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RELATIONSHIPS OF TASK PERFORMANCEAND CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE WITH
TURNOVER, JOB SATISFACTION, ANDAFFECTIVE COMMITMENT
James R. Van Scotter
University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA
The effects of task performance and contextual performance on
turnover, job satisfaction, and affective organizational commitment
were examined for two samples of Air Force mechanics. Supervisor
ratings of task performance and contextual performance were obtained
in 1992 (N = 419) for one sample and in 1993 for the second sample
(N = 991). In both samples, task performance and contextual
performance predicted turnover and job satisfaction in 1996. Task
performance predicted reenlistment eligibility and promotion eligibility
in the 1992 sample, but only reenlistment eligibility in the 1993
sample. Contextual performance only predicted promotion eligibility in
the 1992 sample, but predicted both outcomes in the 1993 sample.
Results support the distinction between task performance and con-
textual performance.
AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT
It is becoming apparent that job performance is not a one-dimensional
construct. As interest grows in the type of helpful, cooperative, and innovative
job performance behavior that Borman and Motowidlo (1993) labeled as
``contextual performance,'' it becomes more important to understand its influ-
ence on organizational and individual outcomes. It would be especially valu-
able to learn whether or not contextual performance predicts different kinds of
outcomes than other dimensions of job performance.
It has been widely assumed that contextual performance and related
elements of performance such as organizational citizenship behavior (OCB:
Bateman & Organ, 1983; Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983), prosocial organiza-
Direct all correspondence to: James R. Van Scotter, Fogelman College of Business and Economics, University
of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA; E-mail: [email protected]
Human Resource Management Review, Copyright # 2000
Volume 10, Number 1, 2000, pages 79±95 by Elsevier Science Inc.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. ISSN : 1053 ± 4822
tional behavior (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986), and organizational spontaneity
(George & Brief, 1992) contribute to organizational effectiveness. Unfortu-
nately, this belief is based more on logical arguments than empirical evidence
(Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Organ, 1997). Studies have focused on the
antecedents of contextual performance more than its outcomes.
Research showing its effects on supervisory ratings of employees' overall
effectiveness (e.g., Borman, White, & Dorsey, 1995; Motowidlo & Van Scotter,
1994; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996) supports the value of contextual
performance in work settings. If contextual performance influences decisions
about employees' overall effectiveness, it also seems likely to influence super-
visors' decisions about whether or not an employee should be considered for a
promotion or rewarded in other ways. If contextual performance leads to
positive outcomes, it should also be associated with higher levels of job
satisfaction (Steers & Porter, 1983), organizational commitment (Mowday,
Porter, & Steers, 1982), and lower levels of turnover. Thus, research examining
the impact of contextual performance on a wider range of criteria may be of
practical and theoretical value (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997; Podsakoff &
MacKenzie, 1997).
As an initial effort, this study investigates the usefulness of contextual
performance and task performance as predictors of turnover, reenlistment
eligibility, promotion eligibility, job satisfaction, and organizational commit-
ment over time. Task performance and contextual performance ratings were
obtained in 1992 for one sample (N = 419) of Air Force mechanics and in 1993
for another sample (N = 991). Self-report measures and organizational criteria
were obtained in 1996.
BACKGROUND
A growing body of research has investigated various aspects of contextual
performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993), OCB (Smith et al., 1983), prosocial
organizational behavior (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986), and organizational spon-
taneity (George & Brief, 1992). Although these constructs emerged from
different research streams with different traditions and objectives, they have
much in common. They all focus on job performance behaviors that are more
discretionary and interpersonally oriented than task performance, but are still
expected to meet important organizational needs. Contextual performance by
Borman and Motowidlo (1993) is the least restrictive of these constructs. It is
based on the characteristics of the behaviors, without reference to role
expectations, the actor's intentions, or the expected beneficiaries. For conve-
nience, I will refer to all of them, generically, as contextual performance
throughout the rest of this article.
Recent studies (e.g., Borman et al., 1995; Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994;
Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996) support the distinction between task perfor-
mance and contextual performance made by Borman and Motowidlo (1993).
When employees use technical skills and knowledge to produce goods or
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOLUME 10, NUMBER 1, 200080
services through the organization's core technical processes, or when they
accomplish specialized tasks that support these core functions, they are
engaging in task performance. When employees voluntarily help coworkers
who are getting behind, act in ways that maintain good working relationships,
or put in extra effort to complete an assignment on time, they are engaging in
contextual performance.
It has been suggested that contextual performance benefits organizations in
several ways. Contextual performance behaviors involving persistence, effort,
compliance, and self-discipline are expected to increase the effectiveness of
individual workers and managers (Motowidlo, Borman, & Schmit, 1997;
Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1997). Helpful, considerate, and cooperative beha-
viors are expected to increase work group effectiveness and improve organiza-
tional coordination and control by reducing friction among organizational
members and promoting a social and psychological context that facilitates
task performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Smith et al., 1983). Innovative
and voluntary behaviors enhance an organization's ability to solve unantici-
pated problems and adapt to change. In the aggregate, these behaviors are
expected to improve organizational efficiency by freeing up resources that
would otherwise be needed to handle disciplinary problems, solve communica-
tion difficulties, resolve conflicting demands, or provide closer monitoring of
employee performance (Motowidlo et al., 1997). It is not difficult to make the
case that employees who follow instructions, display initiative, persist on
difficult tasks, cooperate with others effectively, or voluntarily act on the
organization's behalf contribute more to the organization than employees who
do not.
While a single act of contextual performance is not likely to earn anyone a
pay raise or a promotion, over time and situations, employees' contextual
performance should influence supervisors' decisions about their contribution to
the organization and potential for advancement. Bateman and Organ (1983)
suggested that contextual performance might show an employee's willingness
to help the organization. Voluntary behaviors may also be used to demonstrate
skills and abilities that are required for advancement, but are not needed in
the employee's present job.
Personnel Selection
There is already considerable evidence that, for at least some jobs, con-
textual performance may be a valuable addition to the job performance criteria
used in personnel selection (Borman et al., 1995; Motowidlo & Van Scotter,
1994; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). These studies have focused on indivi-
dual differences (Motowidlo et al., 1997) that predict the extent to which
employees engage in these behaviors. Results support the distinction between
contextual performance and task performance made by Borman and Motowidlo
(1993). The evidence shows that supervisors weigh task performance and
contextual performance about equally when judging employees' overall perfor-
mance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997).
OUTCOMES OF CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE 81
Turnover
Employee turnover is an especially important outcome for many organiza-
tions, yet few studies have examined the impact of contextual performance on
turnover. The nature of contextual performance suggests one very basic link
between contextual performance and turnover. Contextual performance is a
form of discretionary behavior that demonstrates an employee's willingness to
participate in the organization and interact with other members. In contrast,
turnover is described as the culmination of a series of withdrawal behaviors.
Although other factors certainly influence participation or turnover, higher
levels of participation seem likely to be associated with lower levels of turnover
and lower levels of participation seem likely to be associated with higher levels
of turnover.
Organizations also need to ensure that effective performers are rewarded
and encouraged to stay. Ineffective performers must be informed that their
substandard performance must be improved or they will risk administrative
action or involuntary termination (Kerr, 1975; Steers & Porter, 1983). Moto-
widlo et al. (1997) suggested that employees learn which types of behaviors are
rewarded by supervisors and adapt their behavior in ways that are positively
reinforced. Thus, an employee's contextual performance can be expected to
influence the favorability of the feedback an employee receives concerning
opportunities for advancement and continued membership in the organiza-
tion, in the same way feedback about the value of task performance does.
After receiving feedback, employees may decide to modify their performance
or begin searching for another job.
The costs or benefits of turnover depend on who leaves and who stays
(Mobley, 1982). The meta-analysis of 24 studies (total N = 7,717) by McEvoy
and Cascio (1987) reported a mean correlation of r = ÿ0.28 between perfor-
mance and turnover, suggesting that better performers are less likely to leave.
