) has also been conceptualised in what has now

become known as the "knowledge-based view of the firm" (Grant, 1996:109). The concept

broadens the traditional "resource-based view" (Wernerfelt, 1984:171) associated with

strategic management practice and incorporates the cross-border dimension of knowledge,

which can be correlated with expatriation. Bonache and Zarraga-Oberty note this possibility

by suggesting that the resource-based view is itself open to the use of knowledge, as

"international strategy is dictated less than market opportunities than by the organisation's

own knowledge " (2008:6). This is because knowledge itself can be classified as valuable,

rare, inimitable and non-substitutable, qualities that, according to the resource-based view,

can form an essential component of sustained competitive advantage for a firm (Wright et

al, 1994:301). The advantage conferred then allows firms to "develop knowledge in one

location and exploit it in other locations, implying the internal transfer of knowledge from

the source to the recipient unit" (Bonache and Zarraga-Oberty, 2008:6). Such potential

advantages thus suggest that the resource-based view of the firm may hold salience to

IHRM theory in the form of the knowledge-based view.

Riusala and Suutari highlight the importance of the knowledge-based view of the

firm by emphasizing the firm's capacity to integrate and transfer knowledge (2004:743).

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This firm-specific knowledge can then be utilised as a form of competitive advantage, not

only in the present and future but also across multiple markets. Bonache and Brewster

suggest that the process of internationalisation will expose the company and allow it to

apply its specific developed knowledge to generate new expertise (2001:149). From here,

knowledge is justified as representing an "organisation's most strategically significant

resource" (Riusala and Smale, 2007:17) and a source of distinct competitive advantage.

More broadly, the knowledge-based view of the firm has allowed a new conceptual

approach to the treatment of knowledge in firms. Grant sees knowledge as residing within

the individual rather than the organisation as a whole, with the latter presumed to be

primarily knowledge applicators rather than knowledge creators (1996:109). By focusing on

the role of the individual as a key knowledge transmitter, the process of expatriation has

greater potential and strategic importance as a potentially highly effective knowledge

transfer mechanism (Riusala and Smale, 2007:19). This approach creates new possibilities

for expatriation processes to align with knowledge management. With this in mind, a

detailed examination of new expatriation processes also promises to generate new insights

into the treatment of knowledge at the multinational level.

2.2.6 Internal Stickiness

One of the key issues surrounding the treatment of knowledge in HRM is that of

'internal stickiness' (Brown and Duguid, 2001:198). A dimension that, up until recently, has

received "little systematic attention" (Szulanski, 1996:27), internal stickiness examines

factors which may inhibit successful knowledge transfer. These factors have been

categorised according to characteristics of knowledge, including "codifiability, teachability,

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complexity" (Kogut and Zander, 1993, 1995, cited in Riusala and Smale, 2007:16) and

relationship factors. Szulanski notes the recipient's lack of absorptive capacity, causal

ambiguity and an arduous relationship between source and recipient (Szulanski, 1996:27) as

potential barriers to successful implementation of internal knowledge, which may prevent

firms from achieving competitive advantage associated with the knowledge-based view of

the firm. Yet however it is approached, Riusala and Smale note that "stickiness has come to

represent an aggregate measure of multiple factors that impede transfer" (2007:17) and,

further, that such internal transfers are more often than not unsuccessful (Riusala and

Suutari, 2004:745). This difficulty creates a challenge to international approaches to

knowledge transfer as new factors such as external or cross-border stickiness may come into

play.

In contrast, a reflexive approach may assist organisations in overcoming difficulties

associated with knowledge 'stickiness'. Brannick and Coghlan define reflexivity in terms of

an organisation's "upstream and downstream reflection" (Brannick & Coghlan, 2006:152).

The authors suggest that reflexivity represents the "realness of learning action" (Ibid:153) as

a means of building on gained knowledge and the integration of that newly acquired

knowledge into the learning development strategies of a firm. A learning organisation may

be able to utilise devices such as "feedback loops" (Argyris, 1977:115) as a responsive tool

that is able to integrate this gained knowledge into the practices of the firm, thereby helping

to address the problem of internal stickiness through the process of ongoing reflection and

improvement. In this light, a reflexive approach may assist in the transfer of tacit knowledge

as it is able to reduce the stickiness of knowledge transfer through dynamic, responsive

learning strategies and systems.

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2.2.7 Expatriates, Repatriates and Knowledge Transfer

The process of repatriation is a fundamental component in deriving additional

competitive value for multi-national corporations through knowledge transfer. Regarded as

having an "irreplaceable role in organisational learning, [repatriates can] accelerate the

transfer of knowledge because they possess first-hand knowledge of particular cultural

contexts" (Stroh, 1995:453, Lazarova and Caligiuri, 2000:389). Tacit knowledge benefits

from specificity and primary experience based on the repatriate's completed international

assignments and, if utilised, this process has the potential to help accelerate the transfer of

knowledge between home and host country (Lazarova and Caligiuri, 2000:390).

An inspection of the empirical literature, however, suggests that such a transfer is

not always so seamless, as the issue of repatriate turnover creates a barrier to full integration

of learned knowledge (Kraimer, Shaffer and Bolino, 2009:27). Jassawalla and Sashittal note

high levels of post-assignment dissatisfaction among repatriates, with "a significant

percentage leaving the firm within a year" (2009:769). These authors suggest that this could

be the result of differences in expectations between organisation and repatriate, and since

most expatriates return to their old jobs or to lateral available positions when they return,

"their re-absorption sharply discounts their newly gained experiences" learnt whilst on

assignment (Ibid:769-773). As such, the repatriation process can be seen as potentially

damaging to knowledge transfer unless repatriates are given an opportunity to integrate their

newly acquired knowledge into the organisation.

Numerous remedies have been proposed in the literature to address the issue of

repatriate failure. Kraimer et al note the now commonplace offering of career advancement

14

as an expectation that will positively "affect the repatriate's perceived underemployment and

turnover intentions" (Kraimer, Shaffer and Bolino, 2009:27). Yet whilst this may boost the

morale of the repatriate, it may also constitute a barrier to knowledge transfer, since

opportunities to integrate the repatriate's tacit knowledge may be suppressed or even

removed by new work roles. An alternative prescription proposed by Lazarova and Caligiuri

is that organisational support is key to the retention of repatriates (2000:394). These authors

have commented that in order to capitalise on repatriate's skills and knowledge "MNC's

need to cultivate a global vision and corporate culture that... values international experience

and its contribution to the strategic development of the company" (Ibid:398). With this in

mind it can be suggested that a receptive, reflective and reflexive learning organisation

would be the most suitable environment to integrate the knowledge gained during expatriate

assignments and transform this into competitive advantage.

2.3 Reverse Expatriation - An Under-examined Dimension of IHRM

The preceding review of the literature on knowledge transfer and its relevance to

cross-border placements has taken into account many of the recognised variants of

expatriate management. Recently, however, a new approach has begun to gain momentum;

an approach which may overcome some of the applied issues surrounding knowledge

transfer and its role in both expatriate and repatriate failure. This dimension is 'reverse

expatriation'.

Reverse expatriation is an innovative concept and practice extending the capacity

and capabilities of traditional expatriate management. Despite its apparent contemporary

relevance, however, very little academic research has been undertaken on the subject. First

15

referred to in the academic literature in the early 1990s (Yates, 1992), reverse expatriation

allows for new insights to be gained for both home and host country nationals wishing to

improve their own work and organisational processes through a dynamic, reflexive medium.

In its current form, reverse expatriation refers to a process in which a home country

national goes on an expatriate assignment to a host country, not to establish a settled

presence in that destination, but rather to gain knowledgeable insights that he or she will be

able to bring back to the home country in order to improve the organisational processes of

the home country organisation (Rego, 2008:1). These 'reverse expatriates' can be thought of

as "'returning nationals' [who benefit from] utilising their gained global experience outside

of their home country" (Ibid.) in the hope of improving their own home organisation's

capacities and HR strategies.

The term itself has undergone considerable development since its first mention in

academic literature and, considering its relative newness, this reflects a significant shift in

attitudes towards expatriate management in an increasingly globalised world. Identified by

means of survey feedback undertaken by Yates in the early 1990s (1992:1), reverse

expatriation was first conceived as a supplement to repatriation and although the concepts

are still closely related, the former has opened up new potential for the treatment of

knowledge. Feist's (1999) analysis clarifies the concept's essence, that being the "inculcation

of a local manager with the cultural values of [another nation's] organisation [which can]

prepare the local manager to become a potential global manager" (Feist, 1999:75). This

reflects a transfer of intrinsic tacit knowledge, a capability that goes beyond the capacity of

other forms of expatriate management by way of closer global integration.

16

As reverse expatriation has received little academic coverage overall, there have

been calls for its inclusion in the literature. Bonache, Brewster and Suutari's study highlights

what they consider to be the future of expatriate management by making predictions as to

where the field is heading (Bonache et al, 2001). In their study, the authors note Gregersen

et al's observation of the "increasing internationalisation of business," (Gregersen, Morrison

and Black, 1998) and the subsequent shift in the nature of employment which has created a

new operational environment where innovative approaches to expatriation are both possible

and needed. Until now it has been suggested that "most studies in the expatriate literature

fail to analyse the relationship that exists between expatriation policies and the international

strategy of the company" (Bonache, et al, 2001:3). These authors also allude to the lack of a

dynamic bi-directional process of expatriation in the current literature, an element which

reverse expatriation incorporates. Additional shortfalls in the literature, including a tendency

to analyse dimensions of expatriation independently from one another and neglecting a

strategic approach (Ibid:3-4), also point to areas warranting further examination. In this

way, reverse expatriation allows for new approaches to these shortfalls in the hope of

closing gaps in the expatriate management literature.

Other authors have also supported the need for further study on reverse expatriation.

Bartlett and Ghoshal (1992) have argued that international companies and their strategic

objectives must pursue three complementary aims beyond the realm of non-international

organisations to maximise effectiveness: (i) local responsiveness; (ii) global integration; and

(iii) innovation through a learning organisation (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1992). These three

objectives each have features which overlap with, and could be enriched by, the developing

concept and practice of reverse expatriation. These also have relevance for the study of

knowledge and its transfer in international organisations. For instance, a firm with a high

17

level of local responsiveness (Luo, 2001:451) would benefit from having employees that

can build on their local knowledge with alternate viewpoints that they may have gained

from outside the organisation's more traditional or domestic operations.

Similarly, global integration, seen as a growing phenomena (Kim et al, 2003:327),

could be further enhanced through the use of reverse expatriates who are able to go beyond

the scope of traditional expatriation by creating a two-way responsive body of international

tacit knowledge. Individuals could bring the newfound knowledge and experience acquired

abroad to their organisations and use this to help spur on innovative developments within it

(Dodgson, 1993:375). Such progress, however, could only be made possible in a learning

organisation that is receptive to the expansion of knowledge and the development of

reflexive learning practices. In light of this, it can be suggested that firms will not all equally

be able to gain from the benefits of additional knowledge transfer via reverse expatriation; it

may be that only those with such openness will benefit.

Reverse expatriation has also been considered by authors who assert its potential

suitability in certain environments where use of traditional expatriates would be ineffective.

Nohria and Ghoshal (1994:492) comment that "in specific situations, such as when there is

political or cultural risk, companies can choose to send an expatriate who will help the

central organisation to understand local conditions and to control subsidiary operations".

Although this early comment predates discussion of the term "reverse expatriate", this

scenario is one where its use would be highly appropriate. Reverse expatriates would be

able to assist their home organisation in adjusting to new host-country challenges by

integrating their tacit knowledge learnt abroad. While, Harvey, Speier and Novicevic

(1999:461) have suggested that inpatriation could address such a transfer, this would lack

18

the reflexive dimension that a reverse expatriate could offer. Inpatriation may be

characterised by one-way knowledge-transfer towards the organisation whereas transfer in

reverse expatriation has more potential to be bi-directional, utilising both tacit learned

experience and explicit written knowledge from multiple perspectives and combining these

in such a fashion to best benefit the organisation's organisational learning aims. In this

fashion, reverse expatriation is able to build on the potential of non-traditional expatriation

typologies, such as inpatriation, repatriation and flexpatriation (Mayerhofer et al, 2004:646).

2.4 The Knowledge Gap on Reverse Expatriation and Knowledge Transfer

The preceding analysis has identified a multitude of issues within the fields of

knowledge and expatriate management. In doing so, several gaps in the literature have been

identified, including the under-utilisation of knowledge in cross-border placements and the

possibilities opened up by use of reverse expatriation.

Bonache and Brewster (2001) have specified a set of unanswered research questions

that have significant relevance to the study of knowledge transfer and its role in cross-

border placements. This includes questions surrounding the rise of expatriation, despite

increasing and cheaper information technology and e-technologies (Ibid:145), the

overemphasis of technical capabilities as a recruitment criterion (Ibid:148) and the varying

impacts of international assignments on repatriated careers (Ibid). Such questions seem to

suggest that knowledge transfer may have a more substantial role to play in expatriate

management than has hitherto been acknowledged. Certainly the rise of expatriation in an

increasingly complex environment, points to the value that tacit knowledge may bring to

19

IHRM. However this can be contrasted with the under-prioritisation of tacit knowledge as a

key career driver upon repatriation.

With a view to addressing these important questions, this thesis examines the

possibility that a stronger focus on the potential of tacit knowledge may serve to enhance

organisational learning and value at all stages of cross-border assignments. This is a similar

expectation to that put forth by Riusala and Smale who point to the "multifaceted, cross-

functional and personally changing" (2007:34) dimensions of expatriate management with

implications for future research. They comment that "there still exists a need for more

empirical research into factors that can hinder or enhance the value-adding activities of

expatriates when viewed as mechanisms of knowledge transfer" (Ibid:35). Despite the

breadth of literature on the subject, the authors suggest that knowledge transfer has the

capability to open up new research into cross-border placements and help to address some

of the issues surrounding this field.

Reverse expatriation may also contribute further to the unanswered questions of

cross-border assignments. Makela suggests that we must look beyond repatriation to better

understand expatriate relationships (2007:113). Bonache, Brewster and Suutari echo this by

suggesting that we need additional research into new patterns of expatriation (2007:12).

This is more specifically addressed by Minbaeva and Michailova, who comment that "what

remains under-researched is whether different types of expatriate assignments influence

knowledge transfer in different ways" (2004:663). They comment that the current "literature

is silent on whether and how the new forms of international working influence knowledge

transfer" (Ibid) leaving open possibilities of new research into these alternate forms, such as

reverse expatriation, to address this void.

20

The unanswered questions concerning the relationship between new forms of

expatriation, specifically reverse expatriation, and the knowledge transfer mechanism,

certainly warrant further theorising and closer empirical investigation.

2.5 Moderating Influences on Knowledge Transfer

The preceding sections have highlighted the emerging treatments of knowledge,

knowledge transfer and reverse expatriation and their overarching potential to serve as latent

new sources of organisational development and competitive advantage. Yet attention must

also be paid to ancillary factors that may create both barriers and opportunities for these

learning synergies to be maximised in both the origin and destination country. The

following sections examine the existing treatments of the potential influence of three such

factors, namely (i) national culture, (ii) organisational characteristics (structural

barriers/facilitators and communicative openness/inhibition) and (iii) use of e-technologies

in cross-border settings. A consideration of existing work on these additional influences

may allow us to formulate testable propositions regarding the extent to which these factors

moderate the influence of expatriate practice on organisational learning in both home and

host location.

2.5.1 National Cultures and Power Distance

National culture, "the collective mental programming of the people in an

environment" (Hofstede 1991, in Perkins and Shortland, 2006:55), is a key consideration in

cross-border placement that warrants consideration in any study of the relationship between

21

knowledge transfer, cross-border placement and organisational learning between home and

host country. Beechler and Yang (1994, in Liu 2004:502) note that "it is extremely difficult,

if not impossible, to transfer some practices between two countries with different national

cultures". However, this also suggests that it may be crucial to gauge the influence of

national cultural differences in the process of knowledge transfer. Fortunately, there are a

number of widely used models and measures which may assist in an analysis of national

cultures' influence on knowledge transfer, expatriate practice and organisational learning.

One of the most prominent models of cultural differences is that formulated by Geert

Hofstede (1983). Hofstede identifies five dimensions of national culture: power distance;

individualism/collectivism; masculinity/femininity; uncertainty avoidance; and long/short

term orientation (1983:75). Of these five dimensions, that which appears to have

particularly strong salience in relation to cross-border knowledge transfer is power distance

(PD).

Power distance has been defined as "the extent to which a culture accepts

inequalities in the distribution of power" (Perkins and Shortland, 2006:56). As such, it

allows for a gauging of national attitudes towards phenomena such as equality, upward

mobility and societal constructs, such as class based divisions (Tsai, 1992:441). This will

assist in an examination of expatriate placement and the knowledge transfer that results

because "the prospects for transferring employment relations and work practices between

economies are influenced not so much by the forces of competition as by the legacy of

national practices" (Perkins and Shortland, 2006:209). With this in mind, PD, as a measure

of national culture, appears to be a factor of potentially high importance to expatriate

practice and the treatment of knowledge.

22

2.5.2 National Cultures and Adjustment

Of specific relevance to national cultures and IHRM is the concept of cross-cultural

adjustment, a "multidimensional phenomenon [that] can be identified in psychological,

socio-cultural and work domains" (Aycan, 1997:434). Cross-cultural adjustment can be

defined as "the extent to which individuals are psychologically comfortable living outside of

their home country" (Caligiuri, 2000:63). Aycan (1997) suggests that cross-cultural

adjustment is likely to be "influenced by both the expatriate manager's characteristics and

the organisational approach to expatriation" (1997:434). Thus, as well as the degree of

difference between home and host national cultures (i.e. the 'gap'), an individual's

adjustment may be influenced by the destination organisation, as well as the individual's

own characteristics. Cross-cultural adjustment can be considered a vital component that

provides a gateway for effective expatriation and consequently, the success and/or failure of

cross-cultural adjustment to a new host or home national culture will have ramifications for

knowledge transfer and any potential it may play in organisational learning more broadly.

Building on this qualification, it can be suggested that effective knowledge transfer

between expatriates and organisations requires management that appreciates the role that

cross-cultural adjustment may play in both intercultural/expatriate training programs and

wider organisational culture. Cross-cultural adjustment may be of critical importance for

expatriate and organisational managers in facilitating cross-border placement, and

consequently, assignment effectiveness in the short, medium and long term. Further, it can

be postulated that cross-cultural adjustment, by increasing the chances of effective

23

knowledge transfer, may lead to sound IHRM practice and ultimately, organisational

learning.

2.6 Organisational Characteristics and Knowledge Transfer - Organisational Culture

and Communicative Openness/Inhibition

2.6.1 Organisational Culture

Organisational cultures present researchers with both significant challenges and

promising opportunities for further theoretical development. The challenges are associated,

in large part, with the concept's definitional ambiguity (Smircich, 1983:339, cited in

Gordon, 1991:396). Nevertheless, efforts have been made to present working definitions

which highlight the agreeable elements that shape organisational environments. Wilcoxson

and Millett suggest that "cultures are based in history, developing over time as groups

establish patterns of behaviour and belief that seem effective in helping them to interpret

and interact with the world in which they find themselves" (2000:92). Gordon

conceptualises organisational culture as an "organisation-specific system of widely shared

assumptions and values that give rise to typical behaviour patterns" (1991:397). Further,

Wilcoxson and Millet theorise organisational culture as being "born within the context of

broader cultural contexts such as national or ethnic groupings" (2000:91). With this

definitional interconnectedness in mind, it seems intuitive to suggest that organisational

culture, IHRM and organisational learning are very closely interlinked.

This connection assumes further validity when one considers the actors that instigate

change in organisational cultures in cross-border contexts. Starting with a surface-level link,

24

Altinay and Altinay note that leadership should undertake the role of creating a 'positive

culture' where new ideas are encouraged and supported (2004:336). This posits that leaders,

as 'agents of change' (Weick & Quinn 1999:361), can assume the role of drivers of

organisational learning and development. Building on this, and the notion that human

resources represents the "guardian of culture" (Sparrow et al, 2003:27, cited in Farndale et

al, 2010:48), leading expatriates and expatriate managers can be stipulated as 'global culture

ambassadors' (Connelly, 2009:39) - 'change agents' that play a fundamental role in

instigating and developing organisational development across borders (Farndale et al,

2010:48 and Schein, L., 1998, cited in Smith and Guarnizo, 1998:291).

2.6.2 Organisational Culture and Learning Development

Collings et al (2010) suggest that inpatriates may be an important means of

facilitating organisational development. They comment that "flows of inpatriates will

facilitate the transfer of knowledge to the HQ, while reinforcing corporate culture among

the assignees, who can transfer this to the subsidiary on their return" (Collings et al,

2010:582). This adds weight to the notion of bi-directional knowledge, a key approach that

expatriates (and potentially reverse expatriates) can use to bring about resolute global

organisational development.

Yet bridging expatriation and organisational learning should certainly not be

considered a seamless transition, especially as there appear to be considerable challenges

and barriers at the level of organisational culture that may inhibit knowledge transfer. Li and

Liu suggest that organisational culture "varies, sometimes significantly, in different

companies even if they are located in the same national culture environment" (2002, cited in

25

Liu, 2004:503). This suggests that HR professionals must be mindful of organisational

culture, including departmental and typological sub-cultures and their respective influences.

Such challenges have prompted some researchers to examine new methods by which

organisational culture can be replicated across borders. Liu (2004) suggests that both direct

and indirect transfer mechanisms can be utilised as part of an overall strategic approach to

shift knowledge throughout the entire multinational corporation and emphasises the use of

expatriates as agents of this multi-tiered approach (Ibid:508). With this in mind it can be

suggested that the use of expatriates in the facilitation and transfer of knowledge is a key

opportunity to promote and develop enterprise-wide organisational learning strategies.

2.6.3 Organisational Culture, Learning and Communicative Openness

A firm's level of communicative openness may be a key indicator of an

organisation's culture that may directly impact any latent potential for the transfer and

incorporation of knowledge. 'Communicative openness' can be thought of as "the diverse set

of elements that are brought together to form the communications network" (Lea, O'Shea

and Fung, 1995:465) and as a measure of supportiveness in the firm, i.e. "the free exchange

of information that equalises power relationships" (Eisenberg and Witten, 1987:418). In this

sense communicative openness reflects a key disposition of organisational culture. As such,

it may also be a key influence on expatriate success, as any potential knowledge transfer

from an assignment will rely on the clear, comprehensive and receptive communication

strategies of a firm (Goh, 2002:23).

26

Communicative openness may also have an impact on a firm's learning and

development practices. Adsit et al (1997) note Ludeman's use of 'upward feedback' as a

means of managing appraisal and organisational development (1993 in Adsit, 1997:385).

Such a method, which involves subordinates rating their supervisors, may also have flow on

benefits for expatriate coaching and succession planning by way of better utilisation of

interpersonal relationships as an additional source of knowledge transfer (Adsit, 1997:385).

This accords with the proposition that organisational learning practices are key to MNC

success and sustainability (Ruigrok and Wagner, 2003:64). By utilising novel development

techniques such as 'upward feedback' in a culture of communicative openness, new learning

possibilities associated with traditional methods of managing organisational culture across

borders (such as intercultural training) are made possible. This is due to the synergy that

results from the inclusion of organisational cultural practices in a firm's training and

development learning initiatives.

2.7 Organisational Characteristics - Structural Barriers / Facilitators

Other organisation-level factors may also influence the association between IHRM

and organisational learning. The structure of an organisation is one further factor that may

also have significant influence on an expatriate's ability to adjust and may also directly

affect the possibility that an organisation may gain knowledge from an expatriate

assignment. Covin and Slevin define organisational structure as the "arrangement of

relationships within an organisation" (1990, cited in Altinay and Altinay, 2004:334). Yet

organisational structure is not homogeneous (Deresky 2000, cited in McGraw, 2004:542),

with Farndale et al noting that "the level of centrality can evolve over time as operating

conditions change" (2010:48). Further, Wilcoxson and Millett note the existence of "distinct

27

sub-cultures" within organisational structures, such as distinct group teams or departments

(2000:96). It can be suggested that organisational structure should be viewed within its

operational context, one which may be dynamic and functioning within interdependent

spheres. These features make organisational structure a key variable within IHRM and may

have significant effects on organisational success and the knowledge transfer that may

result.

Yet despite its conceptual fluidity, organisational structure can still be hypothesized

as having an important role to play in the functioning of a multi-national corporation. Burns

and Stalker conceptualise structural builds as either 'mechanistic' or 'organic' (1994:104) and

have indicated that certain structural tendencies will have ramifications for innovation,

entrepreneurship and, ultimately, knowledge transfer. Arnold and Russell (1991 and 1999

respectively, both cited in Altinay and Altinay, 2004:334) suggest that a "decentralised and

informal structure would assist in empowering level managers, initiating increased

participation from team members and promise innovation" (Ibid:334). In contrast, Selmer et

al (1994) suggest that a more "hierarchical structure of interpersonal relationships dictates

authoritarian patterns of interactions between superiors and subordinates" (1994:50) Altinay

and Altinay also suggest that the centralised structure will "slow down decision making,

limit international expansion and [work to] demotivate organisational members" (2004:334).

With this in mind it can be proposed that structure may serve as a crucial component in any

multinational corporation, and the degree of structural 'openness' inherent in 'organic'

structures (Burns and Stalker, 1994:104) may assist managers to maximise the integration

of expatriate knowledge.

28

Organisational dependency will also affect the manner in which organisational

structure will influence IHRM. Farndale et al (2000) go beyond a mere categorisation of

organisational structure to view multi-national subsidiaries as also being independent or

interdependent, with important implications for expatriation and knowledge transfer. These

authors comment that "where interdependent HQ-subsidiary structures are adopted, the

complexity of the organisational structure increases, and the usefulness of formal control

mechanisms become limited. Here again, informal mechanisms, such as culture

management, become more important" (2000:48). This association between new variants of

organisational structure and culture highlight additional pressures for human resource and

expatriate managers wishing to coordinate IHRM practice, specifically the endeavour to

balance organisational culture and manage global perception, effectiveness, and ultimately,

competitive advantage.

Bartlett & Ghoshal (1989, in Liu, 2004:503) identified four types of organisational

structures that operate across borders, namely 'multi-domestic', 'international', 'global' and

'transnational' (Ibid:503). These additional sub-categories compound the complexities that

face organisations that operate globally, and the structures that hold them in place.

Transnational structure is perhaps the most applicable to this study, as it presents several of

the key features necessary in any possible mediation between IHRM and organisational

learning. Adler and Martholomew suggest that "unlike their predecessors, transnational

managers need cross-cultural skills on a daily basis throughout their career, not just during

foreign assignments" (1992:53). Importantly, these authors note that in this arrangement

"structural and cultural dominance are minimised, with cross-cultural interaction no longer

followed by any pre-defined 'passport hierarchy'" (Ibid:55). Yet most relevant here is the

author's assertion that "it is for these firms that transnational human resource strategies are

29

now being developed that emphasise organisational learning" (Ibid:55). Critically, Adler

and Martholomew recognise that firms with organic structural characteristics will be in a

better position to utilise novel strategic HRM practices. In order to maximise the amount of

innovative and productive knowledge that stems from cross-border placement, structures

must be open enough to suitably integrate newfound learning within and throughout the

organisation. The mechanism that may allow for this to take place could well include cross-

border knowledge transfer.

