research at goi on x-rays and extreme-uv radiation from the sun

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Research at GOI on x-rays and extreme-UV radiation from the sun S. V. Avakyan, I. M. Afanas’ev, V. G. Bogdanov, S. V. Boyutkevich, N. A. Voronin, A. I. Efremov, I. A. Zotkin, A. P. Ivanov, A. B. Izotov, V. N. Kornilov, É. V. Kuvaldin, M. L. Lebedinskaya, N. B. Leonov, E. F. Lekhanov, I. M. Pribylovski , A. V. Savushkin, A. E. Serova, and D. A. Chernikov S. I. Vavilov State Optical Institute All-Russia Science Center, St. Petersburg V. N. Kupriyanov Cosmonautics Federation of Russia G. V. Sazonov OAO LOMO, St. Petersburg Submitted August 12, 2008 Opticheski Zhurnal 75, 31–39 December 2008 This paper is devoted to the history of the development of a number of devices for investigating the x-radiation of the sun, fabricated at S. I. Vavilov State Optical Institute and making it pos- sible to set about creating modern spacecraft for monitoring ionizing solar radiation with wave- lengths shorter than 150 nm. Results are presented for radiation fluxes of both the quiet sun and of the sun in the period of powerful solar flares, measured from artificial earth satellites 1957- 1971. The subsequent evolution of this work with the purpose of creating special apparatus—a permanent Space Solar Patrol—is considered. © 2008 Optical Society of America. INTRODUCTION The chief task of space research has always been to monitor solar activity. Indeed, it is the sun—its electromag- netic and corpuscular fluxes and their variation--that deter- mines the conditions of existence of life itself on earth and creates radiation belts in near-earth space. Variations of solar activity produce natural and technogenic cataclysms, sub- stantially complicating human activity both under terrestrial conditions and, even more, in space. It is therefore not surprising that, even at the very begin- ning stage of space research, S. I. Vavilov State Optical In- stitute GOI was involved in creating optoelectronic appa- ratus for measuring the soft x-radiation of the sun, intended for the world’s first scientific artificial earth satellite. THE FIRST DEVICE FOR INVESTIGATING X-RADIATION OF THE SUN FROM ON BOARD A SATELLITE Shortly before the launch of the first satellite, a publica- tion appeared in which an apparatus was described for mea- suring vacuum x-rays and UV radiation, intended for instal- lation on the first satellites. 1 The history of the creation of this apparatus is as fol- lows: At the beginning of 1956, at GOI, C. L. Mandel’shtam then laboratory head at the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR turned to Academician Aleksandr Alekseevich Lebedev. 2 Mandel’shtam proposed to Lebedev to work on the fab- rication of a device for investigating the sun in the soft x-ray and extreme-UV regions of the spectrum, which is com- pletely absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere and does not reach even the highest altitudes that can be achieved by air- planes and balloons. This region of the spectrum was of great interest for astrophysics the physics of the solar corona and the chromosphere and for geophysics the formation of the earth’s ionosphere, assurance of short-wave radio communi- cation and, finally, was of applied interest for future manned flights in space. 3 The coordination of this work and communication with the satellite developers was assigned to Candidate of Physi- comathematical sciences and Laboratory Head, A. I. Efremov. 2 By the beginning of 1957, the structural layout of device SP-65 had been drawn up: • a system of exchangeable filters for selecting parts of the spectrum; • a detector consisting of a solar-blind 16-stage including the photocathode and the anode secondary-electron mul- tiplier SEM, operating in the pulse-counting regime; • output of the count to telemetry. These are SEMs 4 and went into the flight craft. The investigation of the SEMs and of efficient photo- cathodes in the x-ray region that allow solar radiation with wavelengths from 0.154 to 11.3 nm to be recorded 5,6 was as- signed to specialists in the department headed by A. A. Leb- edev at the A. A. Zhdanov Leningrad State University—A. P. Lukirski, M. A. Rumsh, L. A. Smirnov, and I. A. Karpovich. The characteristics of photocathodes in the 100– 320-nm re- gion were investigated by GOI staff members—Yu. A. Shuba, A. M. Tyutikov, and O. M. Sorokin. 7 The development of the electronics was assigned to the staff members of the laboratory of M. M. Miroshnikov. 8 They very quickly did all the electronics, which also went into the flight sample. The development times were very tight—by the begin- ning of 1958. It was proposed to install the device on object 785 785 J. Opt. Technol. 75 12, December 2008 1070-9762/2008/120785-07$15.00 © 2008 Optical Society of America

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Page 1: Research at GOI on x-rays and extreme-UV radiation from the sun

Research at GOI on x-rays and extreme-UV radiation from the sun

S. V. Avakyan, I. M. Afanas’ev, V. G. Bogdanov, S. V. Boyutkevich, N. A. Voronin,A. I. Efremov, I. A. Zotkin, A. P. Ivanov, A. B. Izotov, V. N. Kornilov, É. V. Kuvaldin,M. L. Lebedinskaya, N. B. Leonov, E. F. Lekhanov, I. M. Pribylovski ,A. V. Savushkin, A. E. Serova, and D. A. Chernikov

S. I. Vavilov State Optical Institute All-Russia Science Center, St. Petersburg

V. N. Kupriyanov

Cosmonautics Federation of Russia

G. V. Sazonov

OAO LOMO, St. Petersburg�Submitted August 12, 2008�Opticheski� Zhurnal 75, 31–39 �December 2008�

This paper is devoted to the history of the development of a number of devices for investigatingthe x-radiation of the sun, fabricated at S. I. Vavilov State Optical Institute and making it pos-sible to set about creating modern spacecraft for monitoring ionizing solar radiation �with wave-lengths shorter than 150 nm�. Results are presented for radiation fluxes of both the quiet sun andof the sun in the period of powerful solar flares, measured from artificial earth satellites �1957-1971�. The subsequent evolution of this work with the purpose of creating special apparatus—apermanent Space Solar Patrol—is considered. © 2008 Optical Society of America.

INTRODUCTION

The chief task of space research has always been tomonitor solar activity. Indeed, it is the sun—its electromag-netic and corpuscular fluxes and their variation--that deter-mines the conditions of existence of life itself on earth andcreates radiation belts in near-earth space. Variations of solaractivity produce natural and technogenic cataclysms, sub-stantially complicating human activity both under terrestrialconditions and, even more, in space.

It is therefore not surprising that, even at the very begin-ning stage of space research, S. I. Vavilov State Optical In-stitute �GOI� was involved in creating optoelectronic appa-ratus for measuring the soft x-radiation of the sun, intendedfor the world’s first scientific artificial earth satellite.

THE FIRST DEVICE FOR INVESTIGATING X-RADIATION OFTHE SUN FROM ON BOARD A SATELLITE

Shortly before the launch of the first satellite, a publica-tion appeared in which an apparatus was described for mea-suring vacuum x-rays and UV radiation, intended for instal-lation on the first satellites.1

The history of the creation of this apparatus is as fol-lows: At the beginning of 1956, at GOI, C. L. Mandel’shtam�then laboratory head at the Physics Institute of the Academyof Sciences of the USSR� turned to Academician AleksandrAlekseevich Lebedev.2

Mandel’shtam proposed to Lebedev to work on the fab-rication of a device for investigating the sun in the soft x-rayand extreme-UV regions of the spectrum, which is com-pletely absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere and does notreach even the highest altitudes that can be achieved by air-planes and balloons. This region of the spectrum was of greatinterest for astrophysics �the physics of the solar corona and

785 J. Opt. Technol. 75 �12�, December 2008 1070-9762/2008/

the chromosphere� and for geophysics �the formation of theearth’s ionosphere, assurance of short-wave radio communi-cation� and, finally, was of applied interest for future mannedflights in space.3

The coordination of this work and communication withthe satellite developers was assigned to Candidate of Physi-comathematical sciences and Laboratory Head, A. I.Efremov.2

By the beginning of 1957, the structural layout of deviceSP-65 had been drawn up:

• a system of exchangeable filters for selecting parts of thespectrum;

• a detector consisting of a solar-blind 16-stage �includingthe photocathode and the anode� secondary-electron mul-tiplier �SEM�, operating in the pulse-counting regime;

• output of the count to telemetry. These are SEMs4 andwent into the flight craft.