Unfortunately, they did not distinguish between task performance and con-
textual performance. Turnover is considered to be functional when poorer
performers leave. Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1997) suggest the type of helping
behaviors included in contextual performance might tend to decrease dysfunc-
tional turnover, by helping to maintain a more pleasant and cohesive work
environment. This is the type of turnover that occurs when better performers
leave, presumably, to obtain better pay, opportunities for advancement, or
working conditions.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction has stimulated a great deal of research interest, partly
because it is viewed as important in its own right and partly because of its
association with other important outcomes. In a recent meta-analysis, Organ
and Ryan (1995) found an average corrected correlation of r = .28 (N = 2,845)
between job satisfaction and behaviors much like those that comprise con-
textual performance. Like Petty, McGee, and Cavender (1984), they did not
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOLUME 10, NUMBER 1, 200082
have enough evidence to determine the direction of the relationship. With a
few exceptions, research in this area has been cross-sectional in nature,
making it difficult to establish the direction of relationships.
Steers and Porter (1983) suggested that performance leads to rewards and
rewards lead to satisfaction. In their view, employees are satisfied when they
receive outcomes that are valued and when they feel they have been treated
fairly. However, they also acknowledged that employees might find some tasks
rewarding or enjoyable by themselves. Many of the interpersonal aspects of
contextual performance, especially those that involve expressing oneself seem
likely to fit in this category.
Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1997) suggested contextual performance in-
creases employees' job satisfaction by making the work context more pleasant
and supportive. This is consistent with the description by Borman and
Motowidlo (1993) of contextual performance as a category of behavior that is
valuable to organizations because it helps support and maintain the psycho-
logical and social context in which task activities are performed. Both
approaches agree that employees with more effective contextual performance
are likely to be more satisfied with their jobs.
Organizational Commitment
Employees with high levels of organizational commitment are more
work-oriented than other employees. They get more satisfaction from work
and view their jobs as fulfilling more of their personal needs. As a result, they
are willing to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization (Mowday
et al., 1982). Research (e.g., Williams & Hazer, 1986) supports the view that job
satisfaction is an antecedent of affective organizational commitment.
Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1997) suggested that by helping to create a
more attractive work environment, contextual performance might increase
employee commitment and improve retention. The model by Steers and
Porter (1983) also suggests that as organizational commitment leads to more
effective contextual performance, the employee would receive proportionally
higher levels of rewards, which would lead to increased satisfaction and
higher commitment.
Summary
Employees who are more helpful, cooperative, and team-oriented are
more likely to be judged effective employees. They are also more likely to
receive positive supervisory feedback concerning their chances of advancing
to the next level of the organization and more likely to be encouraged to
remain with the organization. As a result, they are expected to be more
satisfied with their jobs, more highly committed to the organization, and
less likely to leave it.
Finding that contextual performance explains variance in eligibility for
promotion, eligibility to reenlist, actual turnover, or employees' affective
OUTCOMES OF CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE 83
reactions to their jobs and organizations beyond what is explained by task
performance would provide additional evidence of its value.
METHOD
Samples
Two samples were available for this study. Members of the first sample
were enlisted Air Force mechanics (N = 419) who participated in the 1992
study (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994). The second sample was comprised of a
similar group of mechanics (N = 991) who participated in the 1993 study (Van
Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). Both groups were predominately white (85%),
males (95%), and included Blacks (12%), Hispanics (2%), and persons of Asian
descent (1%). When the studies were conducted about 50 percent of the
participants had under 5 years service, 32 percent had 5±10 years of experi-
ence and the rest had over 10 years of service.
Procedures
In the 1992 study, each mechanic's task performance and contextual perfor-
mance was rated by one of two supervisors. To eliminate same-source bias, each
supervisor rated one and only one dimension. Only one of the raters was the
formally designated supervisor, but it was required that each rater: (a) had
observed the mechanic for at least 90 days, (b) had supervisory authority over
the mechanic, and (c) was qualified in all aspects of the job. (For convenience, all
raters are referred to as supervisors throughout the remainder of the article.)
Supervisors were briefed on the study's purpose and rating procedures
in group meetings. Most rated their subordinates at that time. Ratings
were completed independently. Supervisors who could not attend a meeting
were contacted in person and asked to participate. The same procedures were
used in the 1993 study to obtain supervisors' ratings of their subordinates'
task performance and two separate dimensions of contextual performance.
Performance Feedback
Supervisors were required to counsel mechanics who were determined to be
ineligible for promotion or ineligible for reenlistment. At this time, they were
required to sign a personnel form acknowledging that they were aware of the
administrative action. This was separate from the regular performance feed-
back sessions conducted by their supervisors.