2.8 Communicative e-Technologies

In an increasingly modernised and globalised world, questions must also be asked as

to what role new technologies may play in the facilitation of cross-border knowledge

transfer. The literature highlights some of the potential that new technologies, such as video-

conferencing, VoIP and mobile e-mail, may bring to cross-border assignments yet

importantly also notes their limitations. Budhwar and Sparrow (1997) deem technology to

be one of the key contingent variables that influence organisational HRM practices and

policies (1997:477), whilst Doktor et al comment that "technology has been a leading force

in bringing about enhanced integration around the globe" and further, that "information and

communication technology have increased our knowledge of the people of other nations"

(1991:259). With this in mind, the possibility that technology may serve as a key vehicle for

the transfer of expatriate knowledge warrants closer consideration.

The drivers of the diffusion of new technologies in global expatriation are each

diverse and distinctive. Brewster and Sparrow see technology uptake as the consequence of

"a variety of changes in the international business environment [with] global organisations

30

being forced to become more competitive" (2007:48) while Donahue points to cost-cutting

as a key proponent, commenting that "given the economy, many meeting planners are

looking toward a tech solution to help cut meeting spend" (2010:S6). Doktor et al also see

new technologies as being able to increase their economic efficiencies by learning about and

then obtaining inputs of material, human power and capital from most cost-effective sources

around the globe" (1991:259). An analysis of these viewpoints suggests that new

technologies offer organisations and senior managers new strategic options for cross-border

assignees as both a cost-cutting measure and a real-time competitive edge.

Video-conferencing is one key technology that, in recent years, has emerged as a

potentially valuable new approach to knowledge transfer and traditional cross-border

assignments, and notably, its treatment summarises many of the strategic approaches to new

technologies that face modern organisations. Lloyd remarks that "one of the big advantages

of video is much more frequent contact [with] the big growth area [being] ad hoc video

meetings" (Lloyd, 2010 in Regout, 2010:22). Yet some authors remain unconvinced by the

new mediums. For example, Arvey notes that "there really is no alternative to personal

contact" with research data indicating that "the use of face-to-face meetings has a variety of

valuable psychological as well as business outcomes" (Arvey 2010, in Donahue 2010:S7).

Reinforcing his point, the author writes that "it is my belief, given this data, that eliminating

face-to-face meetings as an option in communicating with employees would be a mistake"

(Ibid:S7). With this in mind managers, particularly those involved in cross-border

assignments, must be aware of the limitations as well as the opportunities of such

technologies when considering them as primary or support based tools.

31

A number of authors have raised further concerns relating to the use of new

technologies in knowledge-focused expatriation assignments. Cerdin argues that

"information technology can relay HRM knowledge to subsidiaries, but it cannot transfer

know-how" (2003 in Liu, 2004:508). Liu furthers this argument by suggesting that "it is

often left up to the expatriate to put into full and efficient practice the knowledge acquired at

parent companies and demonstrate transfer know-how" (2004:508). In considering these

arguments, it can be suggested that despite the influence of new technologies, the expatriate

still retains a critical role as a key knowledge transferor. Whether this is a result of

premature technology or not remains to be seen, with Brewster and Sparrow noting that "the

use of new technologies has created an awareness of the need for change on the part of

HRM specialists, but no one claimed they had yet got it right" (2007:48).

Thus, new technologies present managers and expatriates with a range of novel

communicative options. However, how to best utilise these tools for the sake of competitive

advantage and organisational learning, remains to be seen. For present purposes, the use of

e-technology may be an important intervening variable in the relationship between cross-

border placement, knowledge transfer and organisational learning.

2.9 Conclusion

Today's expatriates face the tremendous task of harmonising a wide variety of

organisational and cultural pressures in the effort to contribute to an organisation's

competitive advantage. Several of these key pressures, namely knowledge transfer,

organisational/national culture, structure and technology, are recognised in the existing

32

literature as having a potential role to play in the pursuit of sustained organisational learning

strategies.

The preceding review of the literature suggests considerable potential for expatriates

to build on established best practices and navigate many of the new possibilities made

available by MNCs. Whether any new variation of traditional expatriation practice, such as

reverse expatriation, is able to have any influence on this possibility remains to be seen.

However, as this review has demonstrated, the potential for the enhancement of

organisational learning by this means, particularly in combination with the strategic

management of knowledge, national cultural adaption, organisational and cultural structural

facilitation and supportive e-technology, is enormous.

Building on these points, the next chapter outlines a conceptual model regarding the

possible harmonisation between expatriate practice, knowledge transfer and organisational

learning. This will also include the mediating factors that may influence this relationship,

namely the 'gap' in national culture, organisational characteristics (structural

barriers/facilitators and communicative openness/inhibition) and use of e-technologies. This

will be complemented by a set of research hypotheses that are informed by insights offered

in the extant and emerging literatures in these areas.

33

Chapter 3

Research Hypotheses and a Proposed Integrative Model

3.1 Introduction

The preceding chapter considered how new IHRM phenomena, such as reverse

expatriation, may affect the relationship between expatriate practice, knowledge transfer and

organisational learning. It also outlined the potential of reverse expatriation as a latent

source of competitive advantage. This was accompanied by an examination of the

propositions associated with the phenomena of national cultures, organisational

characteristics and use of e-technologies, elements which may have a bearing on the

efficacy of expatriation-related knowledge transfer in enhancing organisational learning.

Building on the propositions advanced in the previous chapter, this chapter

elaborates a number of key hypotheses that serve as the focus of empirical inquiry in this

study. This is followed by elaboration of a proposed integrative model that draws these

hypotheses together and seeks to expound the influence that cross-border placement may

have in the transfer of knowledge, and on broader organisational learning efforts. The

hypotheses and model also canvas the possible influence that national culture, specific

organisational characteristics (structural barriers / facilitators and communicative openness /

inhibition), and technology, as moderators of knowledge transfer, may have on the latent

relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning in both the home and

host context.

34

3.2 Key Hypotheses

3.2.1 Reverse Expatriation, Knowledge Transfer, Organisational Learning and Competitive

Advantage

Although the existing literature appears to be largely silent on the potential benefits

that reverse expatriation may bring to applied IHRM, this void appears to warrant further

inquiry. Recent developments in IHRM practice, including utilisation of novel forms of

cross-border placement, such as reverse expatriation, promise to widen the range of learning

and development options available to expatriate managers and other organisational

representatives (Rego 2008;1). Such practices also promise new sources of competitive

advantage for MNC's by overcoming the 'stickiness' problem associated with the transfer of

knowledge (Brown and Duguid 2001;198).

Further, it is possible that reverse expatriate assignments may serve to reduce the

high costs of underperformance and failure commonly associated with IHRM assignments

(Dowling et al 2008;112). For these reasons, it may be that an organisation's effectiveness

can be positively enhanced through the use of such variants of cross-border placement.

Equally, it is plausible to suggest that well-managed reverse expatriate assignments may

also confer significant human capital benefits on individual assignees. To this end it can be

hypothesised that:

H1a: Well-managed non-traditional expatriation, including reverse expatriation, can

enhance organisational learning by overcoming the 'stickiness' of bi-directional knowledge

transfer associated with more traditional expatriation practices.

35

H1b: Well-managed non-traditional expatriation, including reverse expatriation, can

provide an additional source of competitive advantage by enhancing organisational

learning.

3.2.2 National Cultures

National cultures of both home and host organisation are likely to be key moderators

of the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning. Utilising one of

Hofstede's key dimensions of culture, Power Distance (1983;75), it can be suggested that

national culture will have a moderating influence on the transfer of knowledge by affecting

the level of receptivity in cross-border communication and interaction. The Power Distance

Index, or PDI (Ibid) may be a suitable measure in which cross-cultural responsiveness to

knowledge transfer can be measured. This is since PDI may reflect national attitudes

towards mobility, equality and opportunity, elements that can be considered key in cross-

border placement (Lee and Li 2008;604), and relevant to a study of expatriation and IHRM

(Muenjohn and Armstrong 2007;265). For example, countries with high PD may exhibit a

societal system in which it is less apposite for subordinates and superiors to interact due to

the uneven distribution of power. This high PD setting may inhibit knowledge transfer as

there may be a lack of suitable mechanisms in place to support a free flow exchange of

information within an organisation. In contrast, countries with low PD may promote societal

norms in which it is more acceptable for superiors and subordinates to engage each other

due to a more equal distribution of power, and thus knowledge transfer is more open and

promoted. With this in mind, this dimension of the Hofstede model may be appropriate in

considerations of cross-cultural placement and the impact that home and host country

36

culture (Hofstede et al 1990;286) may have on the transfer of knowledge in these

assignments.

On this basis, it is further proposed that:

H2a: A placement in an organisation with a national culture of high Power Distance will

negatively moderate the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational

learning.

H2b: A placement in an organisation with a national culture of low Power Distance will

positively moderate the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational

learning.

3.2.3 Cross-border Placement and Organisational Characteristics

3.2.3.1 Structural Barriers / Facilitators

As noted in Chapter 2, organisational culture and structure characteristics may also

influence the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning. In this

light, it is appropriate to consider whether specific organisational characteristics may have

an effect on the relationship between expatriation, knowledge transfer and organisational

learning, and to what extent. A firm's level of structural rigidity, including its operational

framework categorisation as 'mechanistic' or 'organic' (Burns and Stalker 1994;104), may

play a key role in the generation and treatment of new ideas and practices via cross-border

assignments. Thus, it may be important for managers to appreciate the structural

37

characteristics which shape, direct and influence the transfer of new-found expatriate

knowledge. Similar issues over the management of tacit knowledge, such as the treatment of

'internal stickiness', may be influenced by an organisation's structure, such as via barriers

that inhibit knowledge from being transferred throughout the organisation, or via rigidities,

disconnections and breakdowns in organisational communication channels.

Taking these points into account, it can be supposed that organisations with rigid,

bureaucratic and hierarchical characteristics - i.e. 'mechanistic' structures (Burns and Stalker

1994;96) - will face considerable difficulty in enhancing organisational learning via

expatriate transfer because of the many barriers which may prevent tacit knowledge from

being effectively transmitted. In contrast, an organisation with less rigid, more open and

flatter structural characteristics - i.e. an 'organic' structure (Ibid;137) - may be more

conducive to effective knowledge transfer in the IHRM context. This may be because the

reduction in formal barriers and organisational levels which may otherwise inhibit or distort

knowledge are less pronounced, and because the more fluid and multi-directional modes of

internal communication may promote more continuous and better-informed communication

and decision making processes. In such an environment, structural characteristics may

provide far less distortion and interference in the transfer of knowledge. Accordingly, it is

proposed that:

H3a: A placement in an organisation with a mechanistic structure will negatively moderate

the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning.

H3b: A placement in an organisation with an organic structure will positively moderate the

relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning.

38

3.2.3.2 Communicative Openness

Much like structure, a firm's approach to a culture of communicative openness may

also play an important role in the management of traditional and non-traditional expatriates

and the knowledge that is attributed to their functions. Of the many elements of

organisational culture (Willcoxson and Millett 2000), communicative openness (Eisenberg

and Witten 1987;418) may bear specific importance as a moderating influence on the links

between expatriate practice and organisational learning as successful knowledge transfer

will necessitate clear and comprehensive communication strategies (Goh 2002;23).

Openness may be a critical moderating condition in determining knowledge transfer success

and/or failure and may also purport implications for entrepreneurship, leadership and

innovation possibilities at both an individual and organisational scale (Sun and Scott

1997;79).

A second organisational component, 'reflexivity', may subsist as a key element in a

'learning organisation'. Reflexivity, as part of a firm's adaptive capacity (Staber and Sydow

2002;412), may have a profound effect on the ability for reverse expatriation to succeed,

and for newly gained knowledge to be suitably implemented in an organisational culture's

aims, actions and outcomes. This is not only due to the bi-directional nature of knowledge,

but the approach a learning organisation must take in order to capitalise on any newfound

gained knowledge by allowing newfound ideas and concepts to build on and influence

previously established practices (Bonache and Brewster 2001;148). It is supposed that in

order for a phenomenon like reverse expatriation to succeed, communicative openness and

reflexivity may well be fundamental moderating qualities, of which their presence in

39

organisational cultures could produce valuable outcomes in a reflexive, learning

organisation. Thus:

H4a: An organisational culture that encourages communicative openness will positively

moderate the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning by

facilitating knowledge transfer in both the origin and destination location.

H4b: An organisational culture that encourages reflexivity will positively moderate the

relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning by facilitating

knowledge transfer in both the origin and destination location.

3.2.4 Communicative e-Technologies

Contemporary expatriate practice in an increasingly globalised world also highlights

the importance that new technologies play in IHRM. Specific e-technologies such as

videoconferencing, VoIP and Skype have profound importance as communication mediums

in contemporary organisations (Brewster and Sparrow 2007;48), yet further analysis is

required as to whether they serve as appropriate mediums of knowledge transfer. These new

tools are seen as offering substantial value to new forms of expatriate management by

expanding the methods of communication, overcoming distance barriers and altering the

requisite, frequency and duration of cross-border assignments (Welch, Worm and Fenwick

2003;95).

In the case of reverse expatriation, e-technologies may be a valuable mechanism in

the multi-directional transfer of knowledge and its incorporation into an organisation's

40

culture and structure. These tools may help navigate some of the barriers in an organisation's

structure or even help alleviate some of the communicative pressures associated with its

culture, thereby allowing for additional knowledge transfer to take place. Further still, these

aforementioned new technologies present distinct value as tools of organisational learning,

the latter able to take on new, dynamic forms that may contribute to newfound expatriate

practice itself. Thus, it is supposed that:

H5: High use of communicative e-technologies will positively moderate the relationship

between cross-border placement and organisational learning by providing additional new

means of effective knowledge transfer.

3.3 Towards an Integrative Model

The preceding hypotheses capture the central research propositions of the thesis. In

light of these explorations, linkages between core concepts and hypotheses can now be

described in a more holistic way. These concepts, namely the interrelated relationships

between expatriate practice, knowledge transfer and organisational learning are anticipated

as offering new potential and possibilities to the study of expatriate management.

Moderating factors that may influence these relationships, namely national culture,

organisational characteristics (including structural barriers/facilitators and communicative

openness/inhibition), and use of communicative e-technologies, are also considered as

elements that may influence any possible mediation that knowledge transfer may serve

between expatriate practice and organisation learning.

Figure 1a overviews the multi-faceted relationship hypothesised above:

41

Figure 1a: Knowledge transfer and the relationship between expatriate practice

and organisational learning.

As Figure 1a suggests, knowledge transfer serves as the key bridge or mediator

between expatriate practice and organisational learning. At the same time, the intensity and

extent of knowledge transfer is itself conditioned by key contextual mediators in both the

home and host organisation, including gaps in national cultures, organisational

characteristics (structural barriers/facilitators and communicative openness/inhibition), and

use of e-technologies - key moderators that may have a substantial influence on the

outcomes of this relationship. Further, the influence of these moderators may also impact

the knowledge transfer dimension of expatriate practice, leading to an environment in which

the moderators may enhance organisational learning and allow for new approaches to

expatriate practice, such as reverse expatriation, to operate .

42

Figure 1a also highlights the possible medium-to-long-term outcomes that may

result from an open learning organisation utilising the aforementioned process in both the

home and host setting. It may well be the case that organisational learning arising from

knowledge transfer associated with expatriate practice will lead to new, more effective

approaches to expatriate practice being implemented in the medium-to-long-term. This in

itself may shape the organisational characteristics and use of technology within this

'learning organisation'. The result of this process may be a more encompassing reflexive

relationship in which organisational learning has a direct influence as the start of enterprise

wide learning as well as the ongoing end result, by way of a feedback loop. In the case of

reverse expatriation, utilisation of this new approach to expatriate practice may find

knowledge transfer to be a useful medium to contribute to newfound organisational

learning, which could then, in turn, influence a firm's expatriate approach and the

moderators that influence their use.

3.4 Conclusion

The hypotheses and conceptual model foregrounded in this chapter seek to

demonstrate the key causal relationships examined in this study. Specifically, it is suggested

that knowledge transfer is the key mediator of the relationship between expatriate practice,

and organisational learning. Further, it is proposed that knowledge transfer is itself

moderated by three key sets of factors: (i) national cultures; (ii) organisational

characteristics (structural barriers/facilitators and communicative openness/inhibition); and

(iii) communicative e-technologies. These intervening factors are hypothesised as providing

key potential as new sources of competitive advantage and organisational value. It is

supposed that these are the key elements in the knowledge transfer process, and with regard

43

to reverse expatriation, it is suggested that these particular contextual factors may maximise

the learning potential of cross-border placement.

44

Chapter 4

Research Methodology

4.1 Introduction

The preceding hypotheses reflect the primary focus of this dissertation. This chapter

will outline the methodology involved in answering these key hypotheses, including

research design and chosen method, sample and process.

4.2 Research Design and Method

Data was collected using a series of semi-structured interviews with a chosen sample

of traditional and non-traditional expatriates, expatriate managers and expatriate consultants.

This qualitative method was deemed most appropriate for the purposes of this study due to

its malleability, especially in terms of creating context-specific questions and responses

(Bryman and Bell, 2003:474, Yin, 1984:90). The richness associated with descriptive

responses of interviewees also deemed this study more appropriate for qualitative, rather

than quantitative research. The significant research time necessary to comprehend

impressions of IHRM from an observer level also rendered this method the most

appropriate. This was also reflected in the chosen method of semi-structured interviewing,

allowing closer interaction with individual respondents, rather than using collective

approaches such as focus groups. The desire to interviewee participants across a broad range

of industries also meant that organisational case studies were inappropriate for this

particular study.

45

4.3 Interviewee Recruitment

Recruitment was undertaken in line with HREC approvals and protocols.

Interviewees were recruited based on a combination of access and availability, akin to

Bryman and Bell's categories of purposive and convenience sampling (2003:198, 500). This

included utilising networks of friends, family, social media and online research where

available. Interviewees were also recruited through a cascading approach (Ibid.) in which

human resource professionals were used as an intermediary on the understanding that

participation is entirely voluntary, and only included once written consent had been

obtained. Those agreeing to participate were asked to nominate others that they felt may be

suitable additional interviewees and in turn provided cross-referenced contact details.

The international nature of these networks meant that it became quite innate to

recruit interested participants with significant expatriate experience. More surprising was

the eagerness of the participants, who were very willing to share their experiences and hear

about new approaches to expatriation and offer related commentary. This in turn rendered

the recruitment and research process both satisfying and rewarding.

4.4 Interviewee sample

In sum, 23 individuals of 6 countries of origin (Australia, New Zealand, South

Africa, India, United States, United Kingdom) were interviewed having been currently

placed in 10 countries (South Africa, Australia, China, Singapore, United Arab Emirates,

New Zealand, Italy, Saudi Arabia, France and the United States) with many interviewees

having substantial traditional and non-traditional expatriate experience in many other

46

countries throughout their international careers. This number was deemed sufficient to

reflect a degree of generalisability amongst contemporary expatriate practitioners.

Expatriates with significant global experience were specifically targeted in order to

gauge their tacit knowledge and comprehension of IHRM theories, policies and practices.

Similarly, expatriate managers were valued for their experience in a variety of international

placements and ability to evaluate these from an organisational/managerial standpoint.

Likewise, expatriate consultants and coaches were sought for their awareness of best

practices, IHRM trends and industry knowledge. Although the original intention of this

study was to include categorical 'reverse expatriates', the notion's infancy and relative

obscurity meant that such individuals were not forthcoming in the sample.

The interviewees' current job roles were in organisations that stemmed from a wide

variety of industries - twelve in total - namely telecommunications, IT, energy, finance,

publishing, construction, engineering, beverage/food production, consulting, media,

hospitality and NGO's. This demonstrates the profound dissemination of expatriation across

many parts of the developed and newly-industrialised world. Of particular relevance is

variation in the ways in which organisations in these industries have approached traditional

expatriation and international expansion and the result of this which has now resulted in the

form of a variety of expatriate and cross-border organisational cultures.

Further to this point are the job roles of interviewees. Although the majority of the

interviewees identified with being either expatriates (all types), expatriate managers or

expatriate consultants, their actual job titles were quite wide-ranging. These included

general managerial and consultant positions to communications managers, heads of

47

marketing, investors, technical experts, expatriate coaches, journalists and editors. This

variety is useful for context-setting purposes, which will help to explain some of the

differing approaches each interviewee takes in discussions of our key research questions in

the forthcoming results portion of this dissertation. This variation also assists the

generalisability of findings, as the diverse array of interviewee participants allows for a

level of generalisation to the wide populations of expatriates and organisations engaging in

cross-border placement.

In light of this, interviewees were able to be categorised into two comparator groups

allowing for a cross-comparative analysis of data, namely 'traditional expatriates' and 'non-

traditional expatriates'. Traditional expatriates will include those currently engaged in, with

significant experience in, or managing traditional expatriation, i.e. those sent from their

home organisation to conduct business operations in a host country (Harzing 2001;366). The

second comparator group, non-traditional expatriates, are those outside the conventional

framework, and include flexpatriates (Mayerhofer et al, 2004, 646), inpatriates (Dowling et

al 2008; 97-98, 137-138) and those with limited experience in reverse expatriation (Rego

2008;1), whose specific tasks may be more wide ranging. With these typologies in mind, the

sample was able to be divided into eight traditional and fifteen non-traditional expatriates.

Appendix A summarises these demographic traits and characteristics, and follows the

bibliography section of the thesis.

48

4.5 Interview process

Interviews were conducted by telephone, VoIP and Skype at mutual convenience.

Interview length was between 35 and 180 minutes, with an average of around one hour. This

great discrepancy was due to the time availability of interviewees, depth of discussions and

the number of designed questions.

Interviewees were asked a set of semi-structured questions (see Appendix B for a list

of indicative questions). Questions were organised according to theme, level of expatriate

experience and position within the organisation. Attention was also paid to distinguishing

between the practical and more theoretical questions.

Questions ranged from specific knowledge-transfer practices within the organisation

of the interviewee to discussions relating to the influence of culture, structure and use of

technology on these practices. Although studies have shown there to be as many as 54

variables (Miller & Friesen 1980 in Milliman et al, 1991:327) within broader strategic

IHRM, for the purposes of this study the three aforementioned key mediators were

prioritised for their direct relevance to the links between expatriate practice, knowledge

transfer and organisational learning (national cultures, organisational characteristics -

structural barriers/facilitators and communicative openness/inhibition, and use of e-

technologies). Broader questions were also asked, relevant to developing IHRM discourse

and theory. This was in case the interviewees demonstrated any interest in the literature; to

my delight, many of them did.

49

From this point, interviewees were given the opportunity to discuss additional

matters most relevant to their specific circumstances. Opportunity was also given for

interviewees to suggest how the practices and processes of their organisations could be

improved, and what additional factors may also be of importance. Questions were designed

to be broadly applicable from entry-level expatriates and expatriate managers, through to

senior managers, expatriate professionals and 'career expats'. In this fashion, the semi-

structured nature of the questions allowed interviewees to 'fill in the blanks' with the issues

and answers most pressing to them. This also allowed for a certain degree of reflection and

overview which allowed key issues to naturally present themselves from both current and

previous assignments.

4.6 Informant Anonymity

In line with ethics protocols, and in the interests of anonymity, a series of coded

pseudonyms will be used to protect the identities of interviewees and their organisations.

Interviewees are designated as "Interviewee A" through to "Interviewee W" based on a

randomised allocation. Organisations are not named, only identifiable by industry and

relevant geographic region(s). Although no sensitive information was provided nor sought,

anonymity was deemed to be the most appropriate means of protecting individual and

organisational confidentiality. Anonymity also furthered the opportunity for forthrightness

in responses.

50

4.7 Conclusion

The preceding discussion reflected the key methodological approach of this study.

This included discussion of chosen research method, breakdown of chosen sample and the

process in which data is to be collected. The following two chapters will outline the results

stemming from this method and the discussion that ensues.

51

Chapter 5

The Relationship Between Expatriate Practice, Knowledge Transfer

and Organisational Learning

Results and Analysis

5.1 Introduction

The interview evidence generated for this study offers some fascinating insights into

the world of contemporary IHRM. This chapter, the first of two empirical chapters, reports

and analyses the evidence relating to the first set of hypotheses specified in Chapter 3,

namely those dealing with expatriate practice - specifically reverse expatriation and

knowledge transfer (H1a), and between expatriate-driven knowledge transfer and

organisational learning (H1b). The next chapter builds on this by examining the evidence

relating to the remaining hypotheses, namely those to do with the role of our three

hypothesised moderators - national cultures (H2a, H2b), organisational characteristics

(structural barriers/facilitators (H3a, H3b) and communicative openness /inhibition (H4a,

H4b)) and use of e-technologies (H5).

5.2 Evidence on Cross-border Placement in General, Knowledge Transfer and

Organisational Learning.

5.2.1 Respondents' commentary on knowledge arising from cross-border placement

generally

Despite the breadth of issues underpinned by the concepts 'knowledge' and

'knowledge transfer', interviewees of both comparator groups demonstrated similar

impressions regarding the difficulties surrounding the term's use and applications in cross-

52

border placement. This chapter focuses on the relevance of knowledge and knowledge

transfer to the core hypotheses (H1a and H1b), that being as mediators of the relationship

between expatriate practice and organisational learning in both the home and host context.

In doing so, we will also address our first hypothesis: that well-managed non-traditional

expatriation, including reverse expatriation, can enhance organisational learning by

overcoming the 'stickiness' of bi-directional knowledge transfer associated with more

traditional expatriation practices (H1a). Discussion will also be offered on creative

approaches to the transfer of knowledge, as detailed by respondents.

Expatriate interviewees of all types enthusiastically supported the notion that

knowledge transfer has a fundamental role to play in cross-border placement practice.

Interviewee T noted: "There's got to be this knowledge sharing that you bring back, that's

[number] one." Interviewee M saw knowledge transfer as a natural fit, commenting: "It just

made sense for it to happen... it brought a richness to what we did and furthered the goals of

the organisation". This accords with interviewee B's remarks: "A business can't pretend it

knows everything". Interviewee I viewed knowledge transfer as a necessity in cross-border

placement, noting: "There's just so much you can learn from a book, it's the richness of

someone's actual experiences that I think are so helpful". Interviewee P went further,

exclaiming that knowledge transfer was "an untapped goldmine" and interviewee G

similarly claimed "you can lead the market - [though] not easily - if you get into these kind

of processes". Significantly, this last comment highlights the difficulty associated with

knowledge transfer, and this is perhaps a reason why it is still frequently considered an

incomplete process.

53

Interviewees also discussed the implicit nature of knowledge transfer, with

Interviewee M commenting that: "A lot of what took place for me was very unconscious".

This was reinforced by interviewee U who saw knowledge as "probably a more implicit

thing than anything else". Interviewee N added that implicit tacit knowledge was "the

reason why it [transfer] doesn't happen overnight, the reason why it takes time". Further, on

the topic of knowledge theory, interviewees expressed views in line with the bi-directional,

multi-directional nature of knowledge transfer. Interviewee M claimed that "knowledge both

ways happens, because it kind of has to." Interviewee V's comments support this notion: "I

think there is a tremendous opportunity for knowledge transfer here [Singapore] from a

western to an Asian perspective. I think that westerners can also learn a lot from the Asians,

it shouldn't just be one way. These comments reflect a natural disposition, that knowledge is

either bi- directional, or multi-directional. Further, the collected data supports the potential

that reverse expatriation may bring to this process.

Yet despite overwhelming general support for the importance of knowledge and

knowledge transfer, interviewees suggested that most firm's took the opposite approach.

Interviewee V noted: "Companies tend to look at knowledge transfer as being a very

generic thing", whilst Interviewee S commented: "They don't value it [knowledge] highly".

Interviewee O added: "If the company is really serious about mobility they will want to take

advantage of that better". Interviewee Q's organisation characterised this approach: "I

wouldn't say that we have a formal way of capturing that knowledge... no we haven't really

got a grasp of that one". Interviewee U suggested that this may be the result of a lack of

mechanisms in which to integrate knowledge, commenting: "I think there's that sort of

difficulty there, because obviously they don't know how to get it all to come together, they

just assume that it's going to work, and I still think that sort of difficulty is there now". This

54

suggests that to capitalise on the knowledge-generating potential of cross-border placement,

organisations must have strategies and practices that help facilitate the transfer of

knowledge.

