European Journal .ifPsychology ofEducation1995, Vol. X. n" 2, 153-167c 1995, I.S.P.A.

Reflective Learning in Distance Education

Mary ThorpeOpen University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom

This article addresses one of three major challenges which it isargued, currently face distance education, namely its claimed over­reliance on behaviourist approaches to teaching and learning, In par­ticular, the derivation ofprinciples of course design which can beapplied irrespective of difference of context, content and learners, hasnOI proved to be a realistic and effective wