DEITIES OF THE

ANCIENT MAYA

A guide for the 3rd Maya at the Playa workshop

2009

Reiko Ishihara

Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Washington, D.C.

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements...............................................……………………. 3 Introduction.........................................................……………………. 4 Maya Religion and Cosmology….......................….………….. .4 Maya Concept of Gods………………………………………………….5 Primary Sources of Information........……………………………..5 Organization of Workbook..............................………………… 6 Time Periods…………..…………………………………………………. 6 The Maya Deities.................................................………………………7 Death God………...........................................……………………8 Ahkan, God of Intoxication.........................…………………….9 Chaahk, God of Rain & Lightning................……………………10 K’uh, “Godliness”.......................................……………………12 Itzam Nah Yax Kokaj Mut, God of Creation...………………… 13 Ju’n Ixim and Ajan, Maize God......................…………………15 K’inich or K’ihnich, Sun God.......................…………………..17 Jaguar God of the Underworld…………………………………… ..18 Ik’ K’uh, Wind God......................................…………………..19 Yax Chiit Ju’n Naahb’ Nah Kan, Water Lily Serpent............20 Yax B’ahlam, one of the Hero Twins...........……………….…..22 Ix Sak Uh, the young Moon Goddess...............……………… .23 K’awiil, God of Royal Dynasties.....................…………………24 Ha’al Chuhaj / Chuwaaj, Lord of the Underworld…………….25 Ek Chuah, God of Merchants & Trade............………………...26 Itzam Chan Tuun, World Bearer................................………27 Ix Chak Chel, the Old Goddess....................…………………..28 God of Sacrifice..................................…………………………..29 B’uluk Kab’an......................………………………………………..30 Ju’n Ajaw, one of the Hero Twins…..........................……….31 Huk Si’p, Deer God......................……………………………......32 References............................................................………………… ..33

Detail from polychrome plate, Chill Hill, Main Chasm, Aguateca

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The workshop was inspired by the work of my graduate adviser, Dr. Karl A. Taube, and as such, the workshop guide is a simplified version of his 1992 publication “The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan,” the great majority of which has proven to stand the test of time. From his many seminars and hours of advising, I hope to have presented as accurately as I can, at least based on the current state of scholarly knowledge, the variety and multitude of the supernatural beings or deities that the ancient Maya peoples lived with and venerated. I would like to thank Dr. Taube for supporting me in the production of the workbook including his valuable comments. Thanks also go to Dr. Christophe Helmke for providing me with extensive comments for this revised guide. Through this workshop, it is my intention to show a glimpse of and foster an appreciation for the depth and complexity of the cosmological world of the ancient Maya peoples. I also would like to give my thanks to my friend and the main organizer of the conference, Mr. Mat Saunders, for inviting me to participate in a wonderful opportunity that helps open new doors to exciting knowledge and research for youth and adults alike in Florida and other parts of the US.

Acknowledgements

Cover page: Carved bone, Grieta Rincón, Aguateca. Drawing by Alfredo Román, Aguateca Archaeological Project.

Detail from polychrome bowl, Chill Hill cave, Main Chasm, Aguateca

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Introduction

Maya Religion and Cosmology In order to reconstruct and understand aspects of prehispanic Maya religious beliefs and cosmology, we have turned to a variety of sources of information, including ethnographies (based on the culture of present-day peoples of the diverse Maya ethnic groups), ethnohistoric accounts (written around the time of the Spanish conquest), and analyses of the archaeological evidence. Certainly much has transformed profoundly, as no culture or religion is static, yet there are some fundamental elements that have been perpetuated through time. For example, many contemporary Maya peoples make no distinction between what we call “natural” and “supernatural” nor between animate and inanimate things, as everything is imbued with a spiritual force. This was also what the prehispanic

Maya people believed. According to Maya cosmological thinking, the world was ordered by time measured by the movements of the sun, moon, planets, and stars, of which they had accumulated accurate knowledge. Based on this information, they developed various calendars. The basic, most important unit of order was the sun: the sun is reborn daily

from the underworld at dawn in the east, follows its arc in the sky, and descends into the underworld at dusk in the west. During night time, the sun would make its journey through the underworld in order to emerge back up to earth the following morning. The universe consisted of the sky, the earth, and the underworld. The earth was a flat, four-cornered surface, the sky supported by four aged sky bearers or by four world trees. In the center was a blue- green ceiba (silk-cotton tree) whose roots stretched into the underworld, its trunk growing out of the earth’s surface or a cave, and its branches reaching the sky. The earth’s surface was likened to the back of a crocodile or turtle floating in a vast sea of water lilies. Its celestial counterpart was the double-headed serpent. Time was not linear but cyclical, with repeated creations and destructions. The current world, which was preceded by several others, was created on 4 Ajaw 8 Kumk’u 13.0.0.0.0 (13 August 3114 BC) and will complete its Long Count cycle on December 23, 2012. We have learned much from the 16th century document, the Popol Vuh, that narrates the K’iche’ Maya creation myth. Michael Coe first demonstrated