Follow-Up Survey
Job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment were measured
with a follow-up survey. It was administered by maintenance training officials
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOLUME 10, NUMBER 1, 200084
at each participant's location in the Summer of 1996. The response rate was
68.6 percent, yielding 528 useable responses.
Predictors of Employee Outcomes
Task Performance. For the 1992 sample, task performance was measured by
14 items adapted from critical incident dimensions developed for the Army's
Project A (Campbell, 1987), supplemented with information from Air Force
task analyses: ``In comparison to others in this AFSC (Air Force Specialty
Code), how effective is this person in: (a) inspecting, testing, and detecting
problems with equipment; (b) trouble-shooting; (c) performing routine main-
tenance; (d) repairing; (e) using tools and test equipment; (f) using technical
documentation; (g) operating equipment; (h) planning and organizing work;
(i) performing administrative duties; (j) working safely; (k) cleaning shop
facilities; (l) inventorying tools; (m) cleaning and lubricating equipment
components; (n) overall technical performance.'' Supervisors used a five-
point scale ranging from 1 = much below average to 5 = much above
average to rate their subordinates' performance on each item. The mean
of the 14 items formed the task performance score (� = 0.95, N = 169). To
preserve sample size, this mean was computed for all cases with ratings on
at least 10 items.
Before conducting the main portion of the 1993 study, factor analysis was
used to identify a set of six homogenous items that measured task performance
efficiently. This analysis was accomplished using ratings for an independent
set of mechanics. The revised measure consisted of items a, c, d, e, g, and n
above. The task performance score was computed as the mean of these six
ratings. To preserve sample size, this mean was computed for all cases with
ratings on at least five items. In the current sample, � = 0.94 (N = 776). The
single-rater intraclass correlation for this measure was 0.50 in an independent
sample of 192 mechanics that were rated by two supervisors (Van Scotter &
Motowidlo, 1996).
Contextual Performance. In the 1992 study, contextual performance was
measured by 16 items developed to tap the construct described by Borman
and Motowidlo (1993): ``While performing his or her job, how likely is it
that this person would: (a) comply with instructions even when supervisors
are not present; (b) cooperate with others in the team; (c) persist in
overcoming obstacles to complete a task; (d) display proper military appear-
ance and bearing; (e) volunteer for additional duty; (f ) follow proper
procedures and avoid unauthorized shortcuts; (g) look for a challenging
assignment; (h) offer to help others accomplish their work; (i) pay close
attention to important details; (j) defend the supervisor's decisions; (k)
render proper military courtesy; (l) support and encourage a coworker with
a problem; (m) take the initiative to solve a work problem; (n) exercise
personal discipline and self-control; (o) tackle a difficult work assignment
enthusiastically; (p) voluntarily do more than the job requires to help others
OUTCOMES OF CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE 85
or contribute to unit effectiveness.'' Supervisors rated participants on a five-
point scale ranging from 1 = not at all likely to 5 = extremely likely
(Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994). The mean of the item scores formed the
contextual performance score (� = 0.95, N = 298) for cases rated on at least
11 items.
Job Dedication. In the 1993 study, two dimensions of contextual perfor-
mance were rated by separate supervisors. Items measuring job dedication
illustrated effort, initiative, persistence, and self-discipline. Factor analyses
of 13 items, using a separate sample, identified eight unidimensional
items. They ask supervisors to rate mechanics on a five-point scale
according to how likely they are to: (a) put in extra hours to get work
done on time, (b) pay close attention to important details, (c) work harder
than necessary, (d) ask for a challenging work assignment, (e) exercise
personal discipline and self-control, (f) take the initiative to solve a work
problem, (g) persist in overcoming obstacles to complete a task, and (h)
tackle a difficult work assignment enthusiastically. The job dedication score
was computed as the mean of these items for cases with responses on at
least six items. Six of the items (b, d, e, f, g, and h above) were taken
from the 1992 measure of contextual performance. The single-rater intra-
class correlation was 0.69 in an independent sample of 168 mechanics that
were rated by two supervisors (Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). In the
present study, � = 0.94 (N = 862).
