11..What is What is researchresearch? ?

1.1 Literally :1.1 Literally : Investigation undertaken in order to discover Investigation undertaken in order to discover

new facts or get additional information.new facts or get additional information. To search again.To search again.

1.2 Scientifically :1.2 Scientifically : The systematic collection, analysis and The systematic collection, analysis and

interpretation of data to answer certain interpretation of data to answer certain question or to solve a problem.question or to solve a problem.

1.3 Characteristics of research :1.3 Characteristics of research :

It demandsIt demands a clear a clear statement of thestatement of the problemproblem..

It requires It requires a plana plan.. It builds on It builds on existing data.existing data. It collects It collects new data. new data.

1.4 Research purposes : 1.4 Research purposes :

Research serves two major purposes:Research serves two major purposes:

1- Generates new knowledge and technologies 1- Generates new knowledge and technologies to deal with major unresolved health to deal with major unresolved health problems (basic research) . problems (basic research) .

2. Identifies priority problems and designs and 2. Identifies priority problems and designs and evaluates policies and programs (applied evaluates policies and programs (applied research) .research) .

1.5 Steps in 1.5 Steps in developmentdevelopment of research proposal of research proposal

Questions to askQuestions to askStepsStepsElements of Elements of stepssteps

11. What is the problem and . What is the problem and why should it be studied?why should it be studied?

- Problem identification.Problem identification.- Problem priorization.Problem priorization.- Problem analysis.Problem analysis.- Problem definition.Problem definition.

22. What is information is . What is information is already availablealready available

- Look for possible sources of Look for possible sources of information.information.- Review available Review available information.information.- Present information needed.Present information needed.- Avoid bias.Avoid bias.- Refer to author.Refer to author.

33. What do we want to carry . What do we want to carry out the research?out the research?

What do we hope to What do we hope to achieve?achieve?

- General objectives.- General objectives.

- Specific objectives.- Specific objectives.

- Hypothesis.- Hypothesis.

- Study title.- Study title.

Selection, analysis and statement of the research problem

Literature review

Formation of objective

Questions to askQuestions to askStepsStepsElements of Elements of stepssteps44. What data needed?. What data needed? How much is needed?How much is needed? How to collected?How to collected? How to process and How to process and analyze?analyze?

Variables.Variables. Type of the study. Type of the study. Data collection techniques.Data collection techniques. Sampling.Sampling. Plan for data collection.Plan for data collection. Plan for data processing and Plan for data processing and analysis.analysis. Ethical consideration.Ethical consideration. Pre-test or pilot study.Pre-test or pilot study.

55. Who will do what and . Who will do what and when and where?when and where?

Personnel.Personnel. Time table.Time table.

66. How to manage the . How to manage the project?project?

Administration.Administration. Monitoring.Monitoring.

77. What resources are . What resources are needed for carrying out the needed for carrying out the study?study?

Material support and Material support and equipment.equipment. logistics.logistics. Money.Money.

Research methodology

Cont.

Work-plan

Plan for project administration

Budget

2. Statement of the research problem2. Statement of the research problem

2.1 Problem identification :2.1 Problem identification : “ “ Problem is a discrepancy between what should be and what is existing” Problem is a discrepancy between what should be and what is existing”

. . A well defined problem leads to good statement of research problem, A well defined problem leads to good statement of research problem, .. Finding a problem is not hard but identifying one for research is not always Finding a problem is not hard but identifying one for research is not always

easy. easy. hypothesis, definition of key variables and selection of appropriate hypothesis, definition of key variables and selection of appropriate

methodology. methodology.

2.1.1. Criteria2.1.1. Criteria Research problem has three criteria:Research problem has three criteria:

1. Perceived discrepancy between what is and what should be. 1. Perceived discrepancy between what is and what should be. 2. A question about why the discrepancy exists.2. A question about why the discrepancy exists. 3. More than one possible and plausible answers to the question.3. More than one possible and plausible answers to the question.

2.1.2. Example of non research problem2.1.2. Example of non research problem

Problem situation:Problem situation: In village x 1000 children should be immunized but not a In village x 1000 children should be immunized but not a

single is immunizedsingle is immunized..

Discrepancy:Discrepancy: 1000 children should be immunized but no child is 1000 children should be immunized but no child is

immunizedimmunized..

Problem question:Problem question: what factors are responsible for failure of immunizing the what factors are responsible for failure of immunizing the

children.children.

Answer:Answer: No vaccines are available.No vaccines are available.

2.1.3. Example of research problem2.1.3. Example of research problem

Problem situation:Problem situation: In village Z 60% of the children who are candidates for immunization are In village Z 60% of the children who are candidates for immunization are

not immunized.not immunized.

Discrepancy: Discrepancy: 100% of candidates for immunization should be immunized but only 100% of candidates for immunization should be immunized but only

40% are immunized.40% are immunized.

Problem question:Problem question: What factors are responsible for failure of immunizing 60% of candidates What factors are responsible for failure of immunizing 60% of candidates

for immunization?for immunization?

Possible answers:Possible answers:1- The health worker is not exerting necessary efforts to cover the children 1- The health worker is not exerting necessary efforts to cover the children

with immunization.with immunization.2- There is shortage of supplies.2- There is shortage of supplies.3- The mothers are not willing to immunize their children.3- The mothers are not willing to immunize their children.

Prioritizing problems for research:Prioritizing problems for research:Seven criteria are used for selecting a research topic. Final score for each topic can be calculated by Seven criteria are used for selecting a research topic. Final score for each topic can be calculated by

multiplication of the scores for all criteria:multiplication of the scores for all criteria:

1. Relevance : - Not relevant = 0- Not relevant = 0 - Relevant = 1- Relevant = 1 - Very relevant = 2- Very relevant = 2

2. Avoidance of duplication :2. Avoidance of duplication : - Sufficient information already available = 1- Sufficient information already available = 1 - Some information available = 2- Some information available = 2 - No information available = 3- No information available = 3

3. Feasibility :3. Feasibility : - Study not feasible considering available resources = 1- Study not feasible considering available resources = 1 - Study feasible considering available resources = 2- Study feasible considering available resources = 2 - Study very feasible considering available resources = 3- Study very feasible considering available resources = 3

4. Political acceptability : - Topic not accepted to policy makers = 0- Topic not accepted to policy makers = 0 - Topic more or less accepted = 1- Topic more or less accepted = 1 - Topic fully accepted = 2- Topic fully accepted = 2

5. Applicability :5. Applicability :

- No chance of recommendations being implemented = 1- No chance of recommendations being implemented = 1 - Some chance of recommendations being implemented = 2- Some chance of recommendations being implemented = 2 - good chance of recommendations being implemented = 3- good chance of recommendations being implemented = 3

6. Urgency :6. Urgency : - Information not urgently needed = 1- Information not urgently needed = 1 - Information is needed but delay is acceptable = 2- Information is needed but delay is acceptable = 2 - Information very urgently needed for decision making = 3- Information very urgently needed for decision making = 3

7. Ethical acceptability :7. Ethical acceptability :

- Not ethically accepted = 0- Not ethically accepted = 0 - Minor ethical problem = 1- Minor ethical problem = 1 - No ethical problem = 2- No ethical problem = 2

Cont.