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that a version of this myth existed during the Classic period and that various scenes from it were illustrated elaborately on pottery. The number of deities that the prehispanic Maya peoples believed is great but not precisely known. The 18th century manuscript, “Ritual of the Bacabs,” mentions 166 deities by name while the Postclassic codices depict more than thirty. Surely, the number of deities fluctuated from time to time, and the importance placed on particular deities most likely shifted not only temporally but geographically as well. Maya Concept of Gods In order to better understand the complexity of the Maya concept of gods and supernaturals, we must first be aware of the Western tendency to perceive god as a single, immortal, omnipotent being. The Mayan word is k’uh or ch’uh, “sacred entity” (adjective: k’uhul or ch’uhul), and refers to the vital force that forms the essence of blood. Although it can-not be translated satisfactorily as “god,” the terms god and deity are used in this workbook. In many cases, a deity was not one but four (at times five or six) directional individuals. Moreover, they may present a combination of multiple aspects of humans, animals, different animal species, counterpart

and other deities. They may maintain a counterpart of the opposite sex, have both young and old aspects, and be benevolent and malevolent, reflecting the fundamental Mesoamerican principle of dualism. They are not always far-away ancient mythological characters as some have birth dates and named parents. Many actually participated in ritual practices as witnesses to events or actors in processions; the tangible images of deities were embodiments of them as were ritual impersonators depicted on vessels and monuments. Objects such as temples, monuments, and pottery could also be such embodiments. As privileged individuals who sought to control and lead a population, rulers were depicted as god impersonators or “owners” of particular deities, claiming divine rulership. Moreover, polities or communities had their own localized patrons. Thus although multiple sites may have venerated a similar deity, each was a local variant with distinct meanings and roles. Primary Sources of Information One of the primary sources that provides the greatest amount of information about the prehispanic Maya deities is the Postclassic books, primarily the Dresden, Madrid, and Paris codices. They are comprised of bark paper

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painted on both sides with a thin layer of plaster. Divinatory in nature, they contain prognostications for the numerous calendrical cycles. In the late 19th century, among the several scholars investigating Maya deities, Paul Schellhas (1886, 1897, 1904) systematically isolated and identified particular deities with their name glyphs in the Maya codices. He designated each deity with a letter starting with A, and this classification is still widely used today. In addition to the codices, Postclassic polychrome mural paintings at Santa Rita, Tancah, and Tulum likewise provide data on the deities. Anthropomorphic incense burners from the same time period found throughout Yucatan and Quintana Roo offer rich iconographic information as well. The iconography of Chichen Itza from the Terminal Classic to the Early Postclassic provides an important link between the Late Postclassic and the Late Classic materials. In addition, other sources such as Classic period pottery and carved stone monuments provide iconographic and epigraphic information on the gods. Coe demonstrated that many of the Postclassic deities can be traced back to the Early Classic and some to the Preclassic period. The epigraphic and iconographic work

of Linda Schele at Palenque has also provided key insights. Organization of Workbook The general order of the deities presented in the workbook follows Schellhas’ classification with Taube’s revisions as presented in his 1992 publication. Recently published information is also included. Each page describing the particular deity contains:

(1) Significances of the deity; (2) Identifying attributes; (3) Temporal span of known representation; and (4) Counterparts among

non-Maya or modern groups. Iconographic and epigraphic examples of the deity comprise the rest of the page. Time Periods

Sources: Coe 2005; Houston & Stuart 1996; Sharer 1994; Taube 1992; Vail 2000

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T h e M a y a D e i t i e s

8

Death God

1. Deity of death and the underworld (God A). Personification of the number ten. In the Postclassic (Yukatekan) he was called Kimiil / Kimiiy and in the Classic (Ch’olan) he was Chamal / Chamiiy. Labeled as Kisin in the codices (and in one Classic example), meaning “the flatulent one.”

2. Skeletal appearance (ribs, limp limbs, fleshless mandible). Large black spots on body. Bloated belly or pouring swirls of blood. Hairlike ruff with globular elements (“death eyes”) around head and collar. Eyes are often closed.

3. Early Classic - contemporary

4. Nahuatl Mictlantecuhtli

a. b.

c.

d. e. f.

Figure 1. (a) Postclassic name phrase, Dresden Codex page 12b; (b) Late Classic name glyph, detail of codex style vessel; (c) Name glyph phonetically labeled as kisin(i), Codex Madrid page 87c; (d) Classic period, Xunantunich Altar 1; (e) Postclassic depiction, note mo sign for molo, sphincter, Dresden page 13a; (f) Postclassic Central Mexican Mictlantecuhtli, Codex Borgia page 15. (Source: (a-f) Taube 1992: fig. 1a-b, e-h).

