rethinking typology of stadium typology- thesis literature review

V I I I s e m e s t e r

B . A r c h

K L S G o g t e I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y

B e l g a u m

CONTENTS

Abstract ...................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgement ..................................................................................... iii

List of Illustrations .................................................................................... iv Literature Study ......................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction of topic and Intention of the thesis: ................................................................. 1

1.2 Objectives and scope of the project: ................................................................................... 2

1.3 Dictionary meaning and elaboration on key words: .............................................................. 2

1.4 Elaboration on aspects of stadium architecture: .................................................................. 3

1.4.1 Sports:........................................................................................................................ 3

1.4.2 The stadium and the city: ............................................................................................ 3

1.4.3 Urban Integration: ...................................................................................................... 4

1.4.4 Typologies: ................................................................................................................. 4

1.4.5 Narratives:.................................................................................................................. 5

1.4.6 Management of Public Space around the Sporting Arena .............................................. 7

1.5 Architectural aspects of stadia: ........................................................................................... 8

1.5.1 Chronological documentation of stadium architecture: ................................................. 8

1.5.2 Contemporary stand on stadium architecture: ............................................................ 19

1.6 Opinions of Experts on the phenomenon and architecture dealing with the issue: ............... 23

Publication bibliography .......................................................................... 25

i | R e t h i n k i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e o f S t a d i u m T y p o l o g y

Abstract

Stadia have the ability to reshape a city. What once was a place built for viewing an event, is now the most important piece of civic infrastructure. Historically, the stadium was built as a monument to society. The Roman Colosseum and Soldier Field were built as political gifts to the city, which symbolized the importance of recreation and entertainment in society. They were spaces for the cities to meet as one, to share their views, and celebrate civic accomplishment. The modern stadium is still a space for civic celebration, but why is it important for a city to have this space? What is the role of the modern stadium today?

The modern stadiums are designed to capitalize financially as much as possible and also due to increase in automobiles, the newly built stadiums have moved from downtown to suburbs providing owners more space for seats, larger parking lots and ultimately more revenue. These larger disconnected stadiums have led to waning attendance and an overall lack of use.

The thesis attempts at finding what measures would bring back the sports arenas much closer to the common public and aims at creating an event space for a better symbiosis of private and public sectors and this project will establish a new prototype for stadium design in which the stadium becomes an integral part of the city. The project will examine how a new stadium can become a continuation of street activity thereby uniting the urban fabric of the city. The stadium will be a facility that serves the sporting culture as well as the city.

ii | R e t h i n k i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e o f S t a d i u m T y p o l o g y

Acknowledgement

I learned that I could not do anything in one graduation project and experienced that frequent contact with my supervisors was fruitful without doubt. Therefore I would like to give my special thanks to Ar.Ritesh Darmayat sir for helping me with structuring my research and for guiding me in all kind of ways. Many thanks to our HOD, Ar. Pratap D.Patil, for his fair effort in giving reviews and suggestions to each of the students in our batch.

I would like to thank my twin brother, Hareesh Gangolli for sharing his thoughts on my thesis and making me believe in myself.

I can never forget my parents and my family for their great support during my hard times.

Finally, I want to thank all my friends who never let me down and who were so patient during the last year.

iii | R e t h i n k i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e o f S t a d i u m T y p o l o g y

List of Illustrations Figure 1 Closed Vs Open Types ..........................................................................................4 Figure 2 Community and the stadium......................................................................................5 Figure 3 Going to the match LS Lowry, 1928 .........................................................................6 Figure 4 Stadium at Olympia ..................................................................................................8 Figure 8 Panathenaic stadium (2004 Olympic Games of Athens)...........................................9 Figure 5 Plan of 331 BC Panathenaic Stadium........................................................................9 Figure 6 Panathenaic stadium (1896 Olympic Games) ...........................................................9 Figure 7 Panathenaic stadium before renovation .....................................................................9 Figure 9 The great amphitheatre in Verona ..........................................................................10 Figure 10 Colosseum (The Flavian Amphitheatre) ...............................................................11 Figure 12 Circus Maximus in 80 AD.....................................................................................12 Figure 11 View of Circus Maximus.......................................................................................12 Figure 14 Remnants of Hippodrome of Constantinople (Bezantine Empire)........................13 Figure 13 Chariot Racing in Roman Hippodromes ...............................................................13 Figure 16 Time line of stadium development ........................................................................14 Figure 15 Piazza del Campo ..................................................................................................14 Figure 17 Large amount of crowd in First Generation stadia ................................................15 Figure 18 Telstra Dome in Melbourne...................................................................................17 Figure 19 The Chinese National Stadium in Beijing The Bird's Nest Stadium..................18 Figure 20 View of Oriole Park at Camden Yards ..................................................................20 Figure 21 character of the street between the ballpark and the warehouse............................20 Figure 22 extension of the stadium to the street ....................................................................20

iv | R e t h i n k i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e o f S t a d i u m T y p o l o g y

Literature Study

1.1 Introduction of topic and Intention of the thesis: Stadium, in its purest form, is a structure that holds tiered seating arrangements built for

mass viewing of sports, competitions and public events. It is a major component of social interaction in cultures all around the world, in both developed and developing nations. The cathedral of sport has always been a place capable of bringing a community together; dating back from spectacular colosseum to mega structures we build today. It is a place where people come together to celebrate sport, see a show, congregate for self expression or some other similar social event.

Currently many stadiums, which are civic structures, tear unsustainable holes in cities and isolate themselves from their surroundings. It is not enough for stadiums to just co-exist with the urban environment and become integrated into the skyline. They must infuse activity, vitalize the surrounding area, restore urban density, and create connections to the community. Traditional stadium design typically revolves solely around an iconic image conveyed by these civic monuments. However, they often ignore the social potential embedded within. How does a stadium become more than just a stadium? This thesis will address issues of community, embodying how a new stadium can provide a nucleus for urban regeneration within the city.

Stadiums are traditionally designed with regards to the aerial view from a blimp; however, this is not how stadiums are experienced. Therefore, this thesis will examine how stadiums are experienced at the human scale. This notion challenges traditional stadium configurations. A paradigm shift for stadium design is necessary to change the way we view their role within the urban context. Cities invest heavily in stadiums in terms of funding and support; therefore, it is imperative that stadiums invest in cities in terms of physical contributions and social benefits.