2.3. Problem analysis2.3. Problem analysis

Once the problem has been identified and justified in depth analysis Once the problem has been identified and justified in depth analysis of the problem needed.of the problem needed.

Problem analysis focus on two issues :Problem analysis focus on two issues : 1. Identify factors that may have contributed to the problem.1. Identify factors that may have contributed to the problem. 2. Clarify the relationship between the problem and contributing 2. Clarify the relationship between the problem and contributing

factors. factors.

Problem analysis diagram helps to visualize the interrelationship Problem analysis diagram helps to visualize the interrelationship between the problem and the contributing factors.between the problem and the contributing factors.

Contributing factors in general, could be grouped into three main Contributing factors in general, could be grouped into three main categories :categories :

Service- related factors.Service- related factors. Disease related factors.Disease related factors. Socio- cultural factors.Socio- cultural factors.

Elements of the problem analysis diagram :

Problem analysis diagram (PAD) is composed of a central cell Problem analysis diagram (PAD) is composed of a central cell ( the problem) surrounded by peripheral cells (factor) and ( the problem) surrounded by peripheral cells (factor) and arrows denoting the relation between the factors and problem arrows denoting the relation between the factors and problem and the factors among themselves. PAD is very important for and the factors among themselves. PAD is very important for selection and designing of data collection tools. All factors selection and designing of data collection tools. All factors that appear in PAD should be addressed in the questionnaire that appear in PAD should be addressed in the questionnaire e.g. age, occupation or in the observation checklist e.g. weight, e.g. age, occupation or in the observation checklist e.g. weight, height. If weight is a factor there is a need for weighing scale, height. If weight is a factor there is a need for weighing scale, if height is a factor there is a need for measuring tape and if if height is a factor there is a need for measuring tape and if presence of a parasite in blood is a factor there is a need for a presence of a parasite in blood is a factor there is a need for a microscope and special stain.microscope and special stain.

Factor Problem

Factor

Problem analysis diagramProblem analysis diagram

Problem

Factor

Factor

Factor

Factor

Factor

3. Literature Review3. Literature Review

3.1 Why we review literature?3.1 Why we review literature?

1. To prevent1. To prevent duplication.duplication.

2. To refine statement of the problem. 2. To refine statement of the problem.

3. To formulate the suitable type of methodology.3. To formulate the suitable type of methodology.

4. To support the argument for need of the research.4. To support the argument for need of the research.

3.2. Possible sources of the information3.2. Possible sources of the information

1. Individuals, groups and organizations.1. Individuals, groups and organizations.

2. Published information ( books, articles, indexes and abstracts journals ) .2. Published information ( books, articles, indexes and abstracts journals ) .

3. Unpublished information (reports, records and computer data bases).3. Unpublished information (reports, records and computer data bases).

3.3. How to refer to source :3.3. How to refer to source :

3.3.1. For an article :3.3.1. For an article : Author (s) (Surname followed by initials), title of article, name of journal, Author (s) (Surname followed by initials), title of article, name of journal,

year, volume number : page numbersyear, volume number : page numberse.g. Gwebu ET , Metero S, Dube N, Tagwirey J T, Mugwagwa N, Assessment e.g. Gwebu ET , Metero S, Dube N, Tagwirey J T, Mugwagwa N, Assessment

of nutritional status in pregnancy : Use of reference table of weight for of nutritional status in pregnancy : Use of reference table of weight for height, Central Africa Journal of Medicine, 1985, 31: 193- 196.height, Central Africa Journal of Medicine, 1985, 31: 193- 196.

3.3.2 For a book :3.3.2 For a book : Author (s) (surname followed by initials) title of book, edition, place: Author (s) (surname followed by initials) title of book, edition, place:

publisher, year: number of pages in the book.publisher, year: number of pages in the book.e.g. Abramson JH, Survey method in community medicine, 2e.g. Abramson JH, Survey method in community medicine, 2nd edition

Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1979: 229.

3.5. Sources of information at different administrative level3.5. Sources of information at different administrative level

Administrative levelAdministrative level

Community and District or

provincial level

-Clinic and hospital based data from routine statistics registers.

- -Opinions; beliefs of key figures (through interview).

- Clinical observations, reports of clinical incidents ect;

- Local surveys.

- Annual reports,

- Statistics issued at provincial and district level.

Cont.Cont.

National level - -Articles from national journals

books identified during literature searches at university and other national libraries.

-Documentation reports and raw data from ministry of health,

central statistical offices NGOs .

Cont.Cont.

International levels

Information form:

- -Bilateral and multilateral

- Organizations e.g. (USAIL UNICEF ,WHO, UNFPA) .

-Computerized searches for international literature .

4. Research objectives4. Research objectives

4.1. What is objective? 4.1. What is objective?

The objectives of a research projectThe objectives of a research project summarizesummarize what is to be what is to be achieved by the study . The objective answers three main achieved by the study . The objective answers three main questions “what, where, why”questions “what, where, why”

4.2. Criteria of research objective :4.2. Criteria of research objective :

. . A wellA well prepared objective satisfy the following criteria :prepared objective satisfy the following criteria :

S

M

A

R

T

Specific

Measurable

Achievable

Realistic

Timely

4.3. Role of research objective :4.3. Role of research objective :

It helps to :It helps to :

1- Focus the study 1- Focus the study

2- Avoid collection of unnecessary data 2- Avoid collection of unnecessary data

3- Organize the study in defined parts or phases.3- Organize the study in defined parts or phases.

4.4. How to state objectives:4.4. How to state objectives:

An objectives should : An objectives should :

1- Cover the problem and contributing factor in coherent way 1- Cover the problem and contributing factor in coherent way and logical sequence . and logical sequence .

2- Be clearly phrased in operational terms. 2- Be clearly phrased in operational terms.

3- Be realistic considering local condition.3- Be realistic considering local condition.

4- Use action verb which are specific enough to be evaluated. 4- Use action verb which are specific enough to be evaluated. e.g. to compare , to calculate, to describe . Avoid to e.g. to compare , to calculate, to describe . Avoid to understand to study, to appreciate understand to study, to appreciate

4.5 Categories of research objectives:4.5 Categories of research objectives:

. . Objectives of research are of two categoriesObjectives of research are of two categories

4.5.1. General objective:4.5.1. General objective:

State what is expected to be achieved by the study in State what is expected to be achieved by the study in general terms. general terms.

4.5.2. Specific objective:4.5.2. Specific objective:

Is the breakdown of the general objectives into Is the breakdown of the general objectives into smaller, logically connected parts. smaller, logically connected parts.