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Ahkan, God of Intoxication

1. Deity of visions, enemas and alcohol (God A’). Associated with violent death and sacrifice. Shares roles with God A, though has multiple manifestations. In the Late Classic, ritual performers often impersonated this deity. Ahkan means ‘groan.’

2. Large femur in the headdress with ak’ab glyph denoting darkness. White face with black band through the eyes. Division (÷) sign on the cheek. Often shown in the act of self-decapitation.

3. Early Classic - Late Postclassic

4. No known analogues in Gulf Coast or highland Mexico.

Figure 2. (a-c) Postclassic name variants, Madrid page 64c, Dresden pages 28b, 5b; (d) Classic name glyph, Naranjo Altar 1; (e-f) Late Postclassic representation of God A’, Madrid page 72b, Dresden page 5b; (g) God A’ emerging from serpent jaws, from lid of Early Classic incised vessel; (h) in act of self-decapitation, Late Classic vessel; (i-j) God A’ impersonators on Late Classic pottery. (Source: (a-j) Taube 1992: figs. 2a-h, 3a-b).

a. b. c. d.

e. f. g.

h. i. j.

10

Chaahk, God of Rain & Lightning

1. As one of the most important deities (God B), he is the most commonly depicted in the codices with numerous manifestations including GI, Kalo’mte’ and Yopaat. Quadripartite god with likely a fifth in the center. Also identified with war and human sacrifice. Sometimes shown fishing. Closely associated with K’awiil.

2. Pendulous nose. Wields hafted stone axes or serpents, which are symbols of lightning. Often holds a serpent in the mouth. Wears a Spondylus shell earflare.

3. Late Preclassic - contemporary

4. Central Mexican Tlaloc. Zapotec Cocijo.

Figure 3. (a) Late Postclassic name glyph, Paris p.17; (b) Postclassic name glyph with ki complement, Dresden page 32c; (c) Late Classic name phrase read chak xib chak, detail of plate; (d) Late Classic compound read chak xib; (e) Early Classic Chaahk, detail of modeled and incised vessel, note serpent in mouth; (f) Early Classic Chaahk with burning serpent in mouth, detail of belt assemblage of ruler, Yaxha Stela 4; (g) Chaahk with serpent in mouth, Yaxchilan Lintel 35. (Source: (a-g) Taube 1992: figs. 4a-d, 6c-e).

a. b. c. d.

e.

f.

g.

11

Figure 4. (a) Late Preclassic Chaahk engaged in fishing, note serpent belt, Izapa Stela 1; (b) Chaahk with water jar flying in breath spiral exhaled by earth crocodile, detail of Quirigua Zoomorph P; (c) Anthropomorphic Chaahk sacrificing jaguar infant; (d) Three Chaahks fishing, incised bone, Burial 116, Tikal; (e) Fishing Chaahk captures Wind God, detail from Late Classic polychrome vase; (f) Postclassic Chaahk as warrior with lightning serpent, shield, and spear, Dresden page 66a. (Sources: (a, c, f) Taube 1992: figs. 6a, 7a, 8b; (b, e) Taube 2004: fig. 4d, 6c; (d) Coe 2005: fig. 73).

a. b. c.

d.

e. f.

12

K’uh, “Godliness”

1. Personification of preciousness, life or divinity rather than a deity in himself (God C), as the profile face is depicted on objects (in particular, maize) and bodies of supernaturals, like the back of the Winal Toad, patron of the period of twenty days. His face represents the glyph k’uh (“sacredness”) and with the “water group” reads k’uhul (“godly,” “divine”). Most representations are limited to the face only. Closely associated with God D and the maize deity.

2. Fat lips, small round nose, resembling two stacked balls. Banded helmet-like element framing the head.

3. Late Preclassic - Postclassic

4. No known analogues in Gulf Coast or highland Mexico.

Figure 5. (a-b) Late Postclassic name glyph, Madrid page 50c, Dresden page 13b; (c-d) God C holding kan glyph for tamale, Madrid page 50c, Dresden page 13b; (e) God C inside structure, Dresden page 35a; (f) Mural from Str. 44, Tancah; (g) Bas relief on round column, Uxmal. (Sources: (a-f) Taube 1992: fig. 10a, c-f; (e) Anonymous 1998).

a.

b. c. d. e.

f. g.

13

Itzam Nah Yax Kokaj Mut, God of Creation

1. This deity’s name is problematic but the most recent reading is Itzam Nah Yax Kokaj Mut (Boot 2008). God D is one of the most important and perhaps the major deity, often portrayed as a lord on a throne. Deity of creation. Identified with wisdom, esoteric knowledge, and divination as well as writing. Omnipresent deity, commonly appearing with world trees (ceiba) as axis mundi and relates to the Principal Bird Deity, God N and God L. Strong link with the earth crocodile. Associated with k’uh, maize, sun, and wind deities.