The second dimension of contextual performance was interpersonal facil-
itation. It includes helpful, considerate, and cooperative behaviors that facil-
itate other workers' performance. Factor analysis of 13 items, using data from
an independent sample, identified seven unidimensional items. They ask
supervisors to rate mechanics on a five-point scale according to how likely
they are to: (a) praise coworkers when they are successful, (b) support or
encourage a coworker with a personal problem, (c) talk to others before taking
actions that might affect them, (d) say things to make people feel good about
themselves or the work group, (e) encourage others to overcome their
differences and get along, (f ) treat others fairly, and (g) help someone without
being asked. The interpersonal facilitation score was the mean of these
ratings for cases with responses to at least six of the items. The single-rater
intraclass correlation was 0.41 in an independent sample of 147 mechanics
that were rated by two supervisors (Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). In the
present study, � = 0.89 (N = 862).
Experience. For the 1992 sample, job experience was measured via a self-
report item. It was a grouped measure that was coded 1 for 140 persons with
1±2 years of experience in the Air Force, 2 for 58 persons with 3±4 years of
experience, 3 for 108 persons with 5±8 years of experience, 4 for 64 persons
with 9±12 years of experience, 5 for 32 persons with 13±16 years of experi-
ence, and 6 for 14 persons with 17±20 years of experience. For the 1993
sample, personnel records indicating the number of months the mechanics
had been on active duty were used as the experience measure.
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOLUME 10, NUMBER 1, 200086
Employee Outcomes
Turnover. Turnover was operationalized as a dichotomous variable signifying
whether or not the subject was a member of the organization at the end of
1995. It was coded 0 for mechanics who had left the Air Force and 1 for those
who stayed.
Eligibility for Reenlistment. Eligibility for reenlistment was a dichotomous
variable obtained from organizational records indicating whether or not an
individual was or was not eligible to reenlist. Mechanics who had disciplinary
problems, could not adapt to the Air Force, or were determined to be unfit for
continued service for other reasons were not allowed to reenlist. This measure
was coded 0 for mechanics who were not eligible to reenlist and 1 for those who
were eligible.
Eligibility for Promotion. Eligibility for promotion was a dichotomous variable
obtained from organizational records indicating whether or not an individual
could be considered for promotion. Mechanics who had failed to complete a job
knowledge test required for promotion, were involved in disciplinary actions,
or were deemed to be unfit for a higher grade were ineligible for promotion.
This measure was coded 0 for mechanics who were not eligible and 1 for those
who were eligible for promotion. In most cases, a mechanic's eligibility for
promotion could be restored if his or her performance improved.
Job Satisfaction. Overall job satisfaction was measured by asking partici-
pants how strongly they agreed or disagreed with five statements: ``Overall, I
am happy to be in the Air Force; I am very pleased with the kind of work I
do in the Air Force; I work in some very nice places; The people I work with
are very pleasant; and, I am dissatisfied with the work I do in the Air Force
(Reversed).'' They used a five-point response scale anchored with 1 = strongly
disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral; 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree and
� = 0.64 (N = 333).
Affective Organizational Commitment. Affective organizational commitment
was measured with three items based on the instrument of Mowday et al.
(1982). The mechanics were asked the strength of their agreement that:
``The Air Force is the finest organization I have ever worked with; I would
not recommend an Air Force career to my friends or relatives (Reversed); I
take pride in being a part of the Air Force.'' Responses were on the same
five-point disagree±agree scale used for job satisfaction. For this sample,
� = 0.72 (N = 336).
Analysis
Separate analyses were performed for subjects in the 1992 sample and
subjects in the 1993 sample. Correlation and regression were used to estimate
the relationships between performance, promotion eligibility, reenlistment
eligibility, turnover, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
OUTCOMES OF CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE 87
TA
BL
E1
Inte
rcorr
ela
tions
am
ong
Variable
sfo
rth
e1992
Sam
ple
Variable
12
34
56
78
NM
SD
1.
Task
perf
orm
ance
(0.9
5)
305
3.4
90.6
9
2.
Conte
xtu
al
perf
orm
ance
0.2
5**
(0.9
5)
310
3.8
00.7
3
3.
Experience
0.4
0**
0.1
4**
(1.0
)415
2.6
11.4
64.
Turn
over
ÿ0.1
8**
ÿ0.1
2*
0.0
6(1
.0)
419
0.2
50.4
35.