Examples :Examples :

General Objective :General Objective :

“To test the validity of the syndromic approach as To test the validity of the syndromic approach as diagnostic procedure for sexually transmitted diseases diagnostic procedure for sexually transmitted diseases and to assess its applicability by the medical and to assess its applicability by the medical assistants at the primary care level in order to help assistants at the primary care level in order to help policy makers take decisions to adopt it as measure policy makers take decisions to adopt it as measure for control of STDs” for control of STDs”

Specific Objectives:Specific Objectives:

1.” To compare the sensitivity, specificity and predictive value of the syndromic approach in diagnosis of gonococcal urethritis in cases of urethral discharge encountered during the study period in Mayo with that of the a etiological approach “

2.” To assess the antibiotic sensitivity of the gonococcus gonorrhea organism or other organisms isolated from urethral organism or other organisms isolated from urethral swabs of the cases of urethral discharge studies to the swabs of the cases of urethral discharge studies to the antibiotics recommended by the syndromic approach for antibiotics recommended by the syndromic approach for treatment of urethral discharge”treatment of urethral discharge”

Cont.Cont.

3. To compare the cost per patient of gonococcal urethritis 3. To compare the cost per patient of gonococcal urethritis treated by syndromic approach during the study period with treated by syndromic approach during the study period with the cost per patient if treated with a etiological approach.the cost per patient if treated with a etiological approach.

4. “ To assess the capability of the medical assistants trained in 4. “ To assess the capability of the medical assistants trained in this study of correctly applying the syndromic approach for this study of correctly applying the syndromic approach for management of STDs”.management of STDs”.

4.6 . Hypothesis4.6 . Hypothesis

“ “Hypothesis is a prediction of a relationship between one or Hypothesis is a prediction of a relationship between one or more factors and the problem under study which can be more factors and the problem under study which can be tested”.tested”.

4.7. Title of the study

* When objectives are well defined and a hypothesis is formulated the title for the study can easy be generated.

Cont.Cont.

* Criteria for the title:* Criteria for the title:

1. Aim specific: “telling exactly what your study aim at.”1. Aim specific: “telling exactly what your study aim at.”

2. Place specific: “telling where you undergo the study.”2. Place specific: “telling where you undergo the study.”

3. Time specific: “telling when you undergo the study.”3. Time specific: “telling when you undergo the study.”

ExampleExampleWrong : “a study of utilization of child welfare clinics”

Correct : “a study of the reasons for low utilization of child welfare clinics in Khartoum state during the year 1999”

5. Research 5. Research MethodologyMethodology

1.1. What new information do we need?What new information do we need?

2.2. How will we collect this How will we collect this information?information?

5.1. Diagram of Components

Questions asked Component of research design

Selection of variables

Selection of type study

Cont.Cont.

3. What tool do we need to collect it?3. What tool do we need to collect it?

4. Where should we collect it?4. Where should we collect it?

How many subjects do we include in the How many subjects do we include in the study?study?

How do we select them?How do we select them?

Selection of data collection Techniques and tools

Sampling

5. How do we collect the data?5. How do we collect the data? Plan for data collection

ContCont..

6. What will we do with collected data?6. What will we do with collected data?

7. Are we going to cause harm as a result 7. Are we going to cause harm as a result of the study?of the study?

8. Are the methods for data collection 8. Are the methods for data collection correct? Do they need adjustment?correct? Do they need adjustment?

Plan for data processing and analysis

Ethical consideration

Pre-testing methodology

5.2. Selection of variables5.2. Selection of variables

5.2.1. What is a variable?5.2.1. What is a variable? ““A variable is a characteristic of person, object or phenomenon that can take on A variable is a characteristic of person, object or phenomenon that can take on

different values .”different values .”

A variable could be expressed in number ( numerical variable) or in categories A variable could be expressed in number ( numerical variable) or in categories (categorical variables.)(categorical variables.)

5.2.2. Examples of variables:5.2.2. Examples of variables:Numerical (Quantitative) :Numerical (Quantitative) :

age, weight, monthly income, distance between home and clinic, waiting time in age, weight, monthly income, distance between home and clinic, waiting time in clinic…etc. clinic…etc.

Categorical ( Qualitative ) :Categorical ( Qualitative ) :

color, outcome of disease, level of knowledge…etc.color, outcome of disease, level of knowledge…etc.

5.2.3. Factors and variables :5.2.3. Factors and variables :

Factors contributing to the problem in the problem analysis diagram are actually Factors contributing to the problem in the problem analysis diagram are actually

variables having negative or positive values factors can be transformed into variables having negative or positive values factors can be transformed into variables as follows :variables as follows :

Factor VariableFactor Variable

- - long waiting time - waiting time.long waiting time - waiting time.

- Absence of drugs - availability of drugs.- Absence of drugs - availability of drugs.

- Lack of supervision - frequency of supervisory visits.- Lack of supervision - frequency of supervisory visits.

5.2.4. Types of variables

1. Dependent variables: the variable used to describe or measure the problem under study it is affected by change in the independent variable e.g. serum level of iodine in simple goiter.

2. Independent variable: the variable used to describe or measure the factors that are assumed to cause or influence the problem e.g. iodine intake in case of simple goiter.

3. Confounding variable: a variable that is associated with the problem and with a possible cause of the problem e.g. living at high altitude for cases of simple goiter. A confounding variable may either strengthen or weaken the apparent relationship between the problem and a possible cause.

4. Background variable: such as age, sex, level of education, socioeconomic status and religion if they are not dependent, independent or confounding variables in the study.

5.2.5. Operationalization of variables:5.2.5. Operationalization of variables:

Some variables are directly measurable e.g. (age) “level of knowledge” these need to Some variables are directly measurable e.g. (age) “level of knowledge” these need to be operationalized.be operationalized.

*Operationalizing *Operationalizing a variable means making it measurable. That us possible by using certain indicators e.g.:

The variable “level of knowledge: is not measurable . It needs Operationalization . A series of 15 questions can be designed to assess the level of knowledge . Answering correctly 0 – 5 question is poor knowledge, 6 – 10 questions is reasonable knowledge, 11 – 15 questions is good knowledge. The number of questions answered is the indicator for Operationalizing the variable.

5.2.6. Scales for measurement of variables:

1. Nominal scale. 2. Ordinal scale.3. Ratio scale.4. Interval scale.

5.2.7. Diagram for classification of variables5.2.7. Diagram for classification of variables

VariablesVariables

Qualitative

(categorical)

Quantitative

(numerical)

Discrete

Continuous

Nominal

Ordinal

Binary (sex)

Non-numerical (colour)

5.3. Selection of type of study5.3. Selection of type of study

5.3.1. How to select study design?

The type of study design selected depends on :1. The type of the problem.2. The knowledge already available about the problem.3. The resources available for the study.

5.3.2. Classification of study types depends on research strategy. Two major types exist :1. Observational studies (non-intervention studies).2. Experimental studies (intervention studies).

5.3.3. Non intervention studies:Non-intervention studies include :- Exploratory studies.- Descriptive studies.- Comparative (analytical).

5.3.3.1.Exploratory studies :

An exploratory study is a small-scale study of relatively short duration, which An exploratory study is a small-scale study of relatively short duration, which

is carried out when little is known about a situation or a problem.is carried out when little is known about a situation or a problem.