The investigation of the SEMs and of efficient photo-cathodes in the x-ray region that allow solar radiation withwavelengths from 0.154 to 11.3 nm to be recorded5,6 was as-signed to specialists in the department headed by A. A. Leb-edev at the A. A. Zhdanov Leningrad State University—A. P.Lukirski�, M. A. Rumsh, L. A. Smirnov, and I. A. Karpovich.The characteristics of photocathodes in the 100–320-nm re-gion were investigated by GOI staff members—Yu. A.Shuba, A. M. Tyutikov, and O. M. Sorokin.7

The development of the electronics was assigned to thestaff members of the laboratory of M. M. Miroshnikov.8

They very quickly did all the electronics, which also wentinto the flight sample.

The development times were very tight—by the begin-ning of 1958. It was proposed to install the device on object

785120785-07$15.00 © 2008 Optical Society of America

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“D” �as a consequence, it became the third Soviet artificialearth satellite�. This work was headed by Serge� PavlovichKorolev, and his assistants M. K. Tikhonravov and K. D.Bushuev participated. The apparatus arrived at S. P. Ko-rolev’s design office within the deadline, was installed andtested as part of the satellite, and then was dispatched to thelaunch complex of the spaceport.

Device SP-65 �Fig. 1� had three input systems, mountedat 120° to each other. To economize on the telemetry chan-nels, their outputs were connected: It was assumed that,when solar radiation was randomly incident on one of theinput devices �the satellite was not oriented�, the output sig-nals of the other two were close to zero and did not influencethe readings of the first. The expected signal was assumed inthe form of characteristic steps �caused by the sudden re-placement of the filters in front of the radiation detector�.The satellite was active for the first seven days, after whichthe electric supply failed.

The incomplete telemetry coverage did not make it pos-sible to realize that rises and falls of the radiation are asso-ciated with periodic passage of the satellite through theearth’s radiation belts. Sharply stepped signals correspondedto the solar radiation.

The first tests of the SP-65 optical apparatus on a satel-lite in space and all the complex pre-launch terrestrial testingwere thus carried out. This work made it possible to begin aseries of optical measurements in space.

THE SECOND GENERATION OF DEVICES

The second generation of devices—FPK-2—was fabri-cated in 1960. These devices were installed on the spaceship-satellites launched on 7/28/1960 �the ship was lost during thelaunch� and 8/19/1960. The launch and flight of the secondSoviet spaceship-satellite were successful—living beings re-turned to earth for the first time after a twenty-four-hourspace flight.

The FPK-2 apparatus consisted of two main parts: threeoptical units �SF-1, SF-2, and SF-3� and a recording circuit�unit RT�.

FIG. 1. Device SP-65 for studying the radiation of the sun in the x-ray andUV regions, installed on the second Soviet satellite.

786 J. Opt. Technol. 75 �12�, December 2008

The SF units were mounted outside the cabin of thespaceship in various parts of it, and the RT unit was installedinside the cabin of the spaceship, unlike the apparatus in-stalled earlier on the second satellite. The entire apparatuswas then placed in space-vacuum conditions.

Each of the three SF units held two detectors with diskswith filters synchronously rotated in front of them, a relaymotor for rotating the disks, a pre-amp, and self-containedswitching optical sensors intended for switching off the ap-paratus when it was on the shaded side of the satellite’s orbitor when the sun was outside the field of view of the device.Each detector had a viewing angle of 50° �60°, while theangle between the optical axes of the two detectors was 80°;there was a dead zone equal to 20° between the two detectorsof one SF unit.

In the FPK-2, a disk with a set of twelve filters wasinstalled in front of the SEM detector. The disk revolvedevery second, so that a new filter was mounted in front of thedetector input. The six positions were occupied by filters forselecting the soft x-ray and far-UV regions of the spectrum.Three positions were occupied by crystal-quartz filters to se-lect the UV region with wavelengths above 150 nm, wherethe sun’s radiation is not subject to fluctuations. Conse-quently, the signal variation at the output of the apparatus isassociated only with variation of the angle between the op-tical axis of the apparatus and the direction to the sun andwith variation in time of the sensitivity of the apparatus.Using the variation of the output signal levels when the mea-surements were made with quartz filters, it was possible tocorrect the readings of the apparatus for the other filters onthe variation of the direction in space and the sensitivityvariation. A � source �radioactive carbon 14C� was mountedat one of the positions in front of the detector input, and thesensitivity of the apparatus was checked and calibrated inthis way. The other two positions served to check the appa-ratus zero by installing a shutter in front of the detector andsupplying a control signal to determine the beginning of theposition numbers, as well as to check the correctness of theelectronic recording circuit.

Three independent count-rate meters �CRMs� with acommon output to the telemetry system are included in theRT unit. Each CRM is connected to its own SF unit.

The radiation was recorded by counting pulses. Unlikethe method of recording by measuring a constant current atthe output of an SEM, this method is more reliable andstable. All the CRM circuits were based on vacuum tubes. Toensure measurement accuracy, the integrating circuits of eachof the CRMs operated within three ranges, corresponding tofrequencies 0–500, 0–5000, and 0–50 000 pulse /sec. Theoutputs of the channels of a single type operated on a com-mon load for all the CRMs.

Both SEMs in each SF unit were supplied from a com-mon voltage divider from an individual converter that gave5000 V at the output. The high-voltage pulsations throughthe periodically connected contact on the axis of the diskwith filters were fed to the input of the recording circuit andwere used to monitor its operation.

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The apparatus switched itself on when the sun’s radia-tion was incident in the field of view of any of the detectors.

Each SF unit had its own sensor of self-containedswitching, whose angle of view coincided with that of thetwo detectors of the unit. The sensor consisted of a wide-angle two-lens objective and two type FS-KO cadmium sul-fide photoresistors. Since the light fluxes reflected from theearth in the visible part of the spectrum can reach the valuesof the radiation fluxes coming from the sun, it is necessary toprevent the possibility that the apparatus would be turned onfrom the light reflected by the earth’s surface. For this pur-pose, the field of view of the objective was separated intotwo different zones, in each of which one FS-KO wasmounted. An image is obtained in one of the zones from thesun, which has an angular size of 30�, whereas it is mostlikely to obtain an image in two zones from the earth, whichhas an angular size �from the satellite� of about 145°. Eachphotoresistor is connected to the corresponding winding of atwo-winding relay. The relay windings are counter to eachother, so that the magnetic fields that they create compensateeach other when two zones are illuminated simultaneously.Thus, the relay through whose contact the supply is fed tothe circuit triggers only when one of the photoresistors isilluminated and will switch off either when there is no lightor when two photoresistors are illuminated simultaneously.

Each SF unit has one optical sensor analogous to theself-contained switching sensor. Signals are supplied from itsoutput to one channel of the telemetry system, and the read-ings serve to approximately determine the position of the sunrelative to the optical axis of the apparatus. The overallpower required by the apparatus was within the limits of12 W.

For normal thermal balance of the SF units, which lieoutside the spaceship, they had polished colorless oxidizedaluminum housings with the corresponding reflectances inthe visible and IR regions.