In terms of specific organisational strategies, Interviewee S claimed: "I think the

situation is much worse than even what you are proposing, where there aren't formal

programs to extract this knowledge, there really isn't, in most cases there isn't even an

acknowledgement of it". Interviewee A noted that in her experience knowledge transfer was

left to individual's and their teams, asserting "It was pretty much [done] person to

person...but there would be an expectation that they would spend some time de-briefing with

their team, talking about the knowledge that they've gained, but it was left to the individual

team's division to handle and some people did it better than others". Interviewee K simply

explained why she felt the organisation was unable to transfer knowledge: "It is difficult".

Interviewee Q added that in his experience "I haven't seen any company do a fantastic job at

that [knowledge transfer], we do a very poor job of it". Interviewee H agreed, noting: "I

think there is no winning formula, it is a very difficult thing to do." With this in mind it can

be suggested that a lack of clear strategic initiatives is preventing firms from transferring

effective knowledge into their learning capacities.

5.2.2 Overcoming 'stickiness': Organisational initiatives concerning the transfer of

knowledge (H1a)

Interviewees offered recommendations as to how firms could best facilitate the

transfer of knowledge as a way of harmonising expatriate practice and organisational

learning at both the home and host level. Interviewee J suggested that: "On a very micro

55

level you could set up structures that would allow for that knowledge to be parlayed, it

would really need to be parlayed into the context of that culture", thereby suggesting that

the organisation must possess a learning culture that is able to overcome 'stickiness' by

integrating newly gained knowledge. Interviewee P advocated use of "knowledge dumps" -

opportunities where knowledge can be transferred at various stages of the expatriation and

repatriation process, whilst interviewee G advocated the use of 'round table events' for

"sharing of best practices...[as] a physical way to do it". Interviewee H voiced support for a

firm that promotes a knowledge-based view, commenting: "The knowledge-based firm will

do a better job at [knowledge transfer] than others", echoing the need for a firm that

prioritises organisational learning.

Of particular note were the responses of interviewees K and H, whose firms had

novel approaches to knowledge transfer and the role this may play in reducing the stickiness

associated with broader organisational learning. Interviewee K discussed a creative

organisational initiative aimed at facilitating knowledge transfer. This involved a multi-day

conference that served as "a stepping stone to thinking about all the ways we communicate

and get better" where different "knowledge experts" from all sectors of the organisation are

brought together and consulted as a means of "sharing different types of medium sites and

the benefits [of each]". This 'knowledge symposium' constituted an innovative

organisational initiative aimed at encouraging fresh approaches to the treatment of

knowledge and creating opportunities for knowledge to be disseminated and transferred

throughout the firm as a means of enhancing organisational learning.

Interviewee H's firm's approach to tackling the 'stickiness' associated with

knowledge transfer is also highly instructive. Within his firm's extensive global network lies

56

"a back office support team whose job in life is to support that [knowledge transfer]... just

for knowledge management in our firm". These teams, placed in strategic locations

throughout the global operations of the firm, are known as "knowledge management groups"

and utilise the infrastructure of the IT department to "select, share and disseminate a lot of

knowledge that used to reside in people's hard drives and their minds". This constitutes an

innovative approach where managers are able to utilise existing networks to help facilitate

tacit and explicit knowledge transfer throughout the firm. Interviewee H comments that:

"It's a great way to get everyone to come together and then you leap off their experience to

take the overall knowledge of the firm forward." The same interviewee then offered this

perceptive observation: "If you share knowledge, you get knowledge back". This can be seen

as an innovative approach to overcome issues of knowledge 'stickiness'.

At the same time, interviewee H does note some teething issues with his firm's

approach to knowledge transfer. When asked about the potential of the 'knowledge

management group' becoming 'gatekeepers' (Rychen and Zimmerman 2008;767) he replied:

"The primary responsibility still lies with the individual because its 'garbage in, garbage

out'... the content still comes from the experts in the field who actually have that

knowledge." When asked why this process had not been implemented more fully, he added

that the firm "doesn't give it as much priority as they should, that's where we lose a lot of

knowledge". As to the reason why, he said: "It can be expanded, it can be done better; but

it's probably a question of 'how do you fund that' because the benefits are not as accurate as

being a typical business case, a financial benefit, it's a harder sell... we try and do it, but

unfortunately we all live by Wall Street". Here we can note the challenge of selling the

benefits of such programmes to organisations with a short-term cost focus. Interviewee H's

organisation certainly highlights the enormous potential for effective knowledge transfer

57

mechanisms. Yet, as his remarks also suggest, until organisations take a long-term

approach, it seems that initiatives like this will remain under-developed.

The tenor of interviewee responses emphatically supported the notion that

knowledge transfer is the crucial mediator between expatriate practice and organisational

learning. Impressions provided by interviewees also supports the proposition that well-

managed expatriation initiatives can directly enhance organisational learning in MNCs.

Interviewee M's views were typical of the sample, specifically his comment that: "I think

definitely there is a case of the fact that expatriation or reverse expatriation does account

for some sort of knowledge transfer, without a doubt, and far more enhanced than just

simple transfer between two parties over remote locations." This comment, and those

above, support the contention that the 'stickiness' associated with conventional knowledge

transfer can be surmounted by well-managed expatriation, with reverse expatriation being a

particularly effective practice in this respect.

The above responses and descriptions of organisational initiatives can be said to

support the first hypothesis, that it is indeed possible to overcome the 'stickiness' of bi-

directional knowledge transfer by promoting well-managed expatriation initiatives that

create new opportunities for knowledge to be disseminated and integrated throughout the

organisation. However, the extent to which this is so through new variants of expatriation,

such as reverse expatriation, requires deeper elaboration, and in this light the following

section will attempt to address this dimension of the hypotheses.

58

5.3 The Specific Value of Reverse Expatriation in Knowledge Transfer and

Organisational Learning (H1b)

The sparse literature on "reverse expatriation" (Yates, 1992:1) offers little insight

into its use or practical implications. In light of this void, the forthcoming results of this

study may contribute to the developing literature by offering further insights into the

mindset of a sample of expatriate practitioners and chronicling their respective attitudes

towards the concept.

The vast majority of interviewees were unfamiliar with the term, with highly

experienced expatriates (of all variants), expatriate managers and even expatriate

consultants of both comparator groups confirming the concept's infancy. Interviewee M, a

flexpatriate with decades of cross-border experience, admitting: "I actually don't know much

about it, to be completely honest" whilst interviewee J, an expatriate coach and consultant

with extensive knowledge of cross-border placement, suggested: "There's not a word for the

idea or service". Another individual with significant global experience, interviewee T, also

noted: "I think you're on pretty virgin territory". Interestingly, even those interviewees who

could be included in a reverse expatriate classification were unaware of the term, reflecting

that it seems that reverse expatriation remains at the fringe of both expatriate practice and

research.

When offered an explanation of the concept in line with Rego's definition (2008;1),

many interviewees showed great enthusiasm. Interviewee I remarked: "Yes, that makes a lot

of sense. I think that should be something that's more common, it's taking all that learning

and bringing it back and figuring out what's the best way to apply it". Interviewee T added:

59

"I think it's a great offering and it does differentiate companies who are able to leverage

their global network... having put that investment in and having the leadership commitment

there, then I think it's foolish to not get the return and the benefits you can get at the back

end". Interviewee I observed: "I'm sure they [reverse expatriates] have a lot that they can

offer in terms of their experience... there is so much untapped knowledge and information

and experience/experiential learning out there", whilst interviewee U added: "It's definitely

another assignment type that could work well for organisations". These comments reinforce

the view that reverse expatriation has considerable potential for modern organisations

engaging in cross-border assignments and for overcoming the stickiness commonly

associated with traditional expatriate practice.

Interviewees were also asked why they felt that the term was not more widespread,

and the results here are most instructive. Interviewee A commented: "[reverse expatriation]

is not front of mind, it's a different agenda, perhaps [organisations] are not thinking about

how it [knowledge] can be used in a broader sense...looking at how that integration and

knowledge transfer happens on return". Interviewee J saw the concept as a luxury and a

potentially unnecessary cost in a period of global financial uncertainty. She commented:

"Companies are not seeing the value in expats, so I wonder if companies would really invest

a lot of money into doing something like this". This was a sentiment echoed by interviewee

U, who noted: "Honestly, I think it comes down to the bottom line of cost". In contrast,

interviewee I believed that the practice's low profile was due chiefly to a lack of a suitable

organisational process for collecting and transmitting knowledge: "If there was a way to

work with people who are repatriating and have a structured way to gain information from

them, then this information could be categorised, [there] could be a list of practical

applications, or the best practices." These comments suggests that cost, managerial

60

prerogative and a lack of suitable organisational processes are latent reasons as to why

reverse expatriation is not more prevalent in practice.

Interviewees were also asked if they foresaw any potential difficulties associated

with the concept. Interviewee T commented: "It is extremely hard to measure some of these

benefits" since knowledge transfer that results from reverse expatriation practice is likely to

be intangible, with "sticky" tacit knowledge difficult to overcome as a result. This was

echoed by Interviewee J who commented: "There's some real promise there but the idea is

how do you translate that knowledge into something that's going to contribute to the bottom

line". Interviewee J saw a considerable time investment necessary to engage in reverse

expatriation, claiming: "You'd have to be there for a significant period of time to really, first

to sort of build the relationships around you to get insights what's even going on, and,

depending on the culture, that's a significant period of time". When asked about the average

timeframe necessary for effective reverse expatriation, she added: " I don't see how sending

someone to another country for less than two years as being particularly fruitful in terms of

that kind of knowledge". Thus, in addition to the factors of cost, managerial prerogative and

a lack of suitable organisational processes, significant time investments and difficulties in

measuring tangible results also seem to be factors limiting the utilisation of reverse

expatriation in contemporary MNCs.

Regarding how to best facilitate an environment where reverse expatriation could be

implemented, interviewee T suggested that: "You've got to do the smart things, like you

know, have a great strategy, have a great execution capacity.... [to] support and enable [the

individual]... you need a strong vision to be able to do all of that". This comment proposes

that full utilisation of reverse expatriation would require top leadership support. This also

61

hints at the importance that organisational characteristics such as structure and culture

would play in the facilitation of knowledge transfer that results from reverse expatriation

programmes, adding weight to their possible value as moderators of this relationship.

Interviewee I corroborated this contention, commenting: "If there could be a way to create

some type of a structure, to help capitalise on this [gained knowledge], it would be much

more enriching for everybody".

Interviewees were also asked whether reverse expatriation would or could be used

by their respective firms in the future. In response, interviewee U suggested that her firm

was very likely to do so: "In the future we will be embarking, for example, on bringing

people out from China for a period of 6-12 months for them to see the techniques that are

used here, for them to take those techniques back".

The above comments reflect a host of attitudes as to the possible benefits and

drawbacks of reverse expatriation. Whilst most interviewees noted significant potential, this

was largely at the conceptual level, with respondents more hesitant to support the notion in

practice. This was said to be due to external factors, including the health of the global

economy/ramifications for travel expenditures, cost and time feasibility and lack of suitable

organisational environments in which reverse expatriation could function. This final point

adds further weight to the notion that moderating factors, (national cultures, organisational

characteristics and technology) may play a significant role in enhancing or inhibiting

knowledge transfer and learning outcomes associated with reverse expatriation.

As such, in line with Hypothesis 1b, it can be suggested that well-managed reverse

expatriation can provide an additional source of competitive advantage by enhancing

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organisational learning. However whether it will is dependent on the moderating factors that

will influence the process of knowledge transfer between the (reverse) expatriate practice

and the firm. Thus, the evidence generated by this study lends partial support to Hypothesis

H1b. As the interview commentary suggests, making the connection between reverse

expatriation, knowledge transfer and organisational learning may be far more challenging in

practice.

5.4 Conclusion

This chapter illustrated the results associated with the key hypotheses regarding the

relationship between expatriate practice, knowledge transfer and organisational learning.

The interviewee data can be said to support Hypothesis H1a and partially support H1b,

reflecting the value that well-managed reverse expatriation can add to existing expatriate

and organisational learning practices.

The following chapter will address our remaining hypotheses - those that are

associated with the moderating influences of this relationship - national cultures,

organisational characteristics (structural barriers/facilitators and communicative

openness/inhibition) and e-technology.

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Chapter 6

The Influence of National Cultures, Organisational Characteristics and e-Technology

Results and Analysis

6.1 Introduction

The previous chapter addressed the first set of key hypotheses in this study, those

associated with the key mediating correlation, that being the relationship between expatriate

practice, knowledge transfer and organisational learning (H1a and H1b). This chapter will

address the hypotheses of our moderating factors: national cultures (H2a and H2b);

organisational characteristics (structural barriers / facilitators (H3a and H3b) and

communicative openness / inhibition (H4a and H4b)); and e-technology (H5).

6.2 National Cultures (H2a, H2b)

6.2.1 National cultures and expatriate practice

As expected, interviewees were mindful of the influence of national cultures,

offering a range of impressions regarding the importance national cultures play as

moderating influences on the relationship between expatriate practice, knowledge transfer

and organisational learning. Interviewee N suggested that national culture was a key barrier

to knowledge transfer, commenting that the difficulty "comes from language barriers, it

comes from cultural barriers". This challenge was noted by a majority of expatriates, with

interviewee M commenting "I've really struggled with [working in] Australia because the

Australian culture is rather different". This sentiment is echoed by Interviewee Q who

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claimed: "Believe it or not, the biggest cultural adaption I had was when I moved to Sydney

from Hong Kong". Other placements were also portrayed as quite difficult with interviewee

F commenting that: "Italy is a very bureaucratic slow place, It's difficult to get things done,

and I think we weren't prepared [for that]".