Small-scale studies that compare extreme groups are very useful for detecting Small-scale studies that compare extreme groups are very useful for detecting management problems. Comparison is a fundamental research strategy to management problems. Comparison is a fundamental research strategy to identify variables that help explain why one group of persons or objects differ from identify variables that help explain why one group of persons or objects differ from another. Small scale studies may be called exploratory case studies if they lead to another. Small scale studies may be called exploratory case studies if they lead to plausible assumption about the causes of the problem and explanatory case studies plausible assumption about the causes of the problem and explanatory case studies if they provide sufficient explanations.if they provide sufficient explanations.

If the problem and its contributing factors are not well-defined it is always If the problem and its contributing factors are not well-defined it is always advisable to do an exploratory study before doing a large scale descriptive or advisable to do an exploratory study before doing a large scale descriptive or comparative study.comparative study.

5.3.3.2. Descriptive studies :

- - A descriptive study involves the systematic collection and presentation of data to A descriptive study involves the systematic collection and presentation of data to

give a clear picture of particular situation.give a clear picture of particular situation.

- Descriptive study is concerned with observing and describing the distribution of disease - Descriptive study is concerned with observing and describing the distribution of disease or health related characteristics by time , place, and person.or health related characteristics by time , place, and person.

- Procedures involved in descriptive studies include:- Procedures involved in descriptive studies include:

1. Defining the population under study.1. Defining the population under study.

2. Defining the disease under study (operational definition rather than clinical definition)2. Defining the disease under study (operational definition rather than clinical definition)

3. Describing the diseases by: time, place, and person.3. Describing the diseases by: time, place, and person.

4. Measurement of disease.4. Measurement of disease.

5. Comparing with known indices.5. Comparing with known indices.

6. Formulation of an aetiological hypothesis.6. Formulation of an aetiological hypothesis.

Cross-sectional surveys are example of descriptive studies that aim at quantifying the Cross-sectional surveys are example of descriptive studies that aim at quantifying the distribution of certain variables in the study population at one point of time e.g.distribution of certain variables in the study population at one point of time e.g.

* Physical characteristics as* Physical characteristics as

* Socio-economic characteristics : behavior, knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, * Socio-economic characteristics : behavior, knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, opinions etc.opinions etc.

Cross-sectional surveys cover a sample of the population.Cross-sectional surveys cover a sample of the population.

If the total population it is called a census.If the total population it is called a census.

Prevalence surveys

Evaluation of coverage

Cont.

5.3.3.3. Analytical studies:5.3.3.3. Analytical studies:

Descriptive AnalyticalDescriptive Analytical

- Look at entire population - individual within the - Look at entire population - individual within the

- Formulate hypothesis - test hypothesis.- Formulate hypothesis - test hypothesis.

An analytical study attempts to establish causes or risk factors for certain An analytical study attempts to establish causes or risk factors for certain problems. problems.

This is done by comparing two or more groups some of which have or develop the This is done by comparing two or more groups some of which have or develop the problem and some of which have not.problem and some of which have not.

Analytical studies comprise two types of observational studies:Analytical studies comprise two types of observational studies:

- Case control study.- Case control study.

- Cohort study.- Cohort study.

5.3.3.1. Case control study. “ retrospective studies ”:5.3.3.1. Case control study. “ retrospective studies ”:

The case control study is the first approach to test hypothesis.

5.3.3.3.1.(a). Criteria :5.3.3.3.1.(a). Criteria :Case control study has three important criteria: a- Both exposure and outcome occurred before the start of the study. b- The study proceeds backwards from effect to cause. c- It uses a control or comparison group to support or to refute an inference.

5.3.3.3.1(b). Steps :5.3.3.3.1(b). Steps :There are four basic steps in conducting a case control study: 1. Selection of cases and controls. 2. Matching. 3. Measurement of exposure. 4. Analysis and interpretation.

1. Selection of cases and control1. Selection of cases and control

* Selection of cases :

(a) Definition of a case:

- Diagnostic criteria e.g. ( for malaria are signs and symptoms enough or is blood film is mandatory ).

- Eligibility criteria e.g. are all cases could be included or only new cases.

(b) Sources of cases:

- hospital.

- general population.

* Selection of controls Controls must be: - free from the disease under the study. - as similar as possible to cases.

Sources of control:Sources of control: - Hospitals “ source of selection bias”- Hospitals “ source of selection bias” - Relatives “ spouses and siblings ”siblings are not suitable when - Relatives “ spouses and siblings ”siblings are not suitable when

studying genetic conditions.studying genetic conditions. - Neighbors.- Neighbors. - general population.- general population. How many controls are needed?How many controls are needed? - If cases are many, one control for each case.- If cases are many, one control for each case. - If cases are less than 50, take 2,3or 4 controls for a cases.- If cases are less than 50, take 2,3or 4 controls for a cases.

Cont

2. Matching:2. Matching: - “ Is defined as the process by which we select controls similar to cases in certain - “ Is defined as the process by which we select controls similar to cases in certain

confounding variables ( e.g. age ) which are known to influence the outcome of the confounding variables ( e.g. age ) which are known to influence the outcome of the disease .”disease .”

- Is used to ensure comparability between cases and controls.- Is used to ensure comparability between cases and controls. - A confounding variable is a variable associated with the exposure and the - A confounding variable is a variable associated with the exposure and the

outcome.outcome. - Matching procedures include:- Matching procedures include: - Stratification of cases based on - Stratification of cases based on e.g. age, occupation, social class. e.g. age, occupation, social class.

- Group matching - Establish appropriate controls.- Group matching - Establish appropriate controls. - Keep the frequency distribution of the- Keep the frequency distribution of the matched variables similar in matched variables similar in study and control groups. study and control groups.

- Matching by pairs : for each case a control is chosen.- Matching by pairs : for each case a control is chosen.

3. Measurement of exposure:3. Measurement of exposure: By interview, questionnaire, study past records.By interview, questionnaire, study past records.

4. Analysis:4. Analysis:

(1) find out exposure rates among cases and controls.

(2) Estimate disease risk associated with exposure (odds ratio)

- Relative risk = incidence among exposed

incidence among non exposed

- Odds ratio (cross product ratio)

5.3.3.1.(c) Advantages and Disadvantages of case control study: (a) Advantages: 1. Relatively easy to carry out. 2. Rapid and inexpensive (compared with cohort study). 3. Require comparatively few subjects. 4. Particularly suitable to investigate rare diseases or diseases about

which little is known. 5. No risk to subjects. 6. Allows the study of several different aetiological factors (e.g. sinking ,

physical activity and personality characteristics in myocardial infarction).

7. Risk factors can be identified. Rational prevention and control programmes can be established.

8. No attrition problems, because case control studies do not require follow-up of individuals into the future.

9. Ethical problems.

(b) Disadvantages :(b) Disadvantages :

1. Problems of bias, e.g. relies on memory or past records, the accuracy of which may be uncertain, validation of information obtained is difficult or sometimes impossible.