Before the apparatus was installed in the spaceship, itwas carefully tested and calibrated under laboratoryconditions.9

Great interest in this work was shown by AcademicianA. A. Lebedev, whose advice was constantly used when de-veloping the apparatus; the participation of Professor S. L.Mandel’shtam in the development of the physical layout ofthe experiment10 should also be pointed out.

An experiment on the observation of solar x-rays wassuccessfully carried out in this twenty-four-hour flight. It waspossible for the first time to record the radiation fluxes of thesun in the investigated spectral ranges during the solar flareof August 19, 1960.11,12

Similar sets of “short-wavelength filter-device” appara-tus FPK-3 �Fig. 2� and FPK-4 were installed on the satellitesof the Kosmos series. FPK-3 was installed on board satelliteDS-U2-GF �a small general-purpose heliophysical satellite�,developed by the Yuzhnoe Design Office of M. K. Yangel’�called the Kosmos-262 satellite after it was launched on12/26/1968�.13

Two more new devices were installed on this apparatus:the XRS x-ray spectrometer, with a tracking system on the

787 J. Opt. Technol. 75 �12�, December 2008

spectral region 1.8–31 nm, and the SWSP short-wavelengthstellar photometer �Figs. 3 and 4�.10

A feature of the XRS was the use of a diffraction gratingas a dispersive element and a special tracking system de-signed for definite angular rotational velocities of the space-craft. The diffraction grating was developed and fabricatedby the staff headed by Doctor of Technical Sciences F. M.

FIG. 2. Device SP-118 �FPK-3�. Filter device for studying short-wavelengthradiation of the sun in the range 0.1–150.0 nm, used as part of the apparatuson satellite Kosmos-262.

FIG. 3. Solar spectrometer XRS with a tracking system for the spectralregion 1.8–31 nm, installed on satellite Kosmos-262.

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Gerasimov. The XRS was tested on earth. Even though itturned out that the velocities of free rotation of the satelliteafter being put into orbit strongly differed from the expectedvalues �and therefore it was not possible to obtain reliabledata from this device�, experience in using a device with afairly complex optical layout was useful when creating thenext-generation devices.14,15

The SWSP device was distinguished by a narrow field ofview and a special parabolic x-ray objective with a gold-coated surface that operated in x-ray reflection at small graz-ing angles. The radiations were to be recorded through filtersby means of SEMs.

The intermediate results of the research carried out bymeans of this set of apparatus were reported in Ref. 16.

The set of FPK-4 apparatus was installed on board anionosphere station. The satellite itself was developed at M. F.Reshetnev’s Krasnogorsk Design Office, and the scientificmanagement was performed by the Siberian Institute of Ter-restrial Magnetism, the Ionosphere, and Radio-Wave Propa-gation, Siberian Section, Academy of Sciences �IZMIR SOAN� �Irkutsk� and IZMIR AN �Troitsk�. The first attempt toput the station into orbit in December 1969 was not success-ful, and the apparatus was put into space only after the sec-ond launch attempt, on 12/2/1970. This spacecraft was calledKosmos-381.17

The FPK-4 installed on it was similar in operating prin-ciple and in design to the FPK-2 and included three sealedspectral units mounted outside the sealed volume and a re-cording circuit placed inside the sealed volume. The spectralrange of measurable radiation from 0.14 to 150 nm was bro-ken up into sixteen intervals by special filters, which wereautomatically interchanged every 3 or 10 sec, depending onthe operating regime. The orbit of this satellite, unlike theorbits of those launched earlier on which similar apparatuswas installed, was almost circular at an altitude of about1000 km and made an angle with the equator of 74°. Thefields of view of the three devices did not overlap, while theaperture angles were 60°. Under these conditions, there wasa possibility of patrolling the sun’s radiation during about15–20% of the time of the flight.

FIG. 4. Device SP-115 �SWSP�. Filter device with a parabolic mirror ob-jective for studying short-wavelength radiation of remote sources in therange 4.0–140.0 nm, installed on satellite Kosmos-262.