2. Aged (wrinkles in face) and possesses the Ajaw title of rulership. Large square eye. Shown with a tasseled flower-like motif with an ak’ab sign on the brow, symbol of blackness and night, which is a mirror plaque. Often appears with a peccary. Can be shown as a “priest” with a cape and a tall cylindrical headdress, holding a serpent-tailed “aspergillum.”

3. Protoclassic - Late Postclassic

4. Central Mexican Tonacatecuhtli, “Lord of Our Sustenance,” old god of the earth and creation/birth.

Figure 6. (a-b) Postclassic name glyph, Paris page 11, Dresden page 28c; (c) Late Classic form of name glyph; (d) Postclassic representation, Dresden page 15c; (e-f) Postclassic representation of Itzamnaaj in office of priest, Madrid pages 100d, 60c. (Source: (a-f) Taube 1992: figs. 12a-c, f, 14b-c).

a. b. c.

d. e. f.

14

Figure 7. (a) God D with caiman tree, detail of Late Classic codex style vessel; (b) Late Classic representation of God D with peccary, detail of Tepeu 1 vessel; (c) God D in mouth of bicephalic crocodile, Dresden pages 4b-5b; (d) Late Postclassic representation of bicephalic crocodile with two aged faced in mouths, Santa Rita. (Source: (a-d) Taube 1992: figs. 12g, h, 15a, b).

a. b.

c.

d.

15

Ju’n Ixiim and Ajan, Maize God

1. As maize has been the staple of the Maya people, Ju’n Ixiim is of prominent importance (Classic name identified by David Stuart, ixim = maize seed; God E), and as such, was commonly depicted. Associated with life and abundance as well as with death (crop failure, agricultural cycle of maize). Personifies the number 8.

2. Young, handsome deity with maize foliation at the top of the head. In the Early Classic form, the cranial maize growth sprouts out of a maize sign. Two Late Classic forms: Tonsured Maize Deity and Foliated Maize Deity. The latter form continued on into the Postclassic and is often shown diving. The name glyph is a conflation of God C with a foliated forehead that curls around the back of the head. Often shown emerging from crevices in the earth and being dressed by nude young women.

3. Late Preclassic - Late Postclassic

4. Cinteotl, Central Mexican maize deity. Olmec maize god. Ancestral form of Hun Hunahpu, the father of the Hero Twins who was decapitated in the underworld.

Figure 8. (a-c) Postclassic name glyph of Ajan, Dresden page 6b, Paris page 6, Madrid page 105a; (d-e) Early Classic glyph, detail of alabaster vessel from Santa Rita & ceramic vessel; (f-g) Head variant of the number 8, Pomona Flare & Yaxchilan Lintel 48; (h-j) name glyph from Late Classic vessels. (Sources: (a-g) Taube 1992: figs. 17a, 20b-e; (h-j) Taube 1985: fig. 3a-c).

a. b. c.

e. f. g. d.

i. j. h.

16

Figure 9. (a) Late Preclassic maize deity, North Wall, Pinturas Sub-1, San Bartolo; (b) Foliated Maize God emerging from zoomorphic witz eye, detail of Lintel 3, Temple IV, Tikal; (c) Foliated Tonsured Maize God in foliation growing out of maize curl earspool assemblage, detail of Quirigua Stela H; (d) Disembodied tonsured head in center of foliage; (e) Tonsured Maize God emerging from witz cleft forehead with two maize deity heads at side of witz head, base of Bonampak Stela 1; (f) Postclassic diving maize god, stone sculpture from Mayapan; (g) Head surrounded by blood, Madrid page 34b; (h) Lifeless head on kab’, or earth, Dresden page 34a; (i) Seated maize god on metate, detail of Mural 1, Str. 12, Tancah. (Sources: (a) Saturno et al. 2005: fig. 23a, drawing by Heather Hurst; (b, c, e-i) Taube 1992: figs. 17d-f, 18b, 19a, c, d; (d) Taube 1985: fig. 4a).

a.

b.

c. d.

e.

f. g. i. h.

17

K’inich or K’ihnich, Sun God

1. God G. K’inich means ‘resplendent’ and K’ihnich ‘the hot one.’ Identified with jaguars, decapitation, fire, rulership, and dynastic descent. Serves as head variant for the number four as well as the patron of the month Yaxkin. Close association with the jaguar and God D.

2. The glyph for sun, k’in, is found in his brow or other parts of the body. In Postclassic representations, he has a beard. Frontal face shows him cross-eyed. Has T-shaped filed incisors with curling elements coming out of his mouth. Similar to God D, having a large square eye and big nose, but is often a middle-age man at the peak of strength.