Stadiums need to be designed to achieve public gain and can become more and

more public participatory. There is a large disconnect between a privately focused design and a publicly focused design. Therefore there has to be a major shift in the way the stadiums are viewed, designed and financed, allowing them to become more flexible. Especially when integrated in mixed-use developments, they can play a key role in urban regeneration and the trend of stadiums returning to inner city areas is one that we might expect to see more of in the future. A stadium could become more of a public amenity to the city instead of helping a very few to profit and only being used sparely for a limited number of things.

The thesis attempts at finding what measures would bring back the sports arenas much closer to the common public and aims at creating an event space for a better symbiosis of private and public sectors and this project will establish a new prototype for stadium design in which the stadium becomes an integral part of the city. The project will examine how a new stadium can become a continuation of street activity thereby uniting the urban fabric of the city. The stadium will be a facility that serves the sporting culture as well as the city.

1 | R e t h i n k i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e o f S t a d i u m T y p o l o g y

1.2 Objectives and scope of the project: To promote and enhance prospects of sports. To discuss what are the stands of experts and common people over the topic at

present. To appreciate main areas of debate around the topic and also try to contribute to that

debate. To provide for all citizens a variety of enjoyable leisure opportunities those are

accessible safe, physically attractive and uncrowned. To access the requirement of sports complex in the light of regional potentials and

aspirations of the people. To think of all possible ways to make the stadium, an integral part of the city life and

meet the expectations of present generation.

There is real scope for the study as the contemporary sport arenas are looking at the different possibilities to achieve social and economical gain. There is a lot of discussion going on around the world on this topic and in developing countries like India it is still possible to integrate stadiums within urban fabric, enriching the aspiration of the people towards sports.

1.3 Dictionary meaning and elaboration on key words: Sport: Sport is termed as all forms of physical activity that contribute to physical fitness, mental well-being and social interaction. These include play; recreation; casual, organized or competitive sport; and indigenous sports or games. (Sport Recreation and Play 2004) Stadium: Enclosure that provides a broad space for sports events and tiers of seats for a large number of spectators. The name derives from a Greek unit of measurement, the stade, (about 607 ft or 185 m) the length of the foot race in the ancient Olympics. Shapes of the stadium have varied depending on use: some are regular with curved corners; others are elliptical or U-shaped. Typology: The doctrine or study of types or of the correspondence between them and the realities which they typify; Polis: A polis consisted of an urban centre, often fortified and with a sacred centre built on a natural acropolis or harbor, which controlled a surrounding territory (chora) of land. Hippodromes: (in ancient Greece or Rome) a stadium for chariot or horse races. Circus : (in ancient Rome) a rounded or oval arena lined with tiers of seats, used for equestrian and other sports and games. Naumachia shows : an ancient Roman spectacle representing a naval battle. : A place for naumachiae.


http://www.ancient.eu/Acropolis/

1.4 Elaboration on aspects of stadium architecture:

1.4.1 Sports: One of the benefits of sports is that it brings youth together. Sports help people solve their differences and problems. Young people can change their attitude by playing sport.

-Salah Hussein Wasughe, 2004 Sport is one of the few things we have created in our society that is not predictable, it is never the same. It can be unique. Sport supplies the stories that make life worth living for many people.''

-Rod Sheard, 2005 To understand why stadia have become central to the lives of so many people, it is

necessary to examine the role of sport in society. Sport today has moved to central stage, effectively ousting every other form of mass entertainment. Donald Katz argues that ''Sport has arguably' surpassed popular music as the captivating medium most essential to being perceived as young and alive ... ''. Sport goes straight to the hearts of people -be they spectators in the stadium or television viewers -arousing passionate and partisan behavior. Sport has been described as ''war without killing'', and the language of n1artial conflict is employed -there are 'offence squads' and 'defense squads' in American football, we 'shoot' at goal, we celebrate 'victory' and the 'defeat' of vanquished opponents. (Sheard et al. 2005) Sport has the power to change the world. It has the power to inspire. It has the power to unite people in a way that little else does. Sport can awaken hope where there was previously only despair.

-Nelson Mandela, 2006 With so many diverse opportunities throughout society, sports represent one of the last

institutions that everyone can identify within a community. Stadiums are the physical manifestation of this institution, the modern day cathedrals and town halls. They are one of the most important types a city can have.

Modern sport has been described as (i) a ritual sacrifice of human energy; (ii) providing a common cultural currency between peoples; (iii) a means of compensating for deficiencies in life; (iv) a mechanism for the affirmation of identity and difference; (v) business rather than sport; (vi) a social product; (vii) a contested arena shaped by struggles both on and off the field of play and (viii) being a euphemism for Western or capitalist sport. (Jarvie 2005)

1.4.2 The stadium and the city: The stadium has always been the most iconic building in the city. From the Colosseum

in Rome, to Soldier Field in Chicago, the stadium is the urban space where cities gather to express their civic pride. Stadia are the icon of the community that surrounds them. Wrigleyville in Chicago would be nonexistent if it were not for Wrigley Field. No other building typology has the same effect that stadia have on a city. The stadium as a building typology cannot be understood without understanding the society in which it resides. stadiums are the icon of the city. They represent the culture and views of the society;

The stadium is the urban center for the celebration of the ritual that is the event. It is the place where the people gather to rejoice as one when the team wins, and mourn when the team loses. The stadium is the most urban structure in the city today. But the stadium is more than a place for sport. It is a tool for revitalizing the city. It is a center of economic growth. In many new stadiums, transportation centers are also introduced alongside. This proves that the stadium grows the city center. (Dureiko 2014)


1.4.3 Urban Integration: Today, unlike any other building, the stadium stages the organized congregation of

tens of thousands of people, in a collective demonstration of a contemporary social order. And yet, in a growing trend, stadia exist in an increasingly compromised relationship with the contemporary city and its citizens. Once a significant facet of classical civic life, this typology has become hermetic, standing as disconnected obstacles in urban areas, frequently unoccupied and often relocated to the urban fringes. With sporting and large cultural events now almost entirely controlled by private investors, sponsors and the media, stadia architecture is often more concerned with the defense of a privatized territory, rather than the support of a public space that engages and identifies with the city. (Paxton 2014)

In countries like India, which always celebrate sports as a religion, there is a need to make stadiums as the integral part of the city. There can be more activities that can happen around the stadiums which can connect them to the city and bring up the aspiration and proud of the city. It is clear that alongside the seats, tiers, steps, club shops, ticket offices and turnstiles of the stadium, a range of everyday, ritualistic spaces form part of an overall spatial narrative that characterizes the experience of viewing a sporting occasion. This project will explore how specific ritualistic behaviors, occurring at the precise intervals of the stadium games fixture list, may affect the urban processes happening simultaneously at the premises.