788 J. Opt. Technol. 75 �12�, December 2008

However, because preflight calibration of the apparatusto the radiation sources as a function of the angle of inci-dence of the quanta was not carried out, it was possible toprocess the readings in only seventeen cases of the appear-ance of the sun’s disk. All these cases are selected so that theorientation of the axis of the apparatus toward the center ofthe sun’s disk was no worse than 10°. Preflight calibration ofthe apparatus to sources of x-rays and extreme-UV radiationwas also not done, and, when processing the data from thesun, a technique proposed by G. S. Ivanov-Kholodny� �Insti-tute of Applied Geophysics� was used, in which the standard�handbook� spectra of the quiet sun were used as the spectralfunction of the source.18

In interpreting the observations made by means of thisapparatus, data concerning the orientation of the satellite cal-culated by Yu. N. Shaulin �IZMIR AN� were taken into ac-count, along with the results of measurements of the electronconcentration in the ionosphere, obtained at the ioniosphericstation of IZMIR AN �Moscow� by the method of verticalprobing of the ionosphere.19,20

GOI staff members participated in creating this appara-tus and the original technique for processing the data.21–23

Implementation of the program for obtaining data con-cerning the electron fluxes at the altitude of the orbit bymeans of the FPK-4 apparatus24 made it possible to increaseby several orders of magnitude the efficiency of the spaceexperiment on the Kosmos-381 satellite and to publishunique information on the electrons that spill out of the ra-diation belts into the ionosphere with an energy from2.5 to 100 eV during the worldwide geomagnetic storm ofDecember 14–15, 1970.25–28

Such a major increase of the information content of thereadings of the FPK-4 apparatus became possible because ofthe following circumstances:

• the excellent operation of the FPK-4 apparatus �with nomalfunctions� during the entire period of active existenceof satellite Kosmos-381;

• the high-efficiency techniques and algorithms for process-ing information, proposed at GOI22 and implemented onthe BÉSM-6 computer at SibIZMIR by A. I. Galkin and N.M. Polekh;

• supplementary calibration of the FPK-4 apparatus to anelectron beam by means of a specially created gun accord-ing, using K. Shte�gerval’d’s scheme;24

• a special methodology for separating signals �in the ab-sence of solar fluxes� from electrons and protons.24

The main thing is that it was possible for the first time toobtain the real levels of the absolute electron fluxes at theentrance into the earth’s ionosphere �at a height of 1000 km�at all latitudes from the magnetic belts to the equator at anydegree of geomagnetic activity.

As shown in Ref. 25, the FPK-4 apparatus was able torecord with high sensitivity the absolute values and the spec-tral shape of the electron fluxes that spill into the earth’sionosphere from the radiation belts. This is because electronfluxes with an energy above 2.3 keV penetrate the filter filmmade from aluminum, and the higher-energy fluxes penetrate

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the films made from boron, beryllium, carbon, and germa-nium, while fluxes with an energy above 25 keV go throughthe foils made from aluminum, titanium, magnesium andcopper.

Protons simultaneously spill from the radiation belts dur-ing magnetic storms. However, the proton flux is about afactor of 43 weaker in the number of particles, since theenergies transported by the electron and proton fluxes, as arule, are identical.27 To separate the signals from the elec-trons and protons, we used a comparison of the readingsfrom filters made from beryllium and germanium—withidentical reduced density, but with substantially differentatomic numbers. Such a pair lets through electrons identi-cally, while protons are strongly absorbed in beryllium. Thedetector of soft x-rays and extreme-UV radiation—an openSEM developed by GOI, with a BeO photocathode—wasvery convenient for recording the charged particles spilledfrom the radiation belts because of its unique degree of solarblindness.