Applying Hofstede's PD metrics (indicative values available from Hofstede's website

listed in the bibliography) to the above discussion, it can be suggested that part of the

difficulties arising from the aforementioned placements was a result of a large cultural gap

between origin and destination location. Interviewee N's placement had been from Australia

(PDI of 36) to China (PDI of 80), an extraordinary difference. This is similar to interviewee

Q, who's placement in the United Arab Emirates from the United Kingdom rendered a gap

of 45 points, from a PDI of 35 (United Kingdom) to 80 (United Arab Emirates). However,

this was not a consistent trend, with some interviewees indicating that they have

experienced cross-cultural difficulties with placements in nations with quite similar PD

levels. Interviewee M had been expatriated to Australia from South Africa, with PDI scores,

36 and 49 respectively, whilst Interviewee F had been placed in Italy (PDI of 50) from the

United States (PDI of 40). This suggests mixed results, with difficulties existing beyond the

PD aspect of national difference.

Interviewees also highlighted the significance of rigid ethnocentric attitudes.

Interviewee L commented that American firms "wanted things done exactly their way. They

didn't feel comfortable with certain kinds of habits that were more ingrained in Belgium."

When asked about the motivations behind this attitude, she exclaimed: "Americans are

Americans! Sometimes their rigidity really gets them into problems. They won't understand

the culture, they choose mistakes and they miss opportunities." This attitude was also

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referred to by interviewee I, who noted: "Our placement was very 'American', and it needs

to be de-Americanised and be made more culturally neutral...the company should have been

more aware of differences." Interviewee I added: "The difficulty was that [the organisation]

was taking a very ethnographic approach and saying 'our way is the only way, let's just tell

the rest of the world how we do it and they have to listen'". These interviewees, both of who

happened to be U.S. nationals, also alluded to the challenge of applying an ethnocentric

approach to a new national culture. Interviewee I put further: "We must not mistake cultural

adaption as adopting that culture" and suggested the need for 'cultural intelligence', which

can be understood as emotional intelligence on a multicultural scale. As interviewee I

remarked: "If you enter a village, follow customs".

6.2.2 Cross-cultural Training Between National Cultures

Many interviewees noted the influence that their organisation's cross-cultural

training programmes had as potential alleviators of the adjustment challenges associated

with cross-border placement. The levels of cross-cultural training offered by the

interviewees' MNC's varied significantly, with interviewee Q's organisation offering a

comprehensive package: two days of cross-cultural training and 100 hours of language

assistance, albeit both on a voluntary basis. This programme extended to the trailing spouse

and children of the expatriate, who were eligible for up to 50 hours of language assistance if

desired. Interviewee U commented that her organisations used "a lot of training, seminars

and professional accreditations" whilst interviewee K's organisation offered more informal

assistance: "A lot of culture integration activities". Interviewee C's organisation also offered

intensive cultural training (at least one day recommended) and language training in the form

of "as much as we could take". These comprehensive programmes can be contrasted with

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the experience of interviewees E,W, L and R. Interviewee E's organisation provided "none

whatsoever...there was almost no training", Interviewee W who commented "I could have

taken language lessons when I arrived [in India], but that was about it". The organisations

of interviewees L and R saw little value in cross-cultural training. Interviewee L commented

that: "The cultural training we would have had wouldn't have had any bearing", whilst

Interviewee R asserted that: "We're alright on our own".

Hofstede's (1983:75) measure of PD can also be conferred in an analysis of

national attitudes towards the use of cross-cultural training. Interviewee Q's comprehensive

cultural training programs involved placement in the United Arab Emirates, a nation with a

very high PDI of 80. The assignments affiliated with his organisation's cross-border

placement involved expatriates coming from very low scoring origin countries, including

the United States (PDI of 40) and the United Kingdom (PDI of 35). Interviewee U's

programmes involved cross-border assignees originating from very high scoring countries

(China - PDI of 80 and Philippines - PDI of 94) and inpatriating them into the home

organisation, Australia (PDI of 36). In the case of interviewee K's organisation, the home

country, Italy, had a PDI of 50 with many of its employees originating from high scoring

countries (e.g. Nigeria - PDI of 77).

These wide 'gaps' in PDI can be contrasted with interviewee L, whose experience in

the Netherlands (PDI of 38), was similar in PD to her origin country, the United States (PDI

of 40). In contrast, interviewee R and E's organisations offered little expatriate training

despite there being significant gaps in PD. Interviewees R and E were both placed in

Singapore, with a PDI of 74 despite their origins being the United States (PDI of 40) and

Australia (PDI of 36) respectively. This discrepancy suggests that organisations are not

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always mindful of PD as an indicator of the necessity of intercultural training and may

consider other influences. Perhaps the reason why the organisations of interviewees R and E

lacked intercultural training is the fact that the destination country - Singapore - has a very

well established expatriate community (Yeoh and Khoo 1998;159) and a common language

(all three countries with English as an official language).

Interviewees were also mindful of the problem of training itself. Interviewee I noted

that the "difficulty is that intercultural management training is a soft skill, very difficult to

measure, so organisations will spend more time and money on the hard skills which can be

monitored or measured more easily". This suggests that organisations may be reluctant to

offer expatriate training due to its cost, time demands and somewhat intangible results.

Interviewee I also commented on studies that suggested "it takes 17 weeks for a multi-

cultural team to be effective" and asked "how many organisations will give a multi-cultural

team time to prepare themselves?" This reiterates the notion that cross-cultural training is

seen as a significant cost, with some organisations thus hesitant to invest.

Interviewees were quite aware of the relationship between national culture,

knowledge transfer and expatriate training/de-briefing. Interviewee U advocated the need

for repatriate training for returning assignees, commenting: "I think it's very essential for

those individuals to participate in repatriation programmes... I've seen a lot of cases where

they come back and aren't able to integrate properly back into the home location".

Similarly, interviewee Q noted: "Repatriation is one of our biggest challenges". The

assistance offered during de-briefing and repatriation training may be of substantial benefit

for knowledge transfer, as its creates an opportunity with which information acquired is able

to be codified, stored and integrated into the organisation, provided there are suitable

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mechanisms in place. By this means, organisations that are mindful of cultural distance and

the dimensions of national culture when implementing training and de-briefing programmes

may be better placed to instigate suitable knowledge transfer.

6.2.3 Findings relating to the Role of National Cultures

Overall, the interview evidence lends considerable support to the two hypotheses

(H2a and H2b) relating to the proposed negative moderating influence of the PD dimension

of national culture. Interviewees E, R, N, Q, U and K were all mindful of the large cultural

gap that existed between their origin (low PD) and destination (high PD) countries, and

believed that a wide gap in PD served to inhibit knowledge transfer and organisational

learning. Interviewees M and F also held negative views, yet their expatriation practices can

be said to represent medium gaps in PD. This contrasts well with the impressions presented

by Interviewee L, whose origin and destination country were both of low PD, and noted a

positive association between expatriate practice and organisational learning. On the basis of

this evidence, it can be concluded that for a majority of this sample of interviewees, PD is

indeed a significant indicator of national cultural differences and serves as an important

negative moderating influence on knowledge transfer and thus, on the relationship between

expatriate practice and organisational learning.

6.3 Organisational Characteristics

Specific organisational characteristics, namely structural barriers/facilitators and

communicative openness/inhibition, may moderate the relationship between expatriate

practice, knowledge transfer and organisational learning in both the home and host setting.

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Discussed with interviewees were the influence of a firm's structural barriers at both their

origin and destination, and the importance that a culture of communicative openness may

play as a driver of knowledge transfer throughout the MNC.

6.3.1 Structural barriers/facilitators (H3a, H3b)

The structure of an organisation has been identified as having a potentially

significant influence on knowledge transfer in cross-border placement (Altinay and Altinay

2004;334 and Liu 2004;503). While interviewees emphatically supported this proposition,

there was considerable disagreement as to which particular structural orientation was best

suited to cross-border knowledge transfer.

Interviewees of both traditional and non-traditional expatriate type were employed

by a wide range of organisations, with structures similarly varied. Interviewee B described

her organisation as "very rigid" whilst Interviewee U also sees her organisation as "very

rigid and very hierarchical". Interviewee K commented that: "There's a lot of bureaucracy.

That's the nature of the beast." These comments connote a "mechanistic" organisation, as

described by Burns and Stalker (1994;96). Other comments on organisational structure can

be contrasted with these interviewees. For example, interviewee S suggested that his

organisation was "very decentralised and very individual driven" and interviewee N noted

that his firm's structure was "a lot flatter than most". This reflects the "organic" culture

typology (Ibid.). Interestingly, between these two dominant classifications lay some atypical

organisational configurations, with interviewee O noting a "matrix organisation", where for

the most part "the company is organised functionally". Interviewee A labelled her firm a

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"meritocracy, [where] your position dictates your say". These may reflect approaches to

organisational structure that are hybrids of the mechanistic and the organic.

Interviewees who had experience in multiple organisations and locales provided a

rich commentary on the topic of organisational structure. Interviewee L noted that of the

many international firms she had worked for "there was definitely more rigidity in the

American organisations" suggesting an ethnocentric national influence on organisational

structure. This sentiment is echoed by interviewee M who notes that when it came to the

influence of multiple countries "it was often political" as to the type of structure

implemented in each subsidiary. Australian organisations were also singled out as having a

predisposition towards mechanistic structures, with interviewee M noting that: "It does seem

like there's quite a hierarchy in Australia". Interviewee U added that: "I've seen expats

going into both an autocratic hierarchy or a more matrix style and both have had various

experiences". This demonstrates a degree of variability and unpredictability within each

structure type.

Importantly, many interviewees also saw organisational structures as being dynamic

rather than unchanging. Interviewee G commented that his organisation had become "a

much flatter organisation than it was a few years ago" and that, as a senior manager, he has

been instrumental in this shift: "When I came [to the organisation as a general manager] I

tried to flatten things as much as I could". Interviewee B, who spoke of her organisation as

a 'man's game', commented: "It's rigid [but] it's slowly changing". Interviewee P noted that

in her organisation "The rules are constantly changing, so it's a lot of shifts...definitely

dynamic". These comments reflect a sense of dynamism when it comes to these

organisational characteristics.

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As to which particular structural type is best suited to cross-border knowledge

transfer, interviewee T remarked: "That's the million dollar question!" Interviewee U

suggested that: "The more open [the structure] the more open they will be in transferring

their knowledge into the company because...when an organisation is very rigid, sometimes

that holds back the individual in transferring that knowledge". This view was similarly

conveyed by interviewee S who suggested that: "In terms of openness, if it's a decentralised

organisation you have much fewer political games, much fewer rules, much less head office

driven...you don't have to go through a hierarchy, which is what you tend to have to do in a

centrally driven organisation".

However, the support for an organic structure was not universal, with some

interviewees expressing a preference for a hierarchical backbone, at least in the form of an

organisational driver. For instance, interviewee T commented: "I think that if the

organisation is committed then, even in an autocratic setup, you'd set up the structures to

make this [knowledge transfer] work." This was a sentiment echoed by the experience of

interviewee M, who added that despite his organisation being "highly structured and highly

hierarchical, I saw a lot more of that [knowledge transfer] happening." Interviewee S added

that in decentralised organisational structures "unless you make it [knowledge transfer]

happen, or somebody makes it happen, it won't happen, because there's no central pole".

Interviewee K similarly remarked that her organisation:

"does need to be a little bit more rigid... Some of our main problems, as far as

knowledge transfer goes is that a lot of the time we don't know what our other group

is doing. We are so worried about what we are doing communicating to the outside

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world and outside stakeholders that we don't have time to communicate with each-

other".

Here we can note the importance of a structural hierarchy serving as a mechanism by which

knowledge is able to be channelled throughout the organisation.

With the above in mind we can suppose that organisations with organic structures

may have a slight advantage when it comes to knowledge transfer. This is reflected in the

views of interviewees A, G, O, P, N, S and U with the above comments indicative of their

beliefs. This is further supported by interviewees B, K, L and M whose comments supported

the view of numerous barriers and levels which create a challenge for knowledge transfer

efforts. However, this does not mean that knowledge transfer is unable to be undertaken in

mechanistic organisations. As the views of interviewees K and T illustrated, structural

rigidity and minor hierarchy may assist in channelling and implementing knowledge -

particularly in larger, more multi-layered organisations.

Thus, it can be concluded that a placement in an organisation with a mechanistic

structure will, generally speaking, negatively moderate the relationship between expatriate

practice and organisational learning. This is due to the structural barriers that may prevent

new knowledge being implemented into the organisation, creating a challenge for any

learning development or organisational learning efforts. In contrast, it is reasonable to

support the view that a placement in an organisation with an organic structure will

positively moderate the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning.

A majority of interviewees noted that a lack of barriers which would normally prevent or

distort new information being integrated into the organisation would thus positively

moderate the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning in a

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structure that allows for a degree of malleability and flexibility in adjusting to and

incorporating new information gained from cross-border placements. As such, the weight of

evidence supports Hypotheses H3a and H3b: a more organic structure is likely to be a more

effective facilitator of knowledge transfer and organisational learning. However, it should

be noted that the views of interviewees K and T were an exception to this tendency. This

suggests that other factors unique to their organisations may allow for a positive moderation

of the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning in mechanistic

structures.

6.3.2 Organisational Characteristics - Communicative Openness / Inhibition (H4a, H4b)

6.3.2.1 Organisational Culture and Communicative Openness

The interviews probed the possible positive influence of an organisational culture of

'communicative openness' on knowledge transfer and learning, with both traditional and

non-traditional comparator groups strongly identifying with the importance of open

communication as a positive element of the expatriation process. For example, when asked

to nominate which organisational characteristic was key to knowledge transfer, interviewee

B (traditional expatriate manager) answered "definitely openness", while Interviewee I (non-

traditional flexpatriate) remarked that: "The focus should be on keeping the lines of

communication open". Interviewee U saw communicative openness as part of broader

cultural and organisational development efforts, commenting that: "We are progressing

towards a very open learning organisation". Interviewee N emphasised this notion, noting

that: "You need cultural change and cultural reinforcement" to maximise any effect that

communicative openness will have on an organisation's broader learning efforts. Here it can

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be noted that many of the interviewees who favoured organic organisational structures also

preferred a culture of communicative openness, suggesting a high degree of correlation

between the two phenomena.

Open communication channels may create additional organisational pressures, and

interviewees were wary of how a culture of communicative openness would function in

practice. Interviewee T commented that: "Whilst these things sounds good in concept and

the value of it is quite easy to understand, having commitment in terms of processes and

support I think is critical, and this is where we found challenges and we had to do a lot." It

can be suggested that a culture of communicative openness is reliant on organisational

dedication, leadership and vision; elements that may prove difficult to sustain in a dynamic

cross-border environment. This was a sentiment echoed by interviewee N who suggested

that: "Organisations needs to have targets in place, they need that surety, and if they don't

have targets in place, or if you don't have goals to aspire to, then I wonder how companies

can stay in business." On this basis, it can be suggested that sustaining a culture where

communicative openness is paramount is a challenging task, one of which interviewees

were both aware and sceptical.

Overall the impressions offered by interviewees suggest that an organisational

culture that encourages communicative openness is favoured, and will positively moderate

the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning by facilitating

knowledge transfer. This affirms Hypothesis H4a, and suggests that in MNC's that make

extensive use of cross-border placements, communicative openness could be a useful tool to

assist in the transfer of knowledge and its integration into organisations. However, whilst

that hypothesis is supported, the interviewees' responses also reflected a degree of

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scepticism, which suggests that maintaining this type of organisational culture may be more

difficult than it may appear.

6.3.2.2 Organisational Culture and Reflexivity

Examination of the influence of organisational openness was complemented by an

investigation of reflexivity as a further characteristic of organisational culture. As to how

best to manage a culture where communicative openness is tantamount, interviewee N

commented: "Although openness is important you need a feedback mechanism and you need

to know what the troops in the field are actually thinking". This addresses the reflexive

element of the model, highlighting the importance that integration and reflection of newly

gained knowledge plays in the organisational learning processes of a firm. The approach to

knowledge transfer taken by interviewee I's organisation was notable for its conscious

attention to organisational learning through reflexivity. He commented that reflexivity "is a

great way to get everyone to come together to take the overall knowledge of the firm

forward." Accordingly, it seems that in a learning culture of communicative openness,

management must be mindful of the way in which knowledge is channelled through and

integrated into the organisation.

Although interviewees were mindful of the difficulties associated with this process,

the majority were unfamiliar with how reflexive approaches could be applied in practice.

For example, interviewee M commented: "[Reflexivity] is going to be organisation specific,

people specific... I don't think there is an answer ". Only interviewees N and H showed any

indication of a current conscious approach to upward and downward reflection in cross-

border placements, whilst interviewee U suggested that it could be something her firm could

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look towards in the future. Apart from these responses, the overall impression conveyed by

interviewees is that reflection of gained knowledge is often overlooked.

With regards to organisational approaches to reflexivity, the interview evidence

suggests substantial fragility and rarity, i.e. that reflexive cultures remain very uncommon.

Hypothesis H4b proposes that 'an organisational culture that encourages reflexivity will

positively moderate the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational

learning by facilitating knowledge transfer'. This can be said to be largely unsupported by

the data, albeit mainly because the majority of interviewees were unfamiliar with both the

term 'reflexivity' and its practical implication in cross-border placement and knowledge

transfer efforts. What can be said is that the responses of interviewees N, H and U suggest

that reflexivity may have positive learning potential. Equally, though, the evidence is as yet

too limited to warrant a firm conclusion.

6.4 Use of e-Technologies (H5)

6.4.1 The Potential Value of e-Technologies in Expatriate Practice

As we have seen, some studies (Doktor et al 1991, Donahue 2010, Regout 2010)

stipulate that the use of e-technologies offer organisations strategic value in the form of cost

savings associated with new methods of communication as well as reductions in the

frequency, quantity and length of necessary cross-border assignments. This study

hypothesises that the use of e-technologies will provide valuable new means of knowledge

transfer in this light, thereby positively moderating the relationship between cross-border

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placement and organisational learning. Yet, as evidenced by the interviewee material itself,

the true value of e-technology is still the subject of much debate.

6.4.2 e-Technologies Used in Cross-border Assignments.

As to which types of e-technologies were most used in modern cross-border

assignments, interviewees noted the use of videoconferencing (and 'telepresence'), VoIP, e-

mail, 'webinars' (internet based seminars) and Skype. Interviewee A commented: "I think

videoconferencing, webinars, and e-mail and the like, you weren't able to do that in the

years gone by" whilst Interviewee L mentioned that: "Skype makes communication

anywhere possible". In a similar vein, interviewee M commented "Videoconferencing is a

big thing. People have migrated from using the phone or a personal interaction to

videoconferencing" and Interviewee F remarked that with the use of videoconferencing "you

can have these very, almost real feeling meetings without having to travel". These attitudes

reflect a shift towards use of technologies in expatriate management and cross-border

placement, suggesting an increasing trend towards their recurrent use. This attitude was

shared by interviewee C, who suggested that "things are changing. Just having the ability to

have people work from home and connect on a Skype format instead of having to drive to

work every-day, I think we're going to see more of that". This reflects a view that for both

cross-border placement and extended secondments, e-technologies are playing a crucial, and

increasing role.

The convenience, ease of use and availability of e-technologies has been noted as

among the most significant reasons for their adoption. Interviewee S observed that:

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"international assignments, going back 20 years ago would have been much more

difficult, having only the telephone to connect you. The internet, Skype, Facebook and

email make things much easier, mobile phones make things much easier, and mobile

phone access in just about every part of the world make things much easier. You can

stay connected, you can communicate, you can get resources [and] you can make

decisions from remote locations, all much better today with technology than you ever

could in the past".

Interviewee W added that technology "is great. It's given us a lot more flexibility... it's so

quick and easy". Remarks by interviewees W and S encapsulate the attitudes of individuals

who see e-technologies as broadening the communicative options available, and arguably

creating new channels in which knowledge can potentially be transferred.

The subject of cost was highlighted by a number of respondents as the driving factor

in the greater use of e-technologies in cross-border placement. Interviewee C commented: "I

think cost is definitely the main driver in adopting these kinds of technologies. It means that

expatriates are travelling less [and] organisations are able to save on these very expensive

placements". Similarly interviewee A suggested that: "I think there's been a reduction in the

number of expatriates over the years, the true expatriates, where you relocate for 3 years at

a time, because of the costs involved, I think technology has had a play [in that trend]",

whilst interviewee E noted that his managerial "focus has been on 'how do we combine

multiple meetings into single trips'". However, these comments may have more to do with

the short-term effects of the recent global economic downturn, which resulted in a

curtailment and reprioritisation of cross-border secondments and assignments, than with

long-term trends.

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Most interviewees felt that e-technology could support but not replace cross-border

postings. Interviewee W commented that: "Technology has actually increased the

workload", due to increased work/life balance constraints and that "technology has changed

the kinds of people" traditionally going on assignments. This interestingly suggests that use

of communicative e-technologies has an impact on potential recruitment and selection and

training procedures for expatriate managers, who must appreciate the changing nature of

expatriation in a globalised, hi-tech world. This was summed up by interviewee I, who

maintained that: "Technology is not culturally neutral".

6.4.3 e-Technologies and Face-to-face Contact

Yet the biggest complaint when it came to the subject of e-technology, one that

every interviewee displayed awareness of, was that of the tension between the use of e-

technologies and the amount of interpersonal 'face-to-face' time available to cross-border

assignees and expatriate managers. Interviewee C commented: "I don't ever think that

technology will really replace the true value of an expatriate having face-to-face contact. I

just don't ever see it ever replicating the real value". This sentiment is echoed by

interviewee H who said that technology "will make [communication] easier, but it is

definitely not a substitute" and Interviewee E who observed that: "Face-to-face contact is

very hard to substitute". Interviewee F adds that without face-to-face "there's not that free-

flow back and forth collaboration because the technology is a limiter". What these

comments reflect is the notion that e-technology, in its current form, has a place though is

unable to replicate the true value of face-to-face contact.

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Importantly, respondents highlighted that it was imperative for management to

balance the use of e-technologies and face-to-face contact in cross-border assignments.

Interviewee T stated that "I think face-to-face is crucial. It's a question of how much you can

afford. It's a balance. If you have some amount of face-to-face then you can mitigate that

with technology". Interviewee U asserted that: "I don't think technology will ever replace

[face-to-face]. There will always be a central need to be on the ground".

These views can be contrasted with interviewee M, who noted: "I think technology

has its place, and when used in combination [with face-to-face] it can be very effective".

Interviewee W said that when it comes to commentary concerning new e-technologies "I

think people too often focus on the negatives. There are paybacks as well". This affirms the

view that it is necessary for expatriate managers to best put into place policies and practices

that embrace e-technologies in line with organisational practice, whilst enabling the

expatriate to best perform the functions of his or her assignment to their specific needs or

objectives.

Whilst it may be useful to have policies that highlight communicative e-

technologies, this may be useless if the organisation does not utilise it. Interviewee E noted:

"We've got an extensive videoconferencing network that no one in Asia seems to use at all!".

Interviewee Q supposed "It's a very tricky one, I think technology could be like 10% of the

answer", whilst Interviewee T remarked that "Mobility I think is here to stay. It's [more]

about getting it right." The fact that most interviewees acknowledged both the benefits and

limitations of e-technology, suggests that this is certainly a key facet in any possible

relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning, and that harnessing e-

81

technology in support of knowledge transfer and organisational learning is indeed about a

matter of striking a positive balance between human and technical resources.

6.4.4 e-Technology, Knowledge Transfer and Organisational Learning

In sum, the interview evidence suggests that the use of communicative e-

technologies creates both opportunities and challenges for MNC's. Interviewees C, E, H, I

and U held quite negative views regarding the role of e-technology as a means of knowledge

transfer in cross-border assignments. This can be contrasted with the sentiments of

interviewees L, M and S, who held very positive views. Within these two extremes,

interviewees A, F, T and W advocated the need for balance in cross-border placement, and

stressed the need to use e-technologies as a support tool rather than a direct replacement for

expatriation. What this data reflects is quite a mixed view regarding the role of e-technology

as knowledge transferor, which suggests that the use and integration of such technologies in

cross-border placement are still in a state of infancy.

Hypothesis H5 - 'high use of communicative e-technologies will positively moderate

the relationship between cross-border placement and organisational learning by providing

additional new means of effective knowledge transfer' - thus remains more a promise than a

proven fact. The key issue in these results was how the new communications tools were

used rather than the quantity or frequency, and as a result, it can be suggested that simply

providing new additional means of knowledge transfer does not mean that the relationship

between cross-border placement and organisational learning will become any more

seamless. On the contrary, the above evidence suggests that whilst it may demonstrate some

value, e-technology may be considered a double-edged sword when it comes to enhancing

82

knowledge transfer and learning via cross-border placement. The number of interviewees

with negative perceptions of e-technologies suggests that e-technologies may be unsuitable

due to their inappropriate application. This also suggests a degree of incompatibility, with

some expatriates preferring to transfer knowledge through more traditional mediums

(assignment debriefing, repatriation etc.) than relying on new technologies. It may thus be

that e-technologies are unable to facilitate the relationship between cross-border placement

and organisational learning in all settings. Rather, it may be that its efficacy will be a matter

of individual preference, with those who expatriated who are more technologically-inclined

being best placed to leverage learning value.

6.5 Conclusion

The preceding results reflect a set of mixed outcomes in response to our key

hypotheses on the role that moderating influences play on the relationship between

expatriate practice, knowledge transfer and organisational learning. Hypotheses H2a, H2b,

H3a, H3b and H4a can be said to be largely supported, with the vast majority of

respondents' comments supporting the relevant notions. According to the data collected,

Hypothesis H4b can be said to be supported in theory, yet not in practice and H5 can be said

to be quite convincingly unsupported by the aforementioned commentary. This reflects an

interesting result, namely whilst our key moderators do have an important role to play on

the relationship between expatriate practice, knowledge transfer and organisational learning,

their particular roles are far more complex than previously anticipated.

83

Chapter 7

Conclusion

7.1 Introduction

This study has examined the direct relationship between non-traditional expatriate

practice (including reverse expatriation), knowledge transfer and organisational learning.

This has been complemented by an examination of several ancillary moderators of this

relationship, namely the influence of national cultures, organisational characteristics and the

use of e-technology. The preceding chapters have detailed the results associated with this

investigation, offering some illuminating insights into both the specific potentialities of

cross-border placement and the general realm of IHRM. This final chapter summarises the

study's main findings and considers the implications for theory and practice in the IHRM

field. This is complemented by commentary on this study's empirical limitations and

suggestions for future research.

7.2 Major Findings

The study's nine key hypotheses returned mixed findings. Of the nine, six can be

said to be largely supported (H1a, H2a, H2b, H3a, H3b and H4a), two received only in-

principle support from interviewees (H1b and H4b) and one quite convincingly unsupported

(H5). While the relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning is

indeed mediated by knowledge transfer, as well as being moderated by culture and

technology, the results indicate that the relationship is also far more complex than predicted,

and there seems to be other variables in play.

84

With regard to the primary hypotheses (H1a and H1b), the results support the

proposition that well-managed non-traditional expatriation, including reverse expatriation,

can enhance organisational learning by overcoming the 'stickiness' of bi-directional

knowledge transfer associated with more traditional expatriation practices (H1a). This is

made possible through the creation of new opportunities for knowledge to be disseminated,

transferred and integrated within a MNC. However, whether or not reverse expatriation is

able to provide an additional source of competitive advantage (H1b) remains contingent, as

the results suggest that moderating variables also play a significant role on knowledge

transfer mechanisms, as predicted by hypotheses H2-H5.