3. Late Preclassic - Late Postclassic

4. Nahuatl Tonatiuh.

Figure 10. (a) Postclassic name glyph, Dresden page 5a; (b) Early Classic head variant for the numeral 4, Pomona Flare; (c) Early Classic example of Sun God head serving as belt-piece, detail Tikal Stela 31; (d) Postclassic representation of Sun God, note beard and kin sign, Madrid page 108b; (e) Late Classic representation of Sun God, detail of polychrome vessel; (f) Late Preclassic Sun God with burning serpent in crook of arm, note kin sign on cheek, detail from upper portion of Takalik Abaj Stela 2. (Source: (a-f) Taube 1992: figs. 22a, e, g, 23a, c).

a.

b. c.

d. e.

f.

18

Jaguar God of the Underworld

1. This deity depicts the night sun, the sun that travels west to east in the underworld after sunset. Commonly referred to as the Jaguar God of the Underworld, or JGU. Patron of the number 7. Often depicted on shields, incense burners, and seen emerging from bicephalic serpent bars. According to David Stuart, possibly Classic Maya god of fire.

2. Eyes are spiraled and surrounded by the figure-eight “cruller” device passing over the bridge of the nose between the eyes. Generally is depicted with jaguar ears.

3. Early Classic - Terminal Classic

4. No known analogues in Gulf Coast or highland Mexico.

Figure 11. (a) Early Classic stairway block with face of JGU, Str. 5D-22-3rd, Tikal; (b) Late Classic stairway block from the Jaguar Stairway, Copan; (c) Detail of polychrome incensario, Pellicer Museum, Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico ; (d) JGU depicted on shield, detail of Tablet of the Sun, Temple of the Sun, Palenque; (e) JGU as the principal image on one of eight flanged, cylindrical censer stands, Temple of the Foliated Cross, Palenque. (Sources: (a-b) Taube 1998: fig. 13b, c; (c) Photo courtesy of FLAAR online; (d) Proskouriakoff 1950: fig. 32k; (e) Rice 1999: fig. 7).

a. b.

c. d. e.

19

Ik’ K’uh, Wind God

1. The wind deity (God H) embodied the breath spirit, which was the food of gods and ancestors but also their spiritual nature. Also the god of music. Personification of number three, patron of the month Mak. Associated with Itzamnaaj. Schellhas’ God P, which depicts Kukulcan (the Yukatek version of Quetzalcoatl), is an aspect of the Wind God.

2. Young male deity wearing a headband with a prominent flower on the brow. In the portrait glyph, the flower is at the back of the head or can be an inverted ajaw glyph. Often wears the ik’ sign, the glyph for wind.

3. Early Classic - Postclassic

4. Quetzalcoatl-Ehecatl, Central Mexican god of wind

Figure 12. (a-b) Early Classic wind god, Tikal Stela 31; as patron of the month Mak, detail of Bonampak stone panel; (c) Late Classic Wind God, detail of carved bone from Burial 116, Tikal; (d-e) Wind God as day-name Ik’, Palenque; (f-g) Drum & rattle with ik’ sign, detail of Early Classic vase & detail of sculpture from Temple 11, Copan; (h) Early Classic wind god, detail of incised vessel; (i) Personified form of number 3, detail of text from carved bench, Copan; (j) Patron of month Mak, note possibly singing, detail of Palace Tablet, Palenque. (Sources: (a-j) Taube 2004: fig. 2a-e, 3b-f.)

a. b. c.

d. e. f. g. h.

i. j.

20

Yax Chiit Ju’n Naahb’ Nah Kan, Water Lily Serpent

1. Symbolizes terrestrial waters (rivers, lakes, cenotes, sea). Personification of the number thirteen and of the 360-day tun period. Close association with Chaak, as a different type of water. Commonly impersonated by rulers during the Classic period. Recently Christophe Helmke (pers. comm. 2008) identified the name as Yax chiit (or pe’t) ju’n naahb’ nah kan.

2. Serpent body, often plumed, with an avian head, closely resembling the Principal Bird Deity. Headdress displays a water lily pad and flower, with the stalk of the blossom knotted across the pad. The water lily pad is rounded with a bumpy outline of widely spaced knobs or continuous scallops, and its surface is cross-hatched. Fish nibble at the flower. At times, the entire headdress is replaced by a large water volute.

3. Late Preclassic - contemporary

4. Equivalent to Central Mexican Chalchiuhtlicue, goddess of terrestrial bodies of water. May be related to contemporary Ch’orti’ Chikchan, the “King Serpent.”