2. Selection of an appropriate control group may be difficult.

3. We can not measure incidence, and can only estimate the relative risk.

4. Do not distinguish between causes and associated factors.

5. Not suited to the evaluation of therapy or prophylaxis of disease.

6. Another major concern is the representative ness of cases and controls.

Cont

Diagram of case control study

PastPast PresentPresent

CompareCompare

Risk factor present

Risk factor not present

Cases

Risk factor present

Risk factor not present

Control

Frame-work of case control study Frame-work of case control study (The 2X2 contingency table) (The 2X2 contingency table)

Risk factorRisk factor Cases (disease present)Cases (disease present)Control (disease not Control (disease not presentpresent

PresentPresent aa bb

AbsentAbsent cc dd

TotalTotal a + ca + c b + db + d

Exposed rates :For cases = a for control = b b +d a + b b + d Relative risk =a / c a + b c + d

Odds ratio = a x d b x c

5.3.3.3.2. Cohort study (prospective study –5.3.3.3.2. Cohort study (prospective study –longitudinal study):longitudinal study):

(a) Definition :

- - Cohort is defined as a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined period of time . (b) Criteria : - It has three important criteria. a- Cohort are identified before the appearance of the disease. b- Study groups observed over a period of time. c- study proceeds from cause to disease. (c) Role : - Obtain evidence to support or refuse an association between suspected risk factor and disease. - Cohort study are the only sure way to establish causal relationship.

(d) Diagram of Cohort study

Present Future

CompareCompare

Developed disease

No disease

Exposure to risk

Developed disease

No disease

Not exposed risk

(e) Frame work of cohort study

Cohort Cohort DiseaseDisease developeddeveloped

No No YesYes

Total Total

Exposed Exposed bb aaa + ba + b

Not exposed Not exposed dd ccc + dc + d

Incidence of disease in the exposed = a a + b

Incidence of disease in the non exposed = c c +d

Relative risk = a / c a + b c + d

Attributable risk = a - c a + b c + d a a + b

(f) Types of cohort study :

1 - Prospective cohort study

2 - Retrospective cohort study , historical cohort study, prospective study

in retrospective or non-concurrent prospective study

3 - Combination of retrospective and prospective cohort studies.

1 - Selection of study subjects.

2 - Obtaining data on exposure.

3- Selection of comparison groups.

4 -Follow up.

5 - Analysis.

(g) Steps of a cohort study :

Selection of study subjects:

a – General population ( if exposure is frequent).

b – Special groups :

- Select groups(e.g professional group, doctors etc).

- Exposure groups.

Obtaining data on exposure from : a – Cohort members.

b – Review records.

c – Medical examination or special tests.

d – Environmental surveys.

Information about exposure should tell about :

1 – whether exposed or not.

2 – Level or degree of exposure.

Selection of comparison groups: (1) Internal comparison (different levels and duration of exposure).

(2) External comparisons.

(3) Comparisons with general population rates.

Follow up : (a) Periodic medical examination. (B) Reviewing physician and hospital records. (c) Routine surveillance of death records.

(d) Mailed questionnaires etc.

Analysis in terms of :

1- Incidence rate of outcome among exposed and non-exposed

2- Estimation of risk :

Relative = incidence of disease among exposed

Incidence of disease among non-exposed

Attributable risk = Incidence of disease among exposed – Incidence of disease among non-exposed

Incidence rate among exposed

Case controlCase control Cohort study 1 1 Proceeds from ``effect to cause``Proceeds from ``effect to cause``Proceeds from ``cause to effect``Proceeds from ``cause to effect``

2 2 Starts with the disease Starts with the disease Start with people exposed to risk Start with people exposed to risk factor or suspected cause. factor or suspected cause.

3 3 Test whether the suspected cause Test whether the suspected cause occurs more frequently in those occurs more frequently in those with the disease than among those with the disease than among those without the disease without the disease

Tests whether the disease occurs Tests whether the disease occurs more frequently in those exposed , more frequently in those exposed , than in those not similarly exposedthan in those not similarly exposed

4 4 Usually the first approach to the Usually the first approach to the testing of a hypothesis, but also testing of a hypothesis, but also useful for exploratory studies useful for exploratory studies

Reserved for testing of precisely Reserved for testing of precisely formulated hypothesis formulated hypothesis

Cont.

Case controlCase controlCohort study

5 5 Involves fewer number of Involves fewer number of subjectssubjects

Involves large number of Involves large number of subjectssubjects

6 6 Yields relatively quick resultsYields relatively quick resultsLong fellow-up period often Long fellow-up period often needed, involving delayed needed, involving delayed resultsresults

7 7 Suitable for the study of rare Suitable for the study of rare diseasesdiseases

Inappropriate when the disease Inappropriate when the disease or exposure under investigation or exposure under investigation is rareis rare

88 Generally yield only estimate Generally yield only estimate of of RRRR (odds ratio) (odds ratio)

Yields incidence rate, Yields incidence rate, RRRR as as well as well as ARAR

9 9 Cannot yield information Cannot yield information about disease other than that about disease other than that selected for study selected for study

Cannot yield information about Cannot yield information about more than one disease outcomemore than one disease outcome

10 10

RelativelyRelatively inexpensiveinexpensiveExpensiveExpensive

5.3.4. intervention studies :

““It involves manipulation of a situation and measurement of the effect of this It involves manipulation of a situation and measurement of the effect of this manipulation”manipulation”

Two categories exist :Two categories exist :

1- Experimental studies.1- Experimental studies.

2- Quasi-experimental studies.2- Quasi-experimental studies.

5.3.4.1. Experimental studies :5.3.4.1. Experimental studies :

5.3.4.1.1. Role :5.3.4.1.1. Role :

- An experimental design is the only type of study design that can - An experimental design is the only type of study design that can

actually prove causation. actually prove causation.

5.3.4.1.2. Methodology : 5.3.4.1.2. Methodology :

- - in experimental study individuals are randomly allocated to two groups. One group in experimental study individuals are randomly allocated to two groups. One group

is subject to intervention or experiment while the other is not. The outcome of the is subject to intervention or experiment while the other is not. The outcome of the intervention is measured by comparing the two groups later after.intervention is measured by comparing the two groups later after.

5.3.4.1..3. Characteristics: 5.3.4.1..3. Characteristics:

- - Experimental design has three characteristics: Experimental design has three characteristics:

1- Randomization.1- Randomization.

2- Control.2- Control.

3- Manipulation. 3- Manipulation.

5.3.4.1.3. Diagram of experimental study :5.3.4.1.3. Diagram of experimental study :

Sampling

Randomization

Study population

Study population

Comparison groupStudy group

First data collection

(before intervention)

First data collection

(same as in study group)

Intervention

(manipulation)

Last data collection

(same time as in study group)

Last data collection

(after intervention)

Compare

Randomization eliminates the effect of confounding variables.

5.3.4.2. Quasi experimental studies:

5.3.4.2.1. characteristics:5.3.4.2.1. characteristics: * In* In quasi experimental study there is an intervention and at least quasi experimental study there is an intervention and at least one characteristic of a true experimental study is missing (either one characteristic of a true experimental study is missing (either randomization or control).randomization or control).