1.4.4 Typologies: Closed configuration: Isolation within the urban context Traditional stadium design typically emphasizes iconic imagery conveyed by these defined civic monuments. However, they often ignore the dynamic social potential embedded within. These stadiums, which are civic structures, tear unsustainable holes in cities and isolate themselves from their surroundings. Inherent within their configuration, these stadiums are intrinsically inward focused. It is a narrow-minded approach which only addresses the stadium from an internal organization system. These stadiums work from the standpoint of a contained entity of which they are expressive; however, they fail with regards to contextual connections. Broader social and economic issues are ignored. These stadiums are wrapped in circulation concourses that turn their back to the community. Thus, this traditional "closed" stadium configuration becomes an isolated amenity void of activity the majority of time. Traditional stadiums have few ties to their surroundings. Their isolation portrays the idea that they can be inserted anywhere. By applying design notions universally it is impossible to establish a sense of place. Many current stadiums have been design with under this typology. (Birkey 2005)

Figure 1 Closed Vs Open Types


Open configuration: (Integration within the urban context) This is the desired configuration in order for urban stadiums to become fully integrated and realize the social potential embedded within. This is the emerging paradigm that is explored throughout the thesis. The stadium becomes a continuation of street activity thereby uniting the urban fabric of the city. It serves the sporting culture as well as the city. It is not enough for the stadium to just co-exist with the urban environment it inhabits and make design gestures that visually incorporate the stadium into the skyline. It must infuse activity, vitalize the surrounding area, restore urban density, and create connections to the community. Thus, the new "open" prototype opens up to the community. Contributions to the community are an equal priority to that of the functional aspects of stadium operations. (Birkey 2005)

1.4.5 Narratives: The following pages describe a series of architectural narratives that reveal intersections between the urban condition and the stadium or sporting logic; masses, ritual, typology and hybridization. These themes will develop ideological, theoretical and tectonic strands to the project. a) Masses: In the staging of an event, stadia must act as architectural devices to somehow manage the filling up and emptying of the arena - a choreography of the masses. A stadium can be considered as being made up of two masses, that of the solid mass of the static structure and that of the flowing, temporal mass of the spectators, thus, the filling up of the stadium, completes the construction. During the filling and emptying phases, it is important to distinguish between the crowd inside and outside the stadium. These contrasting conditions may be defined as 'open' and 'closed' crowds. Outside, the open crowd is without limits, it grows, while inside, the closed crowd is now formalized within limits, its density and numbers controlled by the architecture. Spatial and architectural techniques such as the positioning and orientation of seats, the paths of circulation and the frequency and dimensions of entrances may be used to organize the movement of the crowd, with specific psychological and behavioral implications. The traditional arrangement of seats, informed by the optimal relation of spectator and actor, imposes a kind of reverse panopticon condition. Canetti explains, "The seats are arranged in tiers around the arena, so that everyone can see what is happening below. The consequence of this is that the crowd is seated opposite itself. Every spectator has a thousand in front of him, a thousand heads. As long as he is there, all the

Figure 2 Community and the stadium


others are there too; whatever excites him, excites them; and he sees it. They are seated some distance away from him, so that differing details which make up individuals of them are blurred; they all look alike and they all behave in a similar manner and he notices in them only the things which he himself is full of their visible excitement increases his own. There is no break in the crowd which sits like this, exhibiting itself to itself. It forms a closed ring from which nothing can escape. (. . .) this crowd is doubly closed, to the world outside and in This project will engage with the psychological and behavioral nature of both the crowd and the individual, in relation to the filling and emptying of the stadium, and concepts of its inside and outside. (Paxton 2014) This project will engage with the psychological and behavioral nature of both the crowd and the individual, in relation to the filling and emptying of the stadium, and concepts of its inside and outside. b) Ritual: The presence of the stadium and the influence of the sporting event extend far beyond the perimeter of the pitch or gates at the turnstile. It is through spectator behavior, the rituals and performances that comprise 'going to the match: encompassing the everyday spaces that both surround football stadia and make up journeys to and from them, that a wider, more diffuse area of the city is caught up in the regular staging of major sporting events in a specific location. Architectural significance may be found in the spatial organization of some particular set of sequences and the paths between the spaces. It must be noted that a series of rituals occur before and after the event, and are therefore conditioned in relation to its outcome a team's triumph or defeat.

For home fans, these ritualistic spaces and the habitual activities that occur within them contribute to a strong sense of belonging to a place -a feeling that Bale describes as a topophilia: " Occupation of the same spot over the years, the historical catalogue of dramatic events on the pitch, the smell of hot drinks and the waft of cigarette smoke, the jokes and the chants, and the whole rich panoply of successive shared events that become sedimented in the inhabitation of the stadium and the passage towards it". (Paxton 2014)

Figure 3 Going to the match LS Lowry, 1928

Equally, the away supporters' 'topophobic' experience may be unfamiliar and somewhat of a novelty, producing a completely different set of behavioral implications on the local urban environment. It is clear that alongside the seats, tiers, steps, concourses, club shop, ticket office and turnstile of the stadium, a range of everyday, ritualistic spaces form part of an overall spatial narrative that characterizes the experience of viewing a sporting event. This project will explore how these specific ritualistic behaviors, occurring at the precise intervals of the stadium game fixture list, may affect and be informed by complimentary or contradictory urban processes happening simultaneously.


c) Hybridization: Besides sporting events and concerts, a stadium could also serve as a public playhouse, movie theater, or venue for farmers markets and seasonal fairs. Compared to conference halls, auditoriums, and other structures that host large numbers of people, the open roof of a stadium creates a stronger feeling of "belonging" in a city, especially when other buildings are visible from within the space.

1.4.6 Management of Public Space around the Sporting Arena The public space adjacent to the stadium has two distinctly different phases of

management. The first and most obvious is the management during an event, primarily in the run up to the event and directly after its conclusion. The second phase, and for the purposes of this thesis, the more fundamental phase exists outside of event times when the space is for the most part vacant.

During this time the public space performs entirely differently to match day. It is more similar to the public space that is seen elsewhere in the urban landscape such as around high-rise buildings. The difference however is that in this case the building is relatively unoccupied. The management of this public space is something that concerns not just architecture but also geography, culture, politics and criminology.

Increasingly in today's world the role of urban space in our lives is significant. Where, in decades gone by these spaces have been neglected now their relevance to society is being acknowledged. Even more recent is the shift in opinion regarding the public space around the stadium. Now more consideration is being given to these spaces. In the past these buildings were fenced or walled off and gates were only opened on match day. Now, contemporary stadium designs allow access right up to, if not partly into, the building itself.