Figure 13. (a) Detail of lower border of Pier D, House A of the Palace, Palenque; (b) Detail of Late Classic carved incised bowl; (c) Tun glyph, detail of fragmentary Caracol Stela 20; (d) Water serpent with Chaak face and WLS headdress, with accompanying name glyph, Dresden p.35b; (e) Ruler with WLS headdress, Machaquila Stela 4. (Sources: (a) Robertson 1990: figs. 4; (b, d) Taube 1992: 26a, b; (c) Ishihara et al. 2006: fig. 5, drawing by Taube; (e) Graham 1967: fig. 49).

a

bc d

e

21

Figure 14. (a) East roof façade, Room 42, Temple of the Fish, Ek Balam; (b) West stucco mask, Structure B5 (upper mask) and B5-sub (lower mask), Caracol. (Sources: (a) drawing by Karl Taube; (b) Ishihara et al 2006: fig. 3, drawing by Gustavo Valenzuela).

a.

b.

22

Yax B’ahlam, one of the Hero Twins

1. Yax B’ahlam (or Yax B’alam in Postclassic) (God CH) is one of the Hero Twins, often appearing with his twin brother, Ju’n Ajaw and his father the maize deity. Serves as the head variant for the number nine. May be associated with hunting.

2. Young male with jaguar skin markings around the mouth and on the body. His name glyph is prefixed with the yax glyph. At the back of the head is a cross-hatched cartouche. Wears an ajaw headband like his twin brother.

3. Late Classic - Early Colonial

4. Deity specific to the Maya area.

Figure 15. (a) Name glyph, Madrid page 104b; (b) Yax B’ahlam serving as head variant of the number 19, Dresden page 69; (c) Head variant for number 9, stucco glyph from Olvidado Temple, Palenque; (d) Yax B’ahlam with maize elements on head, note accompanying name glyph, Madrid page 28d; (e) Seated Yax B’ahlam with jaguar skin markings on face and body, Dresden page 7b; (f) Late Classic representation of Yax B’ahlam, detail of polychrome vessel; (g) Ju’n Ajaw and Yax B’ahlam , Drawing 87 at Naj Tunich. (Sources: (a-f) Taube 1992: fig. 28a, c-g; (g) Miller &Taube 1993:175).

a. b. c.

d. e. f. g.

23

Ix Sak Uh, the young Moon Goddess

1. Goddess of women, marriage, and sensual love (Goddess I). The name glyph shows a kab’an curl in the head and sometimes at the brow. Often carries the sak prefix. Related to the Classic period moon goddess. The moon and moon goddess are linked to maize and the maize deity. In the Postclassic, she is identified with weaving. Closely associated with Ix Chak Chel.

2. Usually a young female deity but can be depicted as an aged woman as well.

3. Early Classic - Late Postclassic

4. Nahuatl Xochiquetzal

Figure 16. (a-c) Postclassic name glyph with sak prefix or ki postfix, note aged face in (c), Dresden pages 22b, 16c, Madrid page 107b; (d) Moon goddess and name glyph from Dresden Venus pages, Dresden page 49; (e) Aged Goddess I weaving, Madrid page 102c; (f) Seated Goddess I, Dresden page 16c. (Source: (a-f) Taube 1992: figs. 29a, b, d, f, I, 30c).

a. b. c.

d.

e.

f.

24

K’awiil, God of Royal Dynasties

1. One of the important deities (God K). He is a celestial lightning deity, often appearing as Chaahk’s smoking serpent lightning axe; also is identified with rain and maize. Associated with elite lineage and dynastic rulership.

2. Long upturned snout (scaly reptile) with a fire element extending out of his brow, often from a shining mirror. In the Terminal Classic and Postclassic periods, he can appear with wings. In the Classic period, he is shown with a serpent foot and a smoking device in his forehead, but most commonly, is in the form of the Manikin Scepter, an axe wielded by rulers.

3. Early Classic - Late Postclassic

4. Some correlation with Aztec Tezcatlipoca.

Figure 17. (a) Late Postclassic name glyph, Paris page 24; (b) Late Classic name glyph with phonetic la suffix, Yaxchilan Lintel 25; (c) God K scepter held by Chaak, detail of Early Classic incised and modeled vessel; (d) God K holding bowl of cacao, Dresden page 12a; (e) God K holding headdress, Madrid page 21c; (f) Eccentric chert of profile with smoking torch through the forehead; (g) One of four God K plastered wooden effigies found within Burial 195, Tikal. (Sources: (a-e, g) Taube 1992: figs. 32b-e, 35a, 36a; (f) L7123, drawing by Linda Schele on www.famsi.org).

a.

b. c.

d. e.

f. g.

25

Ha’al Chuhaj /Chuwaaj, Lord of the Underworld

1. No consensus on the name, but his Postclassic name may be Ha’al Chuhaj and Classic period examples from Altun Ha read Ha’al Chuwaaj (Helmke pers. comm. 2008). Deity of the underworld as well as of merchants and trade (God L). Associated with the jaguar and moan owl, both related to caves and the night. Related to death and destruction but also fertile riches. Regal status as a merchant.