5.3.4.2.2. Diagram of a quasi-experimental study 5.3.4.2.2. Diagram of a quasi-experimental study

Study group intervention study groupStudy group intervention study group

(after intervention)(after intervention)

comparecompare

Control group non-intervention control groupControl group non-intervention control group

(same time) (same time)(same time) (same time)

5.3.4.2.3. Before and after study :

* If there is neither randomization nor the use of a control group, the study * If there is neither randomization nor the use of a control group, the study design is called pre-experimental design or (before and after study ).design is called pre-experimental design or (before and after study ).

Study group Intervention Study groupStudy group Intervention Study group

(after intervention )(after intervention )

CompareCompare

5.3.5. Deriving Valid and reliable conclusions5.3.5. Deriving Valid and reliable conclusions

““Whatever the research design selected the main concern is to reach valid and Whatever the research design selected the main concern is to reach valid and reliable conclusion “.reliable conclusion “.

““Validity means that the conclusions are true”.Validity means that the conclusions are true”.

““Reliability means that if someone else is using the same methods in the same Reliability means that if someone else is using the same methods in the same circumstances he will obtain the same results”.circumstances he will obtain the same results”.

Representation of validity and reliability combinations for 5 trialsRepresentation of validity and reliability combinations for 5 trials

Valid and reliable Reliable but not validValid and reliable Reliable but not valid

Valid but not reliable Neither valid nor reliableValid but not reliable Neither valid nor reliable

. ..

...

.

....

.

...

…..

.

.

.

.

....

.

..

....

5.3.6. Threats to validity5.3.6. Threats to validity Many factors can distort the study and affect either its internal Many factors can distort the study and affect either its internal

validity or external validity. Internal validity means reaching true validity or external validity. Internal validity means reaching true conclusions for the study . External validity means that the true conclusions for the study . External validity means that the true conclusions of the study are fairly generalizable.conclusions of the study are fairly generalizable.

Factors affecting the external validity (selection bias): Factors affecting the external validity (selection bias):

- sampling of registered cases - sampling of registered cases

- non-response- non-response

- studying volunteers- studying volunteers Sampling Sampling

BiasBias

- missing cases of short duration (fatal cases/mild cases)- missing cases of short duration (fatal cases/mild cases)

- taramic bias.- taramic bias.

- seasonal bias.- seasonal bias.

- migration bias.- migration bias.

- perkson ‘s bias.- perkson ‘s bias.

Factors affecting the internal validity (instrument bias)Factors affecting the internal validity (instrument bias)

* Faulty instrument.

- Poorly designed questionnaire.

- Defective measurement tool ( sphygmomanometer, balance, scale….etc)

* Faulty measurement

-Inter-observer bias.

- Intra-observer bias.

- Respondents bias.

* Faulty adjustment

- Confounding.

Recall bias

Hidden events (sad events)

Please interviewer

5.4. Selection of data collection techniques

5.4.1. What is data collection technique ?5.4.1. What is data collection technique ?

““Data collection technique is a technique that allows researcher to Data collection technique is a technique that allows researcher to systematically collect information about the study population ( people objects, systematically collect information about the study population ( people objects, phenomena….etc) and the setting in which they occur”phenomena….etc) and the setting in which they occur”

5.4.2. Types of data collection techniques: Many data collection techniques can be used. All of them are either

based on ASKING or OBSERVING e.g. :

1- Using available information.

2- Observing.

3- Interviewing. ( face to face ).

4- Administering written questionnaires.

5- Focus group discussions (FGD).

6- Nominal group techniques (NGT).

7- Delphi technique.

Cont.

8- Life histories taking.8- Life histories taking.

9- Scales and test batteries.9- Scales and test batteries.

10-Essay analysis.10-Essay analysis.

11-Case studies.11-Case studies.

12-Mapping.12-Mapping.

13-Rapid appraisal techniques.13-Rapid appraisal techniques.

14-Participatory research.14-Participatory research.

A single study may involve more than one technique.A single study may involve more than one technique.

5.4.3. What is data collection tool ?5.4.3. What is data collection tool ?

“ “ DataData collection tools are the tools applied in data collection. A collection tools are the tools applied in data collection. A particular technique can involve different tools”particular technique can involve different tools”

5.4.4. Example of tools

- Questionnaire.

- Weighing scale.

- Measuring tabe.

- Sphygmomanometer.

- Observation checklists.

- Microscope.

Data collection techniques and data collection tools used:

Data collection techniquesData collection tools

Using available informationChecklist, data compilation forms

ObservingObservation checklist, eyes and other senses, pen and Observation checklist, eyes and other senses, pen and paper, watch, scales, microscope paper, watch, scales, microscope

InterviewingInterviewingInterview schedule, checklist, questionnaire, tape recorder

Administering written questionnaireOpen ended questionnaire, closed questionnaire

Focus group discussionFocus questions, checklist of topicsFocus questions, checklist of topics

Nominal group techniqueNGT statement or question, paper and pens, board, listing NGT statement or question, paper and pens, board, listing ideas, individual expression, discussion, voting and ideas, individual expression, discussion, voting and ranking, discussion, 2ranking, discussion, 2ndnd vote and ranking vote and ranking

Delphi techniqueCirculating questionnaire

Life history takingKey questions

Scale and test batteriesHighly structured questionnaire with highly standardized sequence of questions

Essay analysisSchool children hand-writing books

Case studiesChecklist

MappingPaper and pen, measuring ruler or tabe

5.5. Sampling5.5.1. Definition“Sampling is the selection of a number of study units from a defined study population.”

“A representative sample has all the important characteristics of the population from which it is drawn”

SsmpleTarget Population

Study Population Sample

5.5.2. Sampling questions

For sampling we need to answer 3 questions :

1- What is the group of people from which we want to draw a sample? (study population).

2- How many people do we need in our sample? (sample size).

3- How will these people be selected? (sampling procedures).

5.5.3. Choice of sampling method :

* Choice of sampling method depends on availability of sampling frame.

“ Sampling frame is a list of all the units that compose the study population”

Non-probability Probability

Sampling Sampling

Methods Methods

SamplingFrame

Not

Present

Present

5.5.4. Sampling Methods

There are two major categories :

Non-probability sampling method :

- Convenience sampling .

- Quota sampling.

Probability sampling methods :

- Simple random sampling.

- Systematic sampling.

- Stratified sampling.

- Cluster sampling.

- Multistage sampling.

5.5.4.1. Non probability sampling method

5.5.4.1.1. Convenience sampling : “ Is a method in which for convenience sake all the study units that

happen to be available at the time of data collection are selected in the sample.”

Problems : - Un-representative of the study population - Over selection of certain study units. - Under selection of certain study units. - Missing of some study units.

5.5.4.1.2. Quota sampling

“ “ Is a method that ensures that certain number of sample units from different Is a method that ensures that certain number of sample units from different categories with specific characteristic appear in the sample so that all these categories with specific characteristic appear in the sample so that all these characteristic are represented “. characteristic are represented “.

o Useful when a convenience sample would not provide desired Useful when a convenience sample would not provide desired balance of study units.balance of study units.

o Not representative of the entire population.Not representative of the entire population.

5.5.4.2. Probability sampling :

“Involves random selection procedures to ensure that each unit of the sample is chosen on basis of chance. All units of the study population has an equal or at least known chance of being included in the sample.”