The stadium in many urban settings acts as a heart to the area. At intervals it will draw masses of people to it and its surroundings. Yet equally as fast as they arrived, the stadium will dispel them back to the extremities of the city. In order to achieve greater public space the intervals between each occurrence of this must be shortened. A regular heartbeat to the stadium will supply active use of the public space around it. (Williams 2012-13)

Matthew Carmona, a Professor of Planning and Urban Design at the Bartlett School of Planning, points out that,

There is a particular type of formal, high profile public space that through a wide variety of development and policy processes, have become increasingly privatized and therefore more or less exclusionary."

This is applicable to the public space in the stadiums adjacency and is a response that the architect, through design, must avoid the public experiencing. (Williams 2012-13)


1.5 Architectural aspects of stadia: 1.5.1 Chronological documentation of stadium architecture:

The stadium may be considered as an architectural translation of cultures of gathering and viewing public events, their timely evolution subject to a complex mix of political, sociological, technological and ideological shifts. The origins

It could be no-one but Heracles (Hercules in the Roman world), the mythological hero of strength and of exertion, to set the length over which the athletes had to compete against each other in the only competition of the first Olympic Games. Legend has it that six-hundred feet of the hero, one after the other, determined in 776 BC the length of the track of the running event, a length just exceeding 192 m after which the competition itself and the facility welcoming it were named: "Stadion". (Spampinato) Greeks:

The ancestral prototypes for modern sports facilities of all kinds are the stadia and hippodromes of ancient Greece. Here Olympic and other sporting contests were staged, starting in the eighth century BC. Greek stadia (foot racecourses): The stadium at Olympia

There was a sports field situated adjacent to an enclosed training gymnasium and along the edge of the field a colonnade with stone stepping to accommodate the spectators. As the track became more popular two stands were constructed, facing each other on opposite sides of the activity area. The fully developed stadium consisted of a track 192m long and 32m wide with rising tiers of seats on massive sloping earth banks along a rudimentary athletics track shaped as an elongated "U". The first stadium therefore originated at Olympia in the VIII Century BC ultimately accommodating up to

45,000 spectators. The stadium had two entrances, the Pompic and the Secret, the latter used only by the judges. Elongated-U-shaped stone stand ran along the three sides of the track, two rectilinear and one bended, on the other side opening onto the surrounding landscape.

Such stadia were built in all cities where games were played. Some, following the pattern of Greek theatres, were cut out of a hillside so that banks of seats with good sightlines could be formed naturally, while others were constructed on flat ground. In the latter case the performance area was sometimes slightly excavated to allow for the formation of shallow seating tiers along the sides.

Stadia built on the flat existed at Ephesus, Delphi and Athens. The one at Delphi was almost 183m long by 28m wide, had a shallow bank of seats along one side and around the curved end, and the judges seats were at the midpoint of the long side very much as in a modern facility.As sport became more popular, stadia were built in many Greek towns alongside with hippodromes. These had similar characteristics and dimensions but they were used for horse and chariot racing. These sports facilities soon started to play key roles within the "polis". There are still vestiges in Delphi, Ephesus and most of all in Athens, where in 331 BC Panathenaic stadium was built. It was then reconstructed in AD 160 and reconstructed again in 1896 for the first modern Olympic games and was recently renovated for the Olympic Games of Athens 2004. In this form it can still be seen, accommodating up to 50 000 people in 46 rows. (Spampinato)

Figure 1 Figure 4 Stadium at Olympia


Figure 8 Panathenaic stadium (2004 Olympic Games of Athens)

Figure 5 Plan of 331 BC Panathenaic Stadium

Figure 6 Panathenaic stadium (1896 Olympic Games) Figure 7 Panathenaic stadium before renovation


Hippodromes These courses for horse and chariot races were roughly 198m to 228m long and 37m wide

and were laid out, once again, in a U-shape. Like Greek theatres, hippodromes were usually made on the slope of a hill to give rising tiers of seating, and from them developed the later Roman circuses, although these were more elongated and much narrower. (Spampinato) From Greece to Roma From an architectural viewpoint, with its partially open structure and its plan, shaped as an elongated "U", the stadium, which is built sometimes by excavating tiers along a slope and other times by building them at a certain height on a level ground, is the meeting point between the two great typological models of the Greek and Roman world, which are also public facilities but used for performances: theatre and amphitheatre.

The amphitheatre was built during the Roman age starting from the first century BC in contrast to the Greek model, from which it differed due to its most urban nature. Tiers were built on an elevated level often with superimposed rows. The elliptical layout fully encompassed the amphitheatre and spectators could focus only on the arena, the central area for the cruel gladiators' fights or for naumachia. Besides, unlike those in the theatre stands were often screened by a curtain screen made up of cloths actuated by ropes. Arles amphitheatre, Verona Arena (30 AD) and of course Flavian Amphitheatre, the Colosseum (80 AD), are the most important and best preserved examples. (Spampinato) Roman times: Amphitheatres

The militaristic Romans were more interested in public displays of mortal combat than in races and athletic events, and to accommodate this spectacle they developed a new amphi-theatrical form: an elliptical arena surrounded on all sides by high-rising tiers of seats enabling the maximum number of spectators to have a clear view of the terrible events staged before them. The term arena is derived from the Latin word for sand or sandy land, referring to the layer of sand that was spread on the activity area to absorb spilled blood.

The overall form was, in effect, two Greek theatres joined together to form a complete ellipse. But the size of the later Roman amphitheatres ruled out any reliance on natural ground slopes to provide the necessary seating profile, therefore the Romans began to construct artificial slopes around the central arena first in timber (these have not survived)and, starting in the first century AD, in stone and concrete. Magnificent examples of the latter may still be seen in Arles and Nimes (stone) and in Rome, Verona and Pula (stone and a form of concrete).

The great amphitheatre in Verona, built in about 100 AD, is world famous as a venue for opera performances. Originally it measured 152m by 123m overall, but very little remains of the outer aisle and it currently seats about 22 000 people. The arena measures 73m by 44m. (Spampinato)

Figure 9 The great amphitheatre in Verona


The Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, better known as the Colosseum from the eighth

century onwards, is the greatest exemplar of this building type and has seldom been surpassed to this day as a rational fusion of engineering, theatre and art. Construction began in AD 70 and finished 12 years later. The structure formed a giant ellipse of 189m by 155m and rose to a height of four storeys, accommodating 48 000 people a stadium capacity that would not be exceeded until the twentieth century. Spectators had good sightlines to the arena below, the latter being an ellipse of roughly 88m by 55m bounded by a 4.6m high wall. There were 80 arched openings to each of the lower three storeys (with engaged columns and encircling entablatures applied to the outer wall surface as ornamentation), the openings at ground level giving entrance to the tiers of seats.