2. Aged deity with a moan screech owl in his large-brimmed hat. Often black body. Large, squared eyes, jaguar characteristics, frequently is smoking a cigar. Often appears with a sacred bundle, sometimes labeled ikatz, or a netted bundle (carrying packs of merchants) topped with a bird (quetzal) suggesting its contents as plumes. Often carries a staff. The moan owl is identified by its broad and sharply tipped beak and spotted feathers. Often a pair of large spotted feathers appear on the brow and the back of the head, probably referring to the horn-like feather tufts.

3. Late Classic - Late Postclassic

4. One of the few Maya deities that appear in Veracruz.

Figure 18. (a) Seated God L with accompanying name glyph, Dresden page 14c; (b) God L with merchant bundle topped with long-tailed bird; (c) God L smoking, from Temple of the Cross, Palenque; (d) God L seated upon jaguar throne, perhaps inside a cave. (Source: (a-d) Taube 1992: figs. 38a, 39b, 40c, 42b).

a

b c d.

26

Ek Chuah, God of Merchants & Trade

1. Deity of merchants and trade (God M), and as such, closely associated with God L. Name glyph is represented by an eye within a U-shaped device with a black background, recalling a typical depiction of a deity’s eye.

2. Long, Pinocchio-like nose. Depicted in black (ek means black). Long, pendulous lower lip accentuated with red. Face is not of a typical Maya face.

3. Late Postclassic

4. God L was the Classic period counterpart. Probably originated from the Central Mexican Yacatecuhtli.

Figure 19. (a-b) Postclassic name glyph of God M, Dresden page 16b, Madrid page 54c; (c) God M with merchant bundle on road, Dresden page 43a; (d) Pair of black God M figures making fire upon a road, Madrid page 51a; (e) Postclassic effigy vessel, Mayapan; (f) Postclassic fragmentary effigy censer, Mayapan. (Source: (a-f) Taube 1992: fig. 44a-e).

a.

b. c. d.

e. f.

27

Itzam Chan Tuun, World Bearer

1. God N. Quadripartite year and sky bearer, he is identified with earth, water, thunder, music, drunkenness, and the old year. As deity of mountains, he can be benevolent or malevolent. Associated with the opossum, turtle, snail, spider, and monkey. Personification of the number five. The Old Man and headscarf are logograms read ITZAM (Martin n.d.). With the turtle shell, his name may be Itzam Chan Ahk.

2. Aged deity donning a netted scarf knotted at the brow. Simply dressed with a loincloth and a cut-shell pendant. Often shown with a turtle carapace, mollusk shell, or spider web on his back or emerges from them. May be shown holding up the sky.

3. Late Preclassic - contemporary.

4. Nahuatl Tzitzimitl, the sky bearer; modern Mam or Maximon (Q’eqchi’, Chol, Tzutujil, Huastec Maya).

Figure 20. (a-c) Name glyphs, Madrid pages 71a, 104b, Dresden page 60; (d) Seated God N, Madrid page 104b; (e) With turtle carapace, Dresden page 60; (f) Late Classic God N in turtle shell, Quirigua Zoomorph P; (g) Pair of God N figures serving as supports for sky band throne, detail of Late Classic polychrome vessel; (h) Classic period God N in conch, detail of carved vessel. (Source: (a-h) Taube 1992: figs. 46a, b, e, 47a, d, e).

a.

b.

c. d. e. f.

g. h.

28

Ix Chak Chel, the Old Goddess

1. Goddess identified with both forces of creation and destruction. Closely associated with divination, curing, childbirth, and weaving. During the Postclassic, called Ix Chel, she is depicted with storms and water, and thus related to Chaak.

2. Invariably an old female deity, often with a red body in the Postclassic codices. Her name has the prefix chak which means “red” or “great,” and chel means rainbow. Often shown with a serpent headdress, she has claws and fangs, and wears a skirt marked with crossed bones and other death symbols. At times, she can have a jaguar ear with spotted eyes. Closely related to the spider. Can be shown holding a mirror.

3. Late Classic - Early Colonial

4. Aztec goddess Cihuacoatl (also known as Quilaztli, Ilamatecuhtli); Nahuatl Toci. She may be the Grandmother of the Hero Twins.

Figure 21. (a) Name glyph prefixed by chak sign, Dresden page 43b; (b) Classic form receiving vomit or other liquid from howler monkey artisan; (c) Goddess O with clawed hands and feet, detail of flood scene on Dresden page 74; (d) Goddess O with water pouring from loins and armpits, Madrid page 30b. (Source: (a-d) Taube 1992: figs. 50a, e, g, 51c).

a.

b. c. d.

29

God of Sacrifice

1. Deity of stone and castigation (God Q). Related to Death God. Name glyph also shows the facial band and often has a coefficient of ten, which is personified by the death deity.