5.4.2.1. Simple random sample :

All units have the same chance of being selected.All units have the same chance of being selected.o All units listed in number.All units listed in number.o Sample size decided.Sample size decided.o Required size taken randomly from the listed numbers.Required size taken randomly from the listed numbers.o Units having the numbers chosen are included.Units having the numbers chosen are included.o Table of random number can be used.Table of random number can be used.

5.4.2.2. Systematic sampling :

“ Individuals are chosen at regular intervals (sampling intervals) from the sampling frame. The first starting number is selected randomly .”

It is requires a sampling frame and a sampling intervals .

Sampling intervals = Size of study population

Required sample size

5.4.2.3. Stratified sampling :

Stratification can be used with simple random sampling or systematic sampling to ensure the desired representative of specific groups. Stratification can be made by age (age groups ) race ( ethnic groups ), or any other basis required e.g. type of family planning method used. The sample fraction can be decided on the size of different strata in the study population so as to have strata representative of the total population or equal fractions can be used.

Studypopulation

Stratum

Stratum

Stratum

SampleStratification

Random samplingOr

Systematic sampling

Cont.

5.5.4.2.4. Cluster sampling Cluster are often “geographical units” e.g. provinces, villages, localities

or organized units e.g. clinics, training groups. Cluster are selected using simple random, systematic random or stratified

sampling techniques. All elements in each selected cluster are then studied.

5.5.4.2.5. Multi Stage Sampling

Used to draw samples from very large and diverse population.

First stage : Divided the population into naturally occurring cluster and then draw a sample of them.

Second stage : Sample individual elements from each of the sampled clusters.

Cont.

The first stage can be of many stages e.g.• States are selected in the first stage.• Provinces are selected in the 2nd stage.• Localities are selected in the 3rd stage.• Popular committees in the 4th stage.• Individuals in the last stage.

5.5.4.2.6. Probability proportional to size (PPS) :

This procedure is a variation on multistage sampling in which the probability of selecting a cluster is proportional to its size and an equal number of elements is sampled within each cluster . The PPS methods of sampling is useful when the cluster vary greatly in size. In such situation the PPS often reduced the sampling variance and the data collection costs.

5.6. plan of data collection

Having selected your variables to be studied and decided on the type of study needed and the data collection techniques and sampling method a clear plan for data collection is needed.

The plan should include :

1- Type and number of data collection tools needed. (questionnaires, measuring tabes, weighing scales, sphygmomanometers etc)

2- Categories and number of data collecting personnel (doctors, nurses, nutritionist, sociologist etc)

3- Duration and content of training needed.

4- Schedule for data collection (Selection of personnel, training, preparation of tools, preparation of logistics, starting date, closing date, time for each study phrase etc.)

5- logistical support (vehicles, fuel, lubricants, food, drinks etc.)

6- Estimated budget for data collection phrase (budget for tools, budget for training, budget for logistics, budget for perdiems)

5.7. Plan for data processing and analysis

5.7.1. Time for plan :

The plan for processing and analysis of data must be prepared before the data is collected in the field so that it is still possible to make change in the list of variables or the data collection tools.

5.7.2. Why is it necessary to prepare a plan for processing and analysis of data?

1- To assure that all needed information are going to be collected in a standardized way.

2- To avoid collecting unnecessary data.

5.7.3. Content of the plan:

The plan should include :

1- Sorting data (data collection).

2- Performing quality control checks (data cleaning).

3- Data processing.

4- data analysis.

5.7.3.1. Sorting data: If studying more than one study population number the

questionnaire separately. In comparative study sort the data right after collection into the

groups that you will compare.

5.7.3.2. Performing quality control checks : Checks for completeness : missing questions. Checks for consistency. Range checks.

5.7.3.3. data processing

Decide an either processing.• Manually• By computer

Processing involves :• Categorizing• Coding

1. Categorizing

- Categorizing is needed for (open- ended) questions where on the list there is need for a category called (others).

- Closed- question has only two categories. Numerical variables can be categorized after their collection.

2. Coding

- Coding is the translation of data into symbols appropriate for analysis e.g.

yes = 1 no = 2 no response = 9

5.7.3.4 Summarizing the data on 5.7.3.4 Summarizing the data on master sheetmaster sheet

- Data master sheet is needed if data is processed manually. On the master sheet all the answer of individual respondents are tallied by hand.

RespondentRespondent

(Number – (Number – name)name)

Age Age SexSex

M FM F

SchoolingSchooling

<4 4-12 <4 4-12 >12>12

Smoking Smoking

Yes No No Yes No No ResponseResponse

Number Number of of

cigarettecigarette

Master sheet

CategoryLevelNo. of care providersAvailability of labAvailability of drugs

Govern Non govern Hosp HC DisDr. MA G.S DFM CulK P Cot Tet Met Nyst

5.7.3.5. Data Analysis:

Prepare dummy tables.Prepare dummy tables. Frequency counts (numbers).Frequency counts (numbers). Relative frequency.Relative frequency. Cross tabulation.Cross tabulation.

5.7.4. Plan for the processing and analysis of data:

A plan for the processing and analysis of data includes:A plan for the processing and analysis of data includes:

1- Decision on means of processing : hand or computer.1- Decision on means of processing : hand or computer.

2- preparation of dummy tables.2- preparation of dummy tables.

3- Decision on the sequence in which tables should be analyzed .3- Decision on the sequence in which tables should be analyzed .

4- Decision on how qualitative data should be analyzed.4- Decision on how qualitative data should be analyzed.

5- Estimate of total time for analysis.5- Estimate of total time for analysis.

6- Decision on staff needed for analysis.6- Decision on staff needed for analysis.

7- Estimate of total cost for analysis.7- Estimate of total cost for analysis.

5.8 Pre-test or pilot study

Definition : Pretest means small-scale trail of a particular research component . Pilot study is the process of carrying out a preliminary

study going through the entire research procedure with a small sample.

Role of Pre-test : Identify potential problems in the proposed study. Enable to revise the methods and logistics of data collection before starting

the actual field work.

Aspects evaluated during pre-test :

1- Reaction of the respondents to the research procedures to determine :

- Availability of study population.

- Acceptability of methods used.

- Acceptability of questions asked.

- Willingness of respondents to answer the questions.

2- Data collection tools to determine :

- If they allow to collect information needed.

- If they are reliable.

- If collected data relevant information.

- How much time needed to administer the questionnaire.

- If there is need to revise the format in sequence, wording or space for

answers.

Cont.

3- Sampling procedures to determine:

- If instructions are easily followed by all staff.

- the time needed to complete the sample size

4- Staffing and activities of the research team to determine:

- Work output of each member.

- Benefits gained from training.

- Adequacy of logistical support.

- Adequacy of staff supervision.

5- Procedures of data processing and analysis to determine:

- Appropriateness of data master sheets and dummy tables.

Effectiveness of the system for quality control.

Cont.

6- The proposed work-plan and budget for research activities to determine:

- Appropriateness of time for different phases.

- Accuracy of scheduling of various activities.

- Appropriateness of budget allocated for different aspects.

Staff and time for pre-test: - All the research team should be involved in the pre-test.