Figure 10 Colosseum (The Flavian Amphitheatre)

The internal ambulatories and access passages formed by the structural arcades were so well-planned that the entire amphitheatre could, it is thought, have been evacuated in a matter of minutes.

The arena was used for gladiatorial contests and other entertainments and could be flooded with water for naval and aquatic displays, thus anticipating modern mass entertainments. Beneath the arena was a warren of chambers and passageways to accommodate performers, gladiators and animals. The amphitheatre could be roofed by stretching can-vas awnings across the open top. All these diverse functions have been smoothly assimilated into a great drum that stands magnificently in the townscape functional in layout, rational in appearance, yet rich and expressive in its surface modeling.

In parallel with the transition from theatre to amphitheatre, the tradition of sports facilities moved from Greece to the Roman world with the birth of circus, the typological evolution of the prototypes of stadium and of hippodrome, between the II and the I century BC. (Spampinato)


Circuses: The circus concerned equestrian sports and drew the elongate "U" shape from the previous

models but it differed from them as its fourth side was closed by buildings. Seats rose in tiers along the straight sides of the U and round the curved end, the lower seats being in stone and reserved for members of the upper classes, the upper seats made of wood. The sometimes monumental buildings on the fourth side included the horses' starting stalls marking the boundary of a further side of the track. The course was continuous and races on more laps could therefore take place. The starting and return courses were separated by a spina a low wall decorated with carvings and statues. Two pillars at its ends indicated the "metae", the turning posts for the horses.

Circuses were usually built around the walls and adjacent to the imperial palace, in order to ensure direct access for the emperor and his court. Due to their positions, these large open spaces were sometimes used for some more public activities as well, thus turning into an integral part of the city life.

A notable early example was the Circus Maximus in Rome (sixth century), followed in 46 BC by a successor of the same name. This was possibly the largest stadium ever built. It was about 660m long and 210m wide and offered all-seating accommodation for spectators in three tiers parallel to the track, could welcome about 200,000 spectators. The stands covered three levels, behind which there was an external faade with three superimposed rows. The lowest row was provided with large arcades used by the spectators reaching the facility and streaming out of it. The arcades also featured workshops opening onto the outside. Thanks to its location, near the Tiber, it could be filled with the river waters and as a consequence Circus Maximus could be also used for naumachia shows. (Spampinato)

Figure 12 Circus Maximus in 80 AD

Figure 11 View of Circus Maximus


The Hippodrome was considered the most important building of the Byzantine Empire, and Chariot racing was the most important event in the life of ordinary the Byzantine citizen. Chariot racing was arguably the most popular sport, as it was the sport that took place the most often at the Hippodrome, however one could argue that this did not necessarily make it the most popular. There is no denying however that it was one of the most important sports of the Byzantine Empire. (Tavish, Upshall Danielle)

Figure 14 Remnants of Hippodrome of Constantinople (Bezantine Empire)

The Pessimus Hippodrome which was unique at the time in consisting of a Greek theatre and a Roman hippodrome linked at the centre of the hippodrome via the theatre stage. Two events could be staged separately in theatre and hippodrome, or the latter could be used in combination for a single grand event. This building was an obvious ancestor of the modern multi-purpose stadium complex.

One of the best preserved circuses is the Circus of Maxentius in Roma is also a famous example. It was built in the IV century AD together with the other large buildings of the new capital of the Roman Empire. However by the time it was built circuses were no more serving their original purpose, that is hosting equestrian events, but they were rather used for other public activities. (Spampinato) Fifteen centuries of suspension

During the IV century AD, the importance of sports practice was considerably reassessed all over the ancient world, which unavoidably affected the development of sports facilities.

After Christian cult was legitimized by Constantine Edict, the Council of Arles held in 314 imposed a ban on the circus charioteers, actually banning the pagan practice of chariot racing and thus speeding up the conversion of circuses into non-sports public facilities. Similarly in 394, when Greece had been under the Roman rule for a long time, an edict promulgated by the emperor Theodosius who accepted the request made by Milan bishop

Figure 13 Chariot Racing in Roman Hippodromes


Ambrose led to the abolition of the Olympic Games, which were regarded as a pagan rite contrary to religious rites.

Therefore shifted to new building typologies such as churches and cathedrals, castles, fortifications, towers and municipal palaces which became peculiar elements of Medieval towns and of their development. Sports activities were seldom and limited. The ancient Greek and Roman sports buildings were progressively abandoned. Many of them were converted into markets or houses, others were fully pulled down to reuse building materials.

Sports practice was given a new boost during the Renaissance when running events and equestrian events were reintroduced. However they did not take place in specific facilities, but usually in areas serving other purposes, in large open spaces or in the squares, which were often provided with wooden tiers and small temporary roofs for the most important spectators.

Piazza del Campo in Siena and its Palio horse race are the most important case that

is still popular nowadays, while in Firenze in P iazza Santa Croce the forerunners of modern football used to play in teams made up of 27 members each without any rule, but the one to throw the ball into the goal of the opposite team.

Sports were properly defined a few centuries later, in the second half of the Nineteenth Century, which also saw the setting up of the first clubs and sports federations. The enthusiasm for the new sports, football and rugby in particular, quickly grew in Great Britain, where in the cities in which population had dramatically grown due to the urbanization process resulting from the Industrial Revolution people soon felt the need to build new facilities that could welcome a high number of fans.

In the same years the revival of the Olympic Games, proposed in 1894 by the French baron P ierre de Coubertin, sanctioned the final importance of sport in the modern age and symbolically marked the start of a new age of stadia.

Figure 16 Time line of stadium development

Figure 15 Piazza del Campo


The modern age: So far the technological evolution is almost one century and a half long. On the basis

of the peculiar aspects that have marked the different stages, partly drawing on the theoretical analysis made by Rod Sheard, five "generations" of stadia can be identified. These are generations marking the steps of a faster and faster development with many stadia, fully renovated or rebuilt over time, that have gone through more stages of this evolutionary process.

"The 'Five Generations' theory evolved from practical observations of the way that the development of stadia has changed over the years. It is important that the forces which have driven the development of stadia over the last two decades are understood, along with an appreciation of how stadia can now contribute to the growth of sustainable communities.'' The precedents for modern stadia can be found in ancient Greece and Rome. The Greek form was dictated by the site, and stadia either occupied the floor of a valley with the spectators using the natural slopes for seating, or they were built on the shoulder of a hill with the upper slopes forming the seating. Essentially they were embedded in the topography, and the spectators had a panoramic vista over the landscape. This model was used at Delphi, Epidaurus and Olympus.