2. Curving band (solid or dotted line) from the forehead through the eye to the back of the cheek. Dotted lines frequently appear on the body. Shown often as sacrificial victims, with death eyes, the death collar, and a knotted headband of cloth or paper.

3. Early Classic - Late Postclassic

4. Tezcatlipoca-Itzlacoliuhqui-Ixquimilli, Nahuatl god of stone, cold, and castigation. Linked to Early Classic Central Mexican Xipe Totec, “our lord the flayed one,” and Formative period Zapotec.

Figure 22. (a-c) Postclassic name glyph with numeral ten prefix, Dresden page 6b, Madrid page 84c, Paris page 8; (d) God Q drilling fire, Dresden page 6b; (e) God Q with burning torch and sacrificial blade, Madrid page 84c. (Source: (a-e) Taube 1992: fig. 53a, c-e, g).

a. b.

c.

d. e.

30

B’uluk Kab’an

1. God R. May be variant or aspect of Ju’n Ajaw. Personification of the number eleven. May be an earth deity (Helmke, pers. comm. 2008). Relatively rare and poorly understood deity.

2. Single prominent kab’an (‘earth’) curl that passes from the brow to the lower cheek, and appears on the body as well. Wears an ajaw headband.

3. Late Postclassic

4. Deity specific to the Maya area.

Figure 23. (a) Name glyph with numeral 11 prefix, Dresden page 5b; (b-d) B’uluk Kab’an, Dresden pages 5b, 6a, Madrid page 65b. (Source: (a-d) Taube 1992: figs. 57a, d, e, g).

a.

b. c. d.

31

Ju’n Ajaw, one of the Hero Twins

1. The Classic period version of Hunahpu from the Popol Vuh (God S). Personification of the ajaw glyph or day sign. Connotations of death and sacrifice. In ethnohistoric sources, he is referred to as the preeminent lord of the underworld. Appears with the Tonsured Maize God, the Classic version of Hun Hunahpu, the father of Hunahpu and Xbalanque. During the Classic period, rulers impersonating Ju’n Ajaw are shown receiving the Principal Bird Deity headdress, connecting royal accession with mythical importance.

2. Single black spot on the cheek and several on the body, referred to as “death spots” that are found on death figures (Gods A, A’). The spot on the cheek can be replaced by a U-shaped black area around the mouth. Wears a headband, but at times may be seen wearing the “death crest” of hair and eyeballs. Sometimes shown decapitated, which relates to the Popol Vuh episode in which Hunahpu loses his head during the ball game. He may also be depicted as a bound captive.

3. Early Classic - Early Colonial

4. Deity specific to the Maya area.

Figure 24. (a-b) Late Classic name glyph, detail of pottery; (c-d) Postclassic depiction with accompanying name glyph, Dresden pages 2a, 50; (e) ajaw face, Tablet of the 96 Glyphs, Palenque; (f) Early Classic examples; (g) Ju’n Ajaw with Yax B’ahlam. (Source: (a-g) Taube 1992: figs. 60b-e, 61a, c, d).

a. b.

c. d.

e. f.

g.

32

Huk Si’p, Deer God

1. The hunting deity is commonly depicted. In contemporary lore, he is the master of animals who live in a mountain cave, and in fact, Classic period vessels and monuments show the hunting god (or its impersonators) inside a cave maw or mountain.

2. An aged deity. He has deer ears, antlers, and often an extended lower lip, possibly alluding to the manner in which they pluck vegetation with their mouths. Commonly has the spiral eye found with gods of night and darkness. May have jaguar pelt markings on the face and body like Yax B’ahlam (God CH). Prominent black striping on the body, probably serving as camouflage in the forest. In Classic Maya scenes, wears a hunting costume of a grass skirt and broad-brimmed hat, sometimes with a conch trumpet.

3. Late Classic - contemporary

4. Mixcoatl of Central Mexico who is identified with the Milky Way.

Figure 25. (a-b) Classic Si’p god with black prefix on (a), Dos Pilas Hieroglyphic Stairway 4 (read ik’ si’p ‘black sin’) & Copan Stela B; (c) Deer with hunting god with accompanying name glyph, Dresden page 13c; (d-f) Postclassic hunting god, labeled aj chi winik (“deer hunter”) in (d) and as Huk Si’p in (e), Madrid page 40b, c, Paris page 10; (g) Terminal Classic Si’p god with deer ear; (h) Si’p god blowing conch trumpet; (i) Si’p god with hunting hat, Bonampak Room 3; (j) Si’p god holding torch and blowing conch trumpet; (k-l) Hunters holding peccary and deer haunches, detail of Late Classic vase. (Sources: (a-c, g-j) Taube 2003: fig. 36.7a-g; (d-f) Taube 1992: fig. 28h-j; (k-l) Stone 2002: fig. 19, K1373).

a.

b. c. d.

e. f. g.

h. i. j. k. l.

33

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