During a strong geomagnetic storm, data were obtainedfor the first time at middle latitudes concerning the absolutemagnitudes of the electron fluxes, both the spilled and thetrapped ones, and separately for energies above 2.5 and25 keV. An earlier-unknown phenomenon of the disappear-ances of electron fluxes was detected �a decrease by 2-3 or-ders of magnitude from the intensity at the maximum� atvarious periods of the storm.25

Actually, as the geomagnetic field varies during thestorm �from the maximum at the center of the chief phase�,the electron spillages from the radiation belts that accom-pany these variations experience sharp attenuations �to therecording threshold in the course of 1.5–3 h� at the begin-ning and the end of the chief phase. They reach the actualmaximum values at the middle latitudes—up to the level ofauroral irruptions—only at the center of the chief phase, at2–4 h.25,27 Now, thirty-five years later, such measurementsduring a magnetic storm are rare, although already in Ref. 29similar results were confirmed concerning the falloff of theflux intensity of electrons with an energy above 25 keV atmiddle latitudes for the largest values of the geomagnetic-activity index Kp �Kp�5�. Abroad, attention has also beenturned for many years to the presence of noise signals infilter radiometers intended, like the FPK-4 apparatus, for ab-solute measurements of solar fluxes of soft x-radiation.30,31

These signals are partially used to obtain data concerningelectron fluxes in geostationary orbit.31

The possibility reported in Ref. 24 that the FPK-4 appa-ratus can measure the electron fluxes that ionize the upperatmosphere will be used in future orbital experiments withthe recently created Space Solar Patrol �SSP� optoelectronicapparatus.

THE CURRENT STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT OF THEDEVICES

The Laboratory of Aerospace Physical Optics, which re-sumed the development of apparatus for measuring the ab-solute and spectral values of the short-wavelength solar fluxas part of the SSP project, was created at GOI in April

789 J. Opt. Technol. 75 �12�, December 2008

1996.32 Thus, already in 1998-9, with the support of the In-ternational Scientific Technical Center �MNTTs� �GrantsNos. 385 and 385B�, two space devices were created for theSSP: an extreme-UV �EUV� spectrometer ���=16–154 nm� and an x-ray-UV �XUV� radiometer ���=0.14–157 nm�,33 the prototype of the latter being theFPK-4 device. To equip the SSP apparatus with solar-blinddetectors, the technology for fabricating SEMs was againreconstructed in the laboratory.33 The last of a complex ofSSP devices, consisting of an XUV spectrometer ���=1.8–198 nm�,34 in which technical novelties were imple-mented that make it possible to increase the recording rangeand to improve the reliability of the apparatus, was fabri-cated at GOI in 2001-3 as part of MNTTs Project No. 1523.35

The chief feature of the methodology of the new SSP con-sists of making simultaneous spectroradiometric measure-ments of the absolute fluxes of ionizing solar radiation �witha radiometer and spectrometers�. We should point out thatsuch measurements had never been made anywhere in theworld. The design of the apparatus allows it to make mea-surements continuously, taking the entire spectrum in thewavelength range from 0.14 to 200 nm every 72 sec.36 Allthe spectral ranges overlap, with this occurring at the mostintense lines of the solar spectrum in the UV spectrometer:about 30.4, 58.4, 911 nm and at 121.6 nm. The superpositionis accomplished with a spectral subrange, where ordinaryphotomultipliers with a magnesium fluoride window �FÉU-142� operate in both spectrometers. All this makes it possibleto increase the reliability with which the apparatus functionsin space and to monitor the possible degradation of the sen-sitivity of each working spectral channel equipped with anSEM. Constant calibration directly in space flight using the55Fe isotope at a wavelength of 0.2 nm is envisaged for theradiometers.