- Time and duration for pretest is determined by:

1- Size and duration of the research.

2- Complexity of the methodology used.

6. Work-Plan

6.1. What is work-plan ?

A work plan is regarded as:

1- tool for planning the details of the project activities and budgeting funds.

2- An outline of the sequence of project operations.

3- A management tool for the researcher and his team showing required tasks and activities, their timing and who will do what.

4- A tool for monitoring and evaluation.

6.2. When to prepare the work- plan?

Work-plan should be prepared when the project proposal is developed.Work-plan should be prepared when the project proposal is developed.

A more detailed work-plan should be prepared after the pretest of the A more detailed work-plan should be prepared after the pretest of the methodology.methodology.

6.3. How could a work-plan be presented? Gantt chart is the best tool for presentation of a work-plan.

Gantt chart indicates:

1- The task to be performed.

2- Who is responsible for each task.

Here is an example of Gantt chart of the work- plan for the Here is an example of Gantt chart of the work- plan for the research on assessment of validity and applicability of research on assessment of validity and applicability of syndromic approach for management of STDs at primary level syndromic approach for management of STDs at primary level in Mayo Hay El Nasr health area 1998-1999in Mayo Hay El Nasr health area 1998-1999

7. Plan for project administration

Based on the activities and tasks in the work-plan a clear project administration should be prepared.

This plan should focus on : 1- Selection of participants in the study and clarification of the role

of each and necessary contacts to confirm their participation. 2- Necessary field contacts and preparations for field activities. 3- Preparation of logistical support for field activities (transport -

food – drinks – refreshers). 4- Preparation of needed tools for data collection. 5- Regulate flow of data from field to office for analysis. 6- Clear financial regulations for payment of perdiems and

logistical support.

8. Budget8. Budget

Realistic estimation of budget is a fundamental part of the

research proposal. Realistic detailed budget estimation convince authorities for release. Detailed budget should include all requirements for the study. missing to estimate budget for minor activities e.g. meeting with community leaders, letters for concerned local authority, fuel for such contacts may severe the research activities .

An example of budget estimation for the research on assessment of validity and applicability of syndromic approach for management of STDs at primary level, Mayo Hay El Nasr 1998 – 1999 is presented below:

Budget :

a- Total budget for the study 9,978,000 Sudanese’s pounds

1- Manuals 216,000

2- Stationeries 150,000

3- Training 252,000

4- Salaries 1,660,000

5- Medicines 4,200,000

6- Lab testing fees 2,000,000

7- Transportation 1,000,000

8- Consultancy 1,000,000

Total 9,978,000

b- Budget justificationb- Budget justification

1- Manuals:1- Manuals: Each manual consist of 60 pages printing 60 x 600 3600Each manual consist of 60 pages printing 60 x 600 3600 Photocopying of 1200 pages x 150 180000Photocopying of 1200 pages x 150 180000 Total Total 216000216000

2- Stationeries:2- Stationeries: - Photocopying papers 80000- Photocopying papers 80000 - Box files 30000- Box files 30000 - Transparencies 30000- Transparencies 30000 - Writing pens 10000- Writing pens 10000 Sub total 150000Sub total 150000

3- Training:3- Training:

- Perdiems for trainee 10 x 2000 x 7 140,000- Perdiems for trainee 10 x 2000 x 7 140,000

- Perdiems for trainers 800 x 2 x 7 112,000- Perdiems for trainers 800 x 2 x 7 112,000

- Manuals (above)- Manuals (above)

- stationeries (above)- stationeries (above)

- Rent of the hall, video, tel, overhead projector, slide projector donated- Rent of the hall, video, tel, overhead projector, slide projector donated

- Refreshers, breakfast (included in perdiems)- Refreshers, breakfast (included in perdiems)

- Prep of video tape for training donated- Prep of video tape for training donated

Sub total 252,000Sub total 252,000

4- Salaries:4- Salaries:

Three month work / (M.A) 1000 x 10 x 90 900,000Three month work / (M.A) 1000 x 10 x 90 900,000

Two month work / 2 (assistants for analysis) x 2 x 90 180,000Two month work / 2 (assistants for analysis) x 2 x 90 180,000

Three month work / 3 (lab assistants ) 2000 x 2 90 360,000Three month work / 3 (lab assistants ) 2000 x 2 90 360,000

Eleven month work / 1 driver 11 x 20000 220,000Eleven month work / 1 driver 11 x 20000 220,000

Total 1,660,000Total 1,660,000

5- Medicines:5- Medicines:

Minimum sample of 600 patients 7000 each for the medicines Minimum sample of 600 patients 7000 each for the medicines 4200,0004200,000

6- Lab invest. :6- Lab invest. :Sample of 400 (u.s0 for C/S, 5,000 each Sample of 400 (u.s0 for C/S, 5,000 each

2,000,0002,000,000

7- Transportation: 7- Transportation: Fuel, engine oil, break oilFuel, engine oil, break oil

8- Consultancy ;qualified8- Consultancy ;qualifiedConsultant statistician will work on data analysis, designing and data Consultant statistician will work on data analysis, designing and data

collection tool 5,00,000collection tool 5,00,000

9. Finalizing the research proposal

A final draft of research proposal should include the following headings:A final draft of research proposal should include the following headings:

1. Introduction1. Introduction 1.1. Background information.1.1. Background information.

1.2. Statement of the problem.1.2. Statement of the problem.

1.3. Literature review1.3. Literature review

2. Objectives:2. Objectives:

2.1. General objectives.2.1. General objectives.

2.2. Specific objectives.2.2. Specific objectives.

3. Methodology:3. Methodology:

3.1. Study type.3.1. Study type.

3.2. Study area.3.2. Study area.

3.3. Study population.3.3. Study population.

3.4. Variables under study.3.4. Variables under study.

3.5. Data collection techniques.3.5. Data collection techniques.

3.6. Sampling procedure and sample size.3.6. Sampling procedure and sample size.

3.7. Plan for data collection.3.7. Plan for data collection.

3.8. Plan for data processing and analysis 3.8. Plan for data processing and analysis

3.9. Ethical consideration.3.9. Ethical consideration.

3.10. Pre-test. 3.10. Pre-test.

4. Project management:4. Project management:

4.1. Staffing and work-plan4.1. Staffing and work-plan

4.2. Administration and monitoring4.2. Administration and monitoring

4.3. Plan for utilization and dissemination of results4.3. Plan for utilization and dissemination of results

5. Budget: 5.1. Total budget.5.1. Total budget.

5.2. Budget justification (details)5.2. Budget justification (details)

Annexes: 1. References1. References

2. List of abbreviations2. List of abbreviations

3. Questionnaires (data collection tools)3. Questionnaires (data collection tools)

A one page summary containing essential information is usually prepared as a A one page summary containing essential information is usually prepared as a cover. This include:cover. This include:

- Title- Title

- Duration- Duration

- Total budget- Total budget

- Contributions- Contributions

- Research team- Research team

- Name of principals researcher- Name of principals researcher

Brief summary a problem statement. Objectives and methodology.Brief summary a problem statement. Objectives and methodology.

Cont.