The Roman form was the antithesis of this, and amphitheatres, such as the Colosseum in Rome (80AD), dominated the landscape. The Roman stadium was oval in shape and was encompassed by substantial facades. The attention of the spectator was focused inwards on the intense and frequently violent action, and there was no opportunity for the contemplation of nature. Whereas the Greek stadium was essentially rural, the Roman version was an urban form. These two models became powerful determinants of stadium morphology in the late 19th Century, when sports were codified and the designers sought precedents. The Greek model was suited to a more leisurely contemplation of sporting events which lasted for several hours or even days, and was therefore adapted for early cricket grounds and racecourses. The Roman model was eminently more suited to the 'cauldrons' of soccer, rugby and American football where the length of play is relatively short and the action is very aggressive. Early baseball parks and Australian Rules football grounds were a hybrid of both types. (Sheard et al. 2005) 1. First Generation Stadia "The history of the modern stadium dates back to the codification of sport in the second half of the 19th Century. The First Generation of stadia placed the emphasis on accommodating large numbers of spectators, with minimal concern for the quality of the facilities or the comfort of those spectators.'' First-generation stadia were like huge hotchpotches whose purpose was basically to host a large amount of spectators in an age when there was no television and sports events could be watched just live. Particularly in the first years, they were facilities with no architectural value, uncomfortable and the provision of facilities was basic. Tiers were made of concrete or just with the arrangement of embankments standing and often crammed into the stands, with the exception of some small seating stand, Figure 17 Large amount of crowd in First Generation stadia


sometimes also provided with a small roof for the most important spectators. Their extension was usually disorderly and non-homogeneous, in order to satisfy the increasing demand for seating areas by the spectators.

This model was introduced in Great Britain as football facility with the typical rectilinear stands running parallel to the sides of the pitch and was soon adapted to the model of the Olympic stadium with continuous tiers running along the perimeter of the athletics track. The White City stadium, now pulled down, was the first example during the Games of London 1908.

Alongside with the passion for football, these models were exported from Great Britain to the rest of Europe and to South America. They often featured the Marathon Tower, which made them easily identifiable in the city environment. This first generation of stadia took different forms until the end of the Fifties, when they had to be confronted with a sudden reduction in the number of spectators. (Sheard et al. 2005) 2. Second Generation Stadia: The Influence of Television "Television, which had been developed in the 1930s, began broadcasting sports events in the late 1950s. Almost immediately there was a sharp decline in the numbers attending live sporting events. The Second Generation of stadia was the response, placing greater emphasis on the comfort of spectators and improving support facilities in the venue. However, these stadia were still largely concrete bowls and a great many of the world's sporting venues remain as Second Generation stadia''.

The 1960s were the television age. Almost everyone could afford a television set, and sport from all over the world could be enjoyed in your own home. Everything seemed possible. The 'global village' was established and conceptually the world began to shrink. Mark McCormack remarked that, ... an unholy alliance was developing. Sport was helping to make television and television was helping to make sport.

To solve this problem the new stadia started to be equipped with more facilities for spectators in order to improve their comfort. The new stadia built in the three following decades or many of the already existing ones that were renovated provided themselves with viewing sectors with seats, with roofed stands and with a higher number of toilet facilities, also including food and beverage outlets in the stand area. The stadia were also equipped so as to welcome television broadcasting systems as best as possible and to develop their potentials. The interior of many facilities was renovated, thus stressing their nature of "introverted" stadia, which were comfortable inside yet anonymous outside, which was a common element of that age. They were also provided with artificial lighting installations thus ensuring night broadcast. What was still a problem in the stadia was inside safety. (Sheard et al. 2005)

3. Third Generation Stadia: The Family Stadium The Third Generation of stadia emerged in the early 1990s, developing more user-friendly facilities to lure the entire family. Sport was the focus, but not the only attraction, and the principal source of revenue for the sporting clubs change, shifting from turnstile receipts towards merchandising and television.

The Eighties ended with a series of catastrophic events in the UK stadia: fire of wooden

stands, the escalation of the violent phenomenon of hooligans and the disaster at Sheffield Hillsborough Stadium, caused in April 1989 by an overcrowded stand. These events killed hundreds of people and induced us to consider spectators' safety. The result was summarized in the pages of Taylor Report, a survey carried out on behalf of the


Government, which in 1990 introduced the new safety measures to be adopted in the UK stadia. The main recommendation was that all stadia had to become all-seater facilities. Taylor Report became greatly popular not just in the UK and started a deep upgrading process concerning many European stadia.

As a consequence, these facilities which were made more accessible, safe and comfortable drew more diversified and heterogeneous spectators. Therefore the stadia were not upgraded just to be in accordance with the new standards, but the process gave us the opportunity to introduce business activities in stadia, which were soon also sponsored. Merchandising, museums, guided tours, boxes and restaurants become popular in stadia together with recreational and leisure areas, which ensued from a new way to manage the facility, regarded as a public area used not for the mere sports event and open seven days a week. (Sheard et al. 2005)

4. Fourth Generation Stadia: The flexible stadium

The solution was successful. "Commercial" stadia had excellent yield and to exploit the potentials offered by these large audience containers at best, non-static, technologically sophisticated facilities capable of meeting many-sided requirements were chosen.

"It became clear that stadia could make money if the design, funding and

management were integrated. Stadia should not be regarded as a drain on a city's finances. A new era was emerging, of which the new Telstra Dome in Melbourne is a classic example. This is truly a Fourth Generation stadium, with an opening roof, moving seating tiers and a below-pitch car park. This is a blueprint for the city of the future.''

Mobile roofs, stands and playing

fields are the basic elements of this generation of new multipurpose and flexible facilities capable of being quickly converted to offer the optimum configuration and the maximum comfort whatever the event to take place, whether sports or non-sporting, may be. The stadium is now open to marketing and to communication: boxes, conference rooms and hospitality areas are now part of the language of new facilities, which in their turn have been converted into lounges for sponsors and companies and designed so as to enhance television broadcasting and

to positively reach the high lighting and acoustic standards required by digital television. stadia have come of age. They have grown into buildings that can be used as catalysts for the planned and strategic growth of 21st Century cities. Stadia have become powerful symbols of our culture, our aspirations and, sometimes, of our failures. We need to learn how to use them wisely, and how to get the most out of their potential.''