All the devices have passed successful laboratory cali-bration tests on UV lamp sources in the vacuum chambers ofGOI, and the radiometer has also been calibrated on an x-raysource in the laboratory of the European Space TechnologyCenter �ESTEC�, Netherlands.33,37,38 The following GOI spe-cialists took part in the work on the SSP devices: A. V. Sa-vushkin �development of the optical layouts�, É. V. Kuvaldin,V. N. Kornilov �development and creation of the electronicsof the EUV spectrometer and the XUV radiometer�, N. B.Leonov, A. E. Serova �reconstruction of SEM technologyand SEM fabrication�, E. F. Lekhanov, A. P. Ivanov �designmaintenance�, I. M. Afanas’ev, V. G. Bogdanov, V. S. Bort-kevich, A. S. Bystrov �development and creation of the elec-tronics of the XUV spectrometer�, N. N. Timofeev, E. N.Syrkin, D. A. Chernikov �fabrication, setup, and assembly�,N. A. Voronin, I. A. Zotkin, and M. L. Lebedinskaya �calcu-lations, testing, and calibration of the devices�. Joint workwith GOI and the G. I. Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics�IYaF� of the SO RAN �Novosibirsk� on the absolute calibra-tion of a complex of SSP devices has been carried out at theIYaF synchrotron source from 2004 through July 2007, underMNTTs Grant No. 2500.39

The entire complex of SSP apparatus has been fabri-cated, planning on two launches: on the International Space

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Station �on the Russian service module Zvezda� for purposesof test operation and on an automatic spacecraft with solar-synchronous orbit. The current situation and the prospectsfor creating permanent monitoring—a patrol of the spectraldensity of the fluxes of ionizing radiation from the sun—arediscussed in Refs. 40 and 41. The specifics of modern con-cepts of the role of the data of the permanent SSP in thesolution of fundamental questions of astrophysics, heliophys-ics, and geophysics are described in Ref. 42, and in the prac-tical solution of the problems on space weather in Ref. 43.

However, the Council on Space of the Russian Academyof Sciences �RAN� has shown no interest for 10 years in anyof these space experiments. These could have been intro-duced as a major contribution of Russia to the InternationalHeliophysical Year �2007/2008� to reconfirm the pioneeringrole of Russian science, engineering, and cosmonautics insolving the most urgent problems of fundamental research onsolar-terrestrial physics from space, even though, as it turnsout, these are the most difficult problems for world science.44

The results of special tests of the SSP apparatus at GOI andESTEC and preflight absolute calibration on the synchrotronsource at IYaF of SO RAN39 make it possible to carry out thefirst launch into space in the very near future—at the initialphase of the next 24-year solar cycle—and this must not bemissed.45

The national superiority achieved when carrying out thecurrent stage of the work—the creation of a complex of SSPapparatus—should be pointed out, since:

1. Space-based optoelectronic apparatus having no counter-parts in the world has been created for measuring theionizing radiation of the sun.

2. A methodology that has no counterparts in the world hasbeen proposed and implemented for measuring ionizingradiation in space.

3. A technology having no counterparts in the world hasbeen reconstructed for fabricating the most efficient solar-blind detectors of ionizing radiation for the spectral rangebelow 125 nm, consisting of open-type secondary-electron multipliers.

The authors express deep appreciation for many years ofsupport of this work to the chief curator of the projects of theInternational Scientific-and-Technical Center, O. V. Lapidus,and to the chief scientific consultants of the projects of theMNTTs: Professor A. D. Danilov �Academician E. K. Fe-dorov Institute of Applied Geophysics, Rosgidromet�; Pro-fessor G. S. Ivanov-Kholodny� �IZMIR AN�; Pilot-Cosmonaut and Professor V. V. Kovalenko; Pilot-Cosmonaut, Corresponding Member of the RAN, V. N.Savinykh �MIIGAIK�; for scientific collaboration of the SSPproject, Director of the Main �Pulkova� Astronomical Obser-vatory, RAN, Doctor of Physicomathematical Sciences, A. S.Stepanov; for scientific and technical collaboration, Directorof the Academician E. K. Fedorov Institute of Applied Geo-physics, Rosgidromet, Professor S. A. Avdyushin; and forsupport in the publication of this article, Honorary Directorof S. I. Vavilov State Optical Institute and CorrespondingMember of the RAN, M. M. Miroshnikov.

790 J. Opt. Technol. 75 �12�, December 2008

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