Pro
motio
nelig
ibili
ty0.1
5*
0.1
1*
0.0
9*
ÿ0.2
0**
(1.0
)419
0.9
30.2
5
6.
Reenlis
tment
elig
ibili
ty0.1
6**
0.0
80.0
7ÿ0
.38**
0.4
8**
(1.0
)355
0.9
30.2
5
7.
Job
satis
factio
n0.2
7**
0.1
8*
0.4
4**
aÿ0
.01
0.0
4(0
.64)
128
17.8
43.3
8
8.
Affectiv
ecom
mitm
ent
0.0
80.2
4**
0.1
0a
ÿ0.0
8ÿ0
.10
0.6
4**
(0.7
2)
128
10.4
32.4
5
Note
s:
*p<
.05
(one-t
aile
d).
**p
<.0
1.
aT
here
were
no
cases
with
both
of
these
variable
s.
N=
95±128
for
corr
ela
tions
involv
ing
job
satis
factio
nor
aff
ectiv
ecom
mitm
ent.
N=
232±
419
for
inte
rcorr
ela
tions
am
ong
all
oth
er
variable
s.
The�
sare
on
the
dia
gonal.
Relia
bili
ties
for
sin
gle
-ite
mm
easure
sestim
ate
dat
1.0
.
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOLUME 10, NUMBER 1, 200088
TA
BL
E2
Inte
rcorr
ela
tions
am
ong
Variable
sfo
rth
e1993
Sam
ple
Variable
12
34
56
78
9N
MS
D
1.
Task
perf
orm
ance
(0.9
4)
909
3.5
80.7
9
2.
Inte
rpers
onal
facili
tatio
n0.3
6**
(0.8
9)
925
3.5
20.8
0
3.
Job
dedic
atio
n0.4
8**
0.3
6**
(0.9
4)
910
3.6
20.9
0
4.
Experience
0.3
5**
0.1
4**
0.2
3**
(1.0
)991
71.4
349.7
95.
Turn
over
ÿ0.1
3**
ÿ0.1
1**
ÿ0.1
4**
0.0
1(1
.0)
991
2.0
30.4
06.
Pro
motio
nelig
ibili
ty0.0
50.1
0**
0.1
2**
0.0
9**
ÿ0.2
1**
(1.0
)991
0.9
30.2
5
7.
Reenlis
tment
elig
ibili
ty0.1
6**
0.1
4**
0.1
8**
0.0
8**
ÿ0.3
2**
0.3
9**
(1.0
)861
0.9
00.2
9
8.
Job
satis
factio
n0.1
1*
0.2
2**
0.1
4**
0.2
8**
a0.0
10.0
2(0
.64)
333
16.9
23.4
2
9.
Affectiv
ecom
mitm
ent
ÿ0.0
20.1
4**
0.0
8ÿ0
.04
aÿ0
.04
ÿ0.1
0*
0.5
2**
(0.7
2)
336
10.3
32.3
4
Note
s:
*p<
.05
(one-t
aile
d).
**p
<.0
1.
aT
here
were
no
cases
with
both
of
these
variable
s.
N=
304±336
for
corr
ela
tions
involv
ing
job
satis
factio
nor
aff
ectiv
ecom
mitm
ent,
and
N=
725±991
for
inte
rcorr
ela
tions
am
ong
all
oth
er
variable
s.
The�
sare
on
the
dia
gonal.
Relia
bili
ties
for
sin
gle
-ite
mm
easure
sestim
ate
dat
1.0
.
OUTCOMES OF CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE 89
To control for differences in mechanics' experience levels in the regression
analysis, the experience variable was entered into the regression equation
first, before any of the other independent variables. Either task or contextual
performance was entered on the second step and the other one was entered on
the third step. For the 1993 sample, the two facets of contextual performance,
interpersonal facilitation, and job dedication, were entered as a set (Cohen &
Cohen, 1983). Next, the correlations were adjusted for attenuation caused by
measurement error (cf. Guilford, 1965) and the regression analyses were re-
accomplished. This helped ensure that the effects of measurement error did
not affect the conclusions.