The results lend support to the hypotheses concerning the influence of national

cultures on knowledge transfer, suggesting that a placement in an organisation with a

national culture of high power distance will negatively moderate the relationship between

expatriate practice and organisational learning (H2a) , whilst a placement in an

organisation with a national culture with low power distance will positively moderate the

relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning. This suggests that

gaps between origin and destination national cultures may play an important role in

moderating the effective transfer of knowledge between home and host entity. It also

suggests that stakeholders should be mindful of these differences when considering cross-

border placement and resulting knowledge transfer possibilities.

Similarly, organisational structure was found to have an important moderating

influence on knowledge transfer. Both H3a and H3b were supported by the results, i.e. that

a placement in an organisation with a mechanistic structure will negatively moderate the

85

relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning and that a placement

in an organisation with an organic structure will positively moderate the relationship

between expatriate practice and organisational learning. Despite considerable support for

these two hypotheses, particular exceptions were also noted, signifying that external factors

are also important in influencing knowledge transfer in particular organisational structures.

The second set of organisational characteristics, relating to organisational culture,

returned mixed results. Hypothesis H4a was supported by the interview evidence,

corroborating the proposition that an organisational culture that encourages communicative

openness will positively moderate the relationship between expatriate practice and

organisational learning by facilitating knowledge transfer. However, H4b, that an

organisational culture that encourages reflexivity will positively moderate the relationship

between expatriate practice and organisational learning by facilitating knowledge transfer,

can be said to have been supported in abstract, based upon interviewee attitudes, but not in

terms of proven practice. Although the research participants vouched for the potential of

reflexive approaches to facilitate knowledge transfer, concrete proof was not forthcoming,

since the interviewees were unable to provide examples of actual outcomes.

Hypothesis H5, that high use of communicative e-technologies will positively

moderate the relationship between cross-border placement and organisational learning by

providing additional new means of effective knowledge transfer, can be said to have

received little support. Rather, interviewees suggested that over-use of e-technologies may

actually degrade the quality of knowledge transfer, especially in terms of reductions in face-

to-face interaction.

86

Overall, the results suggest that the most ideal environment for the transfer of newly

acquired knowledge would be as follows:

a national culture difference of similar PD value between origin and destination;

an organic organisational structure;

a culture where communicative openness and use of face-to-face contact is valued

and promoted; and

a firm that utilises e-technologies as a support mechanism.

Such conditions appear to assist in the facilitation, transfer and integration of newly

acquired knowledge and constitute an environment in which non-traditional forms of

expatriate practice may be most effective in terms of organisational learning. However, as

the results also show, exceptions to these conditions do arise, and a context-specific

approach may be most appropriate overall.

7.3 Implications for IHRM Theory

The findings augment existing IHRM theory in a number of ways. Most importantly,

they reinforce the notion that non-traditional forms of expatriation, including reverse

expatriation, have great potential to enhance the knowledge transfer capability of MNCs. In

doing so, this study displays conjectural value, by both providing a groundwork for future

research on the topic of reverse expatriation and by linking expatriate practice with

organisational learning via knowledge transfer. Connecting these previously distinct

conceptual orientations in this manner may present value for authors by allowing for a re-

conceptualisation of expatriate practice within the context of organisational learning.

87

Theorists may also find value in making a closer theoretical connection between the

moderating variables of the thesis, namely the role that national cultures, organisational

characteristics (structural barriers/facilitators and communicative openness/inhibition) and

use of e-technology play in the facilitation of knowledge transfer.

7.4 Implications for IHRM Practice

If the results lend conditional support to the general notion of reverse expatriation,

they also point to areas for improvement in contemporary IHRM practice. Both comparator

groups offered similar views and perceptions, which suggests that regardless of expatriate

classification, a set of core issues is common between both traditional and non-traditional

expatriate types. In this manner, comments made by research participants can be considered

valuable in an indicative sense, not least because the diversity of the interviewee sample

adds strength to the generalisability of findings made. The evidence presented also supports

the notion of greater interconnectedness between the primary and secondary influences of

knowledge transfer, suggesting that expatriate practitioners should be mindful of these

influences when considering cross-border placement.

Considering the findings as a whole, practitioners may be interested to note the

function of particular circumstances under which knowledge transfer via cross-border

placement may be maximised. An organisation that operates in a culture of communicative

'openness' may be an ideal environment in which the barriers associated with mechanistic

structures have a minimal effect on the free-flow of newly acquired and integrated

knowledge. IHRM practitioners may find that this particular environment is most effective

for the utilisation of new forms of expatriate practice, such as reverse expatriation. At the

88

same time, however, knowledge utilisation may be impacted by the national cultures and

sub-cultures of both origin and destination entity, and this should not be overlooked in

practice. Over-utilization of e-technologies would be one example where IHRM

practitioners should be mindful, especially relating to technology's potential to serve as a

'double-edged sword' in both enabling and limiting different facets of knowledge transfer.

In sum, closer consideration of organisational and wider cultural characteristics and

their potential to influence knowledge transfer either positively or negatively would appear

to be an important consideration for effective IHRM practice.

7.5 Limitations and Scope for Further Research

While the study has demonstrated some of the key links between expatriate practice,

knowledge transfer and organisational learning, like any such study it also has empirical

limitations. Firstly, since it relies on qualitative evidence from a relatively small sample of

interviewees, the study lacks the strong validity and generalisability that may have been

achieved by means of a quantitative methodology involving survey-based data gathering,

stratified random sampling from a large expatriate population, a large sample of respondents

and multivariate statistical analysis. Additionally, a narrow overall sample size, one void of

any categorical 'reverse expatriates', together with a lack of organisational case studies

utilising the practice can be said to limit generalisability of the study's findings.

Nevertheless, this study is also one of the first to explore the mediated and

moderated nature of the contribution of cross-border placement to organisational learning

and, as such, stands to hopefully make a meaningful contribution to IHRM theory and

89

practice. Arguably its chief value lies in its diverse, multinational sample, exploring the

sentiments of a wide range of non-traditional expatriates, including flexpatriates, inpatriates,

expatriate coaches, mentors and managers across a broad range of industries. This diversity

provides an illuminating insight into the ever-evolving nature of cross-border placement and

the increasingly diverse manner in which it operates.

Given that the study of non-traditional expatriation remains in its infancy, further

research is both warranted and needed. Future research should take into account issues not

covered by this study, including the extent of difference in structural and organisational

culture characteristics between origin and destination entities and locations. While this study

did not consider the influence of individual personality as a potential key moderating

influence on the effect of knowledge transfer and on expatriate practice and organisational

efforts, research in this area has definite appeal. For example, one or more of the Big Five

Personality factors, perhaps 'openness to experience' (Salgado, 2002; 117) may be a salient

moderating factor. The issues of placement timing and cost could also be explored in more

detail, including whether a particular length of time, or allocation of resources is sufficient

for effective transfer and integration of knowledge within MNCs. A closer examination of

reverse expatriation in practice could also be of considerable value to an understanding of

the phenomenon.

Supplementary research could also examine additional variations of the tentative

model. For example, an adaptation of the test model could include the possibility that the

causal associations between the main variables may be bi-directional. It may be that the

moderator variables are able to impact the knowledge transfer associated with expatriate

90

practice without impacting organisational learning (i.e. by influencing the expatriate

directly). As such, a revisited model could explore this possibility.

7.6 Conclusion

This thesis has considered the value of reverse expatriation as an element of the

overall relationship connecting expatriate practice, knowledge transfer and organisational

learning. While some of the hypotheses tested received only partial support, the results and

findings indicate substantial support for the use of reverse expatriation in both theory and

practice. The results also highlight the significance that knowledge transfer has in the

mediating relationship between expatriate practice and organisational learning.

While reverse expatriation remains at the fringes of academic research, as this study

shows, its potential as a mechanism for additional knowledge transfer and organisational

learning in international contexts renders it well worthy of closer attention by both academic

researchers and IHRM practitioners.

91

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Appendix A: Interviewee Data

Interviewee

Code

Gender Age Industry Job Roles Expat Type Comparator

Group

Origin

Country

Destination /

Focus

Country

Other Country

Experience

A F 40s Finance HR Manager Expatriate

Manager

Traditional

Expat

South Africa Australia -

B F 30s Energy HR Manager Expatriate

Manager

Traditional

Expat

Australia New Zealand -

C F 30s Engineering General Manager Expatriate Traditional

Expat

United States Singapore -

D F 30s Consulting Head Consultant Inpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

United States Singapore Japan

E M 40s Publishing Senior Publishing

Editor

Inpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

Australia Singapore -

F M 30s Information

Technology

Network

Management

Expatriate Traditional

Expat

United States Italy -

G M 30s Hospitality General Manager Expatriate Traditional

Expat

United

Kingdom

Saudi Arabia -

H M 30s Information

Technology

Expatriate

Executive

Inpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

India United States -

I M 60s Consulting International

Consultant

Flexpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

United States Belgium EU

J F 50s Consulting Expatriate Coach Flexpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

United States Italy EU

104

Interviewee

Code

Gender Age Industry Job Roles Expat Type Comparator

Group

Origin

Country

Destination /

Focus

Country

Other Country

Experience

K F 20s Non-

Government

Organisation

Communications

Role

Inpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

United States Italy France

L F 60s Media TV Executive and

Freelance

Photographer

Flexpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

United States Denmark EU

M M 40s Finance Training/up-

skilling

Flexpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

South Africa India Sierra Leone,

Korea,

Australia,

Japan

N M 30s Energy HR Manager Expatriate

Manager

Traditional

Expat

Australia China -

O F 40s Tele-

communications

Marketing Inpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

United States France Italy, Germany

P F 50s Publishing Publishing Editor Inpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

United States China Singapore, Kenya

Q M 40s Food/

Beverage

Production

HR Manager Expatriate Traditional

Expat

United

Kingdom

United Arab

Emirates

Hong Kong,

Australia

R F 40s Media Journalist Inpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

United States Singapore -

S M 40s Construction Plant and

Equipment

Investor

Inpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

United States New Zealand Australia

105

Interviewee

Code

Gender Age Industry Job Roles Expat Type Comparator

Group

Origin

Country

Destination /

Focus

Country

Other Country

Experience

T M 40s Finance Recruitment

Marketing

Inpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

India Australia -

U F 30s Tele-

communications

Senior HR

Specialist

Expatriate

Manager

Traditional

Expat

Australia China Philippines

V F 30s Consulting Director Inpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

Australia Singapore -

W F 30s Media Journalist Flexpatriate Non-

Traditional

Expat

United States India Italy

106

Appendix B

Indicative Questions for Interviewees

Part 1 - Background:

1) Could you please indicate details of your experience in cross border placement to date?

a) Former Employers/Organisations:

- approximate dates/duration

- countries/regions

-names of organisations/types of organisations/industries

- tasks/roles

- achievements/objectives completed?

b) Current Employer/Organisation

- points of difference between current and non-current employer assignments

Part 2 - Evaluation:

2) (a) How would you evaluate your overall experiences in cross-border placement? (e.g.

scale from 1-10 critical failure to very successful)

(b) For each placement you've been involved in, please provide an evaluation of your

learning experience.

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(c) Thinking about your most positive placement experience, please provide an evaluation

of your learning experience. What worked so well from a learning viewpoint?

(d) Thinking about your most negative experience, please provide an evaluation of your

learning experience. What went wrong?

3) What would you have done differently to further your success? Was knowledge

(integration or attainment) a factor?

4) In what ways did your cross-border experience enhance your knowledge and skills?

- could you provide some examples?

5) In what specific ways do you believe your experiences have been a benefit to the

organisation that you worked for?

- could you provide some examples?

6) In a general sense, what could organisations do to better attain and integrate knowledge?

7) In what ways could your former organisation do a better job at attaining and integrating

knowledge? And your current employer? Did your firm's expatriate training programme

account for this? Did your objectives take into account a broadening/acquisition of new

knowledge expected to be gained overseas?

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8) Were the support networks/systems provided to you during your assignments facilitative

in creating an environment open to knowledge transfer? How could this environment have

been made more fluid? (From both a participant and managerial/organisational perspective)

Part 3 - Repatriation:

9) Do you have a repatriation/de-brief procedure at your current organisation? Did you have

one at your previous organisation? Could you indicate details of it? How would you

describe it?

- Could you provide some examples?

- How would you evaluate these procedures?

- Was the integration of knowledge and/or knowledge transfer a factor in the repatriation

process?

10) In what ways could your organisation do a better job at managing

repatriates/repatriation?

Part 4 - Perceptions/Introducing Knowledge:

11) Did you consider knowledge transfer upon embarking on your cross-border placement?

Did you consider how your knowledge would be integrated upon your return? Why/Why

not?

12) How did you perceive the receptiveness of your organisation to knowledge prior to your

cross-border assignment? Did this change during or following your return?

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13) Would you classify your organisation as one that is open to knowledge attainment? In

this regard, would you classify your organisation as a learning organisation?

Part 5 - Introducing Reverse Expatriation (RE):

14) Are you familiar with the term reverse expatriation? Are you familiar with the concepts

- reflexivity, knowledge transfer, organisational learning?

15) How widely do you think RE is used? Do you know of examples of firms using it or

have experience using it or variants of it?

- If so, what do you think motivates firms to use it?

16) What do you think are the requirements for RE's success? What do you think should be

the requirements for RE's success? (Differences in perceptions vs. reality)

17) What do you think are the requirements for RE's failure? What do you think should be

the requirements for RE's failure? (Differences in perceptions vs. reality)

Part 6 - Reverse Expatriation in context:

Optional Section for Senior HR Managers, Policy Makers and Practitioners

18) How do you see RE fit with other IHRM practices/strategies?

- Does it fit? Can it fit? Should it fit?

- Will it replace any existing theory/practice?

110

- Are there some practices/strategies with which RE will best align for maximum success?

19) How does RE sit with globalisation? Is it a natural outcome of globalisation?

20)How does RE tie in with the concept of expatriate failure? Do the same causes of

expatriate failure apply to RE? Can RE potentially address some of the problems of

expatriate failure?

21) Are there alternatives (including theories and variations) to RE you see as being

beneficial to the practice of Expatriate Management?

22) Are all expatriates able to become reverse expatriates, or does RE require specific

characteristics?