-Rod Sheard, 2005 In this way, stadia draw many users all the year round and turn into new urban

centralities, sometimes capable of acting as catalysts for the processes aimed at their neighborhoods redevelopment. (Sheard et al. 2005)

Figure 18 Telstra Dome in Melbourne


5. 5th Generation Stadia: Urban Regeneration (The urban icon) Each generation of stadia has 'raised the bar', adding a new level of sophistication and

improved facilities. Now, at the beginning of the 21st Century, a new potential has emerged; the ability of stadia to shape new cities and to regenerate decaying areas of old cities. The stadium typology can provide all the elements required to achieve a critical mass capable of sustaining city life: a critical mass containing the residential, commercial, retail, leisure and transport components which encourage cities to thrive. Inner city stadium construction during the last decade has revitalized the cities of Baltimore, Denver, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, Cardiff, Melbourne, Brisbane, Lisbon and San Francisco.

The crucial determinants for stadium design in the 21st Century will be the potential

for urban regeneration, and the role of the 'iconic' stadium in the marketing and positioning of a global city. The Fifth Generation stadium is a less tangible piece of architecture than the previous four generations; it will be identified and categorized by its global presence and by its regional regenerative potential. (Sheard et al. 2005)

Increasingly, new stadium proposals are conceived as part of bids to stage mega-events, such as Olympic Games, World Cups and International Fairs. As significant structures in these ventures, stadiums are required to serve as symbolic landmarks, presenting an image of the city to a global audience. Similarly, the idea of an iconic stadium is implemented in city politics as a tool to clearly communicate planning goals, gain consensus and drive large scale urban renewal projects.

It may be argued, then, that the most significant function of the contemporary stadium is to act as a symbol, to transcend its immediate locality and communicate more widely on a civic and often global scale. (Paxton 2014)

Figure 19 The Chinese National Stadium in Beijing The Bird's Nest Stadium


1.5.2 Contemporary stand on stadium architecture: A stadium, more than any other building type in history, has the ability to shape a

town or city. A stadium is able to put a community on the map, establishing an identity and providing a focal point in the landscape.

The stadium is a complex planning tool. If it is used wisely, it can help a city grow, especially on barren sites. A great deal of regeneration in cities takes place in an understated unglamorous way, with people quietly moving into refurbished buildings. This is the type of city regeneration for which a sporting venue can act as a catalyst.

This regeneration will occur increasingly, due to the 'emotional' acceptance of an area when it is used for sport. People see the area in a very different light. There is an 'atmosphere' created around a sporting event, which generates powerful and intense emotions. The emotional experience of attending and participating in a major sporting event is exhilarating. It is not just the event, there is an 'afterglow' and this illuminates the whole area.

Today, major sporting facilities are a mainstay of urban regeneration and their potential has been recognized. However, a stadium alone will not transform a blighted area; it must be part of an overall plan to attract commercial, retail and recreational activities; and, most importantly, people. The stadium must integrate with a neighborhood, a district or a city. Fifth Generation stadia are not 'stand-alone' buildings; they should be seen as dynamic cells implanted into the urban fabric of a city, stimulating growth and inspiring regeneration. A cha11enge to stadium designers is to improve urban design in the vicinity of stadia, and to implement the new generation of stadia which must function as living parts of their cities. (Sheard et al. 2005)

Support facilities will increasingly provide amenities for all the family to enjoy as well as other entertainment areas for those not committed to the game.

They will eventually include every type of function from business centers to bowling alleys, similar to the range of facilities often found in international airports or shopping malls. Attractions will be designed to encourage spectators to arrive early and stay on afterwards perhaps even sleeping overnight in the Stadium Hotel.

Tomorrows stadia will be places of entertainment for the family where sport is the focus but not the complete picture. It will be possible for five members of a family to arrive and leave together, but to experience in the intervening period five different activities.

While the parents see the live game, their children experience the live game in the virtual reality studio where images from the in pitch cameras provide close immediate action. (John et al. 2007)


Oriole Park at Camden Yards Baltimore, Maryland, 1992 Oriole Park at Camden Yards incorporates all the modern conveniences -for fans and ballplayers - without sacrificing history, tradition or aesthetics. It brings the game closer to the fans, giving the crowd a more intimate look at the game. It restored uniqueness and single-purpose as attainable and desirable goals. It has become the most influential major-league ballpark since Yankee Stadium."

-The Detroit News, April 12, 1999. The design of Oriole Park took its cues from the historic B&O Railway Station and a warehouse running along the eastern boundary of the site, parallel with the former rail tracks. The stadium has a three-storey brick podium with a lighter steel structure set above. The colors are pale buff bricks (like

the old railway buildings) and dark green ironwork, not unlike the color and structure of the cranes operating along Baltimores water- front. The field is set seven meters below the external ground level to improve the relationship of the stadium to adjacent buildings. Oriole Park proved to be extraordinarily popular with baseball fans, and rival ballpark owners were inevitably attracted to the concept. (Sheard et al. 2005)

Figure 20 View of Oriole Park at Camden Yards

Figure 21 character of the street between the ballpark and the warehouse.

Figure 22 extension of the stadium to the street


Estadio Nacional de Brasilia:

The Estadio Nacional de Brasilia is located in the heart of Brasilia, the capital of Brazil The stadium was completed in 2013 and seats about 72,000 making it the second largest stadium in South America.


The Estadio Nacional de Brasilia is located in the heart of Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. The stadium was completed in 2013 and seats about 72,000 making it the second largest stadium in South America. It is also the second most expensive stadium in the world, after Wembley Stadium in London, rounding up to about $475 million. The stadium is pursuing to be the world's highest rated LEED Platinum certified stadium and the first net-zero energy stadiums as well.

Though Brasilia is known for its urban sprawl, the stadium is within a two-mile radius of most hotels it is in the city center, and very easy to reach by public transportation. The esplanade that runs around the stadium acts as a circulation ring that is supported by slender reinforced concrete pillars. It fits in well with the context of Brasilia, while creating a welcoming feeling to the stadium. Brasilia is very warm, but also dry. The architects designed a breathable facade consisting of a field of columns that provide natural ventilation to flow into the arena bowl and concourse, reducing the amount of air conditioning needed to cool the building. There are a total of 288 columns ranging from 1.2 to 1.5 meters in diameter, 46 meters tall.

The facade is what is most interesting to me and relevant for this thesis. The openness the columns bring to the stadium has potential to push the design ideas even further in a different setting. It is a very permeable facade It leads me to some design questions: What if these columns held up the tiers of seating as well as the roof? What if there

were layers of activity along this arcade of columns?

1.6 Opinions of Experts on the phenomenon and architecture dealing with the issue: The Stadium and the City:

"Stadia are entertainment buildings, a building type largely ignored by city planners over the last 25 years. That is understandable: the earlier versions were dull to look at usually- low budget and d low art solutions. That hall changed as in the 21st Century they are now high budget and high art public buildings. They contribute intrinsically to urban areas and can totally transform community. They create precincts where people gather to enjoy themselves, and representation of that enjoyment' is a new concept architecture."

-Rod Sheard, (THE STADIUM, Architecture for the New Global Culture)

Philosophy of stadium design: A clear and unhindered view of the action is paramount and therefore that should be

the primary focus when it comes to stadium design. This, coupled with a teeming yet comfortable and clear layout, is what fans and owners alike really want.

I want optimal density and vision for the fans. I have particular demands on the way I want to lead the public from the different fans to VIP guests. The most important thing in differentiating stadia is the location and the differing identity of their corresponding cities

My grandson who is a passionate football player and also a trainer in the youth team teaches me a lot. Through him I have learned to see new things and with him I developed a different perception of the game in a stadium. What goes on there has fascinated me. I like going there with young people. (gmp 2013)


-Prof Marg How would you describe the upcoming stadium generation?

Basically, we want to create places where people often meet. A stadium that can only reached in good traffic connections that are situated in front of the city gates on a green meadow and every visitor has to rely on public transportation or the car; in this case it will be difficult to accomplish this aspiration. Our stadiums should be accepted for diverse events of city culture and society life. This will increase the acceptance of society and the stadium can become a self-evident and lively part of a city. With our stadiums we want to create places that become popular meeting places for people of a city and region. (gmp 2013) -Hubert Nienhoff, gmp partner

When it comes to arena design, how do you arrive at a final concept? When thinking about a new facility, the design should be informed by several factors

including the potential event calendar, context, climate and culture. The team needs a deep understanding of how the building operates in relation to the site. A projects deliverability also is based on having a realistic view of what types of events, and how many, the facility will attract, as well as the projects budget aspirations.

Considering these different parameters, amongst others, will start to create opportunities for solutions and begin to define the character of a building on the way to arriving at the final concept. In my experience, a shared, strong concept always makes a project more deliverable and enjoyable. (HOK)

- John Rhodes, a director of Sports in HOKs London office What changes have you witnessed in arena design over the last decade?

In recent years across Europe, in particular we have seen a clear shift away from single-purpose functional venues toward spaces that cater to a much more diverse event calendar, focused on live entertainment rather than purely sport. In addition to enhanced flexibility, this shift means that relationships between the audience and the performer are more important than ever and require much more design consideration than basic viewing analysis.

Consumers are demanding a higher quality and more authentic experience of the event. With the multimedia revolution, were seeing significantly higher experiential competition in the marketplace. This means that the experience of going to an event needs to exceed the convenience factor of watching online at home. A more considered venue is a key tool in this competition. Venue designers need a better understanding of how people want to use spaces and engage in an event. (HOK)

- John Rhodes, a director of Sports in HOKs London office What do you think will be the next big thing in arena design in the next decade?

Arenas are increasingly becoming more integrated within the centre of cities. As a result, there is a need for them to become more multipurpose. This puts pressure on the capital cost of a project, as the venue has to deliver an elevated architectural presence and deal with more complex technical issues such as access and acoustic leakage. Though this may add complexities to the design process, there is a real value to this as arenas can act as catalysts for regeneration and become key community anchors for urban areas.

Over the next decade, arenas will start to combine with other community components like education, science and technology, hotels, and parks. To facilitate this, clients will want a team with specialties in all of these areas. (HOK)

- John Rhodes, a director of Sports in HOKs London office


Publication bibliography Sport Recreation and Play (2004). Available online at http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/5571_SPORT_EN.pdf, checked on 3/22/2015.

Birkey, Ryan (2005): THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOWL. Stadium as an ACTIVE URBAN AMENITY. Bachelor of architecture. Ball State University.

Dureiko, Matthew J. (2014): Stadium Urbanism. Stadia, SPort and the Image of the American City. Kent State University CAED.

gmp (2013): COLISEUM-Sports venues of the world. CATHEDRALS OF SPORTS. gmp.von Gerkan, Marg and Partners. Architects.

HOK: Trends Influencing Stadium and Arena Design. Available online at http://www.hok.com/thought- leadership/trends-in-stadium-and-arena-design/, checked on 3/20/2015.

Jarvie, Grant (2005): Sport, culture and society. London: Routledge. Available online at http://basijcssc.ir/sites/default/files/Sport,%20Culture%20and%20Society%20An%20Introduction.pdf, checked on 3/21/2015.

John, Geraint; Sheard, Rod; Vickery, Ben (2007): STADIA. A Design and Development Guide. Fourth edition. Germany.

Paxton, Christopher (2014): Stadia and the City. Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, EK. School of Architecture.

Sheard, Rod; Powell, Robert; Bingham-Hall, Patrick (2005): The stadium. Architecture for the new global culture. Singapore, North Clarendon, VT: Periplus; Tuttle [distributor].

Spampinato, Angelo: World Stadiums - Architecture :: Stadium history. Available online at http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_menu/architecture/historic_stadiums.shtml, checked on 3/20/2015.

Tavish, Jeff Mac; Upshall Danielle: Chariot Racing. Important Social Behaviour In Byzantine Empire during the Byzantine period. Available online at http://www.theodorechristou.ca/tmc/Byzantium_and_Education_files/Byzantine.pdf, checked on 3/22/2015.

Williams, Eric (2012-13): Stadia - From street to street. Bachelor of Architecture. Waterford Institute of Technology.


Abstract iiAcknowledgement iiiList of Illustrations ivLiterature Study 1Publication bibliography 25AbstractAcknowledgementList of IllustrationsLiterature Study1.1 Introduction of topic and Intention of the thesis:1.2 Objectives and scope of the project:1.3 Dictionary meaning and elaboration on key words:1.4 Elaboration on aspects of stadium architecture:1.4.1 Sports:1.4.2 The stadium and the city:1.4.3 Urban Integration:1.4.4 Typologies:1.4.5 Narratives:1.4.6 Management of Public Space around the Sporting Arena

1.5 Architectural aspects of stadia:1.5.1 Chronological documentation of stadium architecture:1.5.2 Contemporary stand on stadium architecture:

1.6 Opinions of Experts on the phenomenon and architecture dealing with the issue:

Publication bibliography

rethinking typology of stadium typology- thesis literature review

Documents

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r c h i t e c t u r

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o g y abstract stadia

civic celebration

civic accomplishment