RESULTS
The zero-order correlations for the 1992 sample are shown in Table 1. Both
dimensions predicted mechanics' eligibility for promotion. Task performance
and contextual performance in 1992 each predicted the level of job satisfaction
reported by those who were still on active duty in 1996, but only contextual
performance significantly predicted their organizational commitment (r = .24,
p < .01). Task performance (r = ÿ.18, p < .01) and contextual performance
(r = ÿ.12, p < .05) each predicted turnover.
Intercorrelations for the 1993 sample are shown in Table 2. Interper-
sonal facilitation (r = .10, p < .01) and job dedication (r = .12, p < .01)
predicted eligibility for promotion, but task performance did not. All three
TABLE 3Hierarchical Multiple Regressions Showing Incremental Effects of Task Performance and
Contextual Performance in the 1992 Sample
Dependentvariable
Step 1 �R2 Step 2 �R2 Step 3 �R2
Promotioneligibility(N = 229)
Exp 0.03** CP 0.01 TP 0.01Exp 0.03** TP 0.01 CP 0.01
Reenlistmenteligibility(N = 229)
Exp 0.00 CP 0.00 TP 0.02*Exp 0.00 TP 0.03* CP 0.00
Turnover(N = 229)
Exp 0.00 CP 0.02 TP 0.04**Exp 0.00 TP 0.05** CP 0.01
Job satisfaction(N = 86)
Exp 0.18* CP 0.04* TP 0.01Exp 0.18* TP 0.02 CP 0.03*
Affective Exp 0.01 CP 0.07* TP 0.00commitment(N = 87)
Exp 0.01 TP 0.01 CP 0.06*
Notes: *p < .05.**p < .01.Exp = experience, CP = contextual performance, and TP = task performance.
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOLUME 10, NUMBER 1, 200090
performance variables significantly predicted turnover (r = .13) and
reenlistment eligibility (r = .16). Table 2 also shows that task perfor-
mance (r = .11, p < .05), interpersonal facilitation (r = .22, p < .01), and
job dedication (r = .14, p < .01) each predicted the level of job satisfaction
reported by those who were still on active duty in 1996, but only
interpersonal facilitation significantly predicted their organizational com-
mitment (r = .14, p < .01).
Hierarchical regression results for the 1992 sample (Table 3) show task
performance predicted reenlistment eligibility, but contextual performance did
not. Table 3 shows that contextual performance explained separate variance in
self-reported job satisfaction (�R2 = .03, p < .05) and affective organizational
commitment in 1996 (�R2 = .03, p < .05), but task performance did not.
Results for the 1993 sample (Table 4) show that contextual performance
explained a small but significant amount of additional variance in turnover
(�R2 = .01, p < .05) after controlling for the effects of task performance, but
task performance did not account for variance in turnover over and above what
was explained by contextual performance. Thus, the analyses with turnover as
the criterion produced results that were opposite those found for the 1992
sample. As with the 1992 sample, contextual performance accounted for
unique variance in affective commitment (�R2 = .03, p < .01) and job satisfac-
tion (�R2 = .03, p < .01) beyond the effects of task performance, but task
performance failed to account for a significant amount of variance beyond what
was explained by contextual performance.
TABLE 4Hierarchical Multiple Regressions Showing Incremental Effects of Task Performance and
Contextual Performance in the 1993 Sample
Dependentvariable
Step 1 �R2 Step 2 �R2 Step 3 �R2
Promotioneligibility(N = 812)
Exp 0.01** IF, JD 0.01** TP 0.00Exp 0.01** TP 0.00 IF, JD 0.01**
Reenlistmenteligibility(N = 709)
Exp 0.01* IF, JD 0.03** TP 0.00Exp 0.01* TP 0.01* IF, JD 0.02**
Turnover(N = 812)
Exp 0.00 IF, JD 0.03** TP 0.00Exp 0.00 TP 0.02** IF, JD 0.01*
Job satisfaction(N = 270)
Exp 0.07* IF, JD 0.03* TP 0.00Exp 0.07* TP 0.00 IF, JD 0.03*
Affective Exp 0.00 IF, JD 0.02* TP 0.00commitment(N = 271)
Exp 0.00 TP 0.00 IF, JD 0.03*
Notes: *p < .05.**p < .01.Exp = experience, IF = interpersonal facilitation, JD = job dedication, and TP = taskperformance.
OUTCOMES OF CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE 91
Table 5 shows that mechanics from the 1992 sample who stayed in the Air
Force had significantly higher task performance (F = 10.61, df = 1,303, p < .01)
and contextual performance ratings (F = 4.23, df = 1,308, p < .05) than those
who left the Air Force.
Results for the 1993 sample were consistent with those reported above.
Mechanics who stayed with the organization were rated significantly higher in
interpersonal facilitation (F = 12.24, df = 1,923, p < .01), job dedication (F =
18.45, df = 1,908, p < .01), and task performance (F = 14.56, df = 1,907, p < .01)
than those who left.
Two more sets of regression analyses were conducted to gauge the effects of
measurement error on the results. The results of hierarchical regression
analyses for the 1992 and 1993 samples after adjusting the correlations for
attenuation differed very little from the results shown in Tables 3 and 4. None
of the results gave any reason to suspect that measurement error affected the
study's conclusions. To save space, the results of these regressions are not
shown here.
TABLE 5Results of ANOVAs Comparing the Contextual Performance and Task Performance of
Leavers and Stayers for the 1992 Sample
Variable M SD N F for test of means
Contextual performanceStayers 3.85 0.74 234 4.23*Leavers 3.65 0.68 76
Task performanceStayers 3.56 0.70 232 10.61**Leavers 3.26 0.61 73
Notes: *p < .05.**p < .01.
TABLE 6Results of ANOVAs Comparing the Interpersonal Facilitation, Job Dedication, and Task
Performance of Leavers and Stayers for the 1993 Sample
Variable M SD N F for test of means
Interpersonal facilitationStayers 3.56 0.77 735 12.24**Leavers 3.37 0.88 190
Job dedicationStayers 3.69 0.87 725 18.45**Leavers 3.37 0.97 185
Task performanceStayers 3.63 0.78 727 14.56**Leavers 3.38 0.81 182
Note: **p < .01.
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOLUME 10, NUMBER 1, 200092
DISCUSSION
The results leave little doubt that contextual performance is related to
important organizational criteria. In the 1993 sample, contextual perfor-
mance explained a significant amount of incremental variance in promotion
eligibility, reenlistment eligibility, and actual turnover, over and above the
variance that task performance explained in those outcome variables.
Across two samples, and several years, results consistently showed that
task performance and contextual performance ratings for employees who
remained with the organization were higher than the ratings for those
who left (see Tables 5 and 6). Thus, the turnover that occurred between
1992 and 1995 in the first sample, or between 1993 and 1995 in the
second sample appears to have been functional for the organization
(Mobley, 1982). These results are compatible with the meta-analysis of
McEvoy and Cascio (1987) showing a negative correlation between perfor-
mance and turnover.
The relationships between task performance, contextual performance,
and job satisfaction and organizational commitment were very consistent
across the two samples. Employees whose contextual performance was
higher also reported being more satisfied with their jobs and more
committed to the organization (Tables 1 and 2). Hierarchical regression
analyses (Tables 3 and 4) showed that contextual performance explained
additional variance in job satisfaction or organizational commitment,
over what was explained by task performance, but task performance
did not explain significant incremental variance in either of these
dependent variables.
The inconsistent results for hierarchical regressions predicting turnover
and reenlistment eligibility in the 1992 and 1993 samples (Tables 3 and 4)
were a surprise. In retrospect, they may not be too hard to explain. The
performance measures used in the 1993 study differed from those in the
1993 study. Correlational results for the 1993 study (Table 2) suggest that
refining them was generally useful.
Although comparing the incremental variance accounted for by a single
variable (task performance) with that accounted for by a set of variables
(interpersonal facilitation and job dedication) is theoretically meaningful
(Cohen & Cohen, 1983), comparing results for different measures across
studies may not be. The time lag between obtaining supervisory ratings
and criterion data also differed in the two samples. Given these differences,
the amount of consistency in the results for these two samples is impress-
ive. It is hard to conclude that contextual performance is not related to
important outcomes.
Even if contextual performance has not been formally incorporated in job
performance criteria, the results show that supervisors, recognize it, value it,
and reward it. Finding that task and contextual performance predict differ-
ent outcomes supports the distinction Borman and Motowidlo (1993) made
between task performance and contextual performance.
OUTCOMES OF CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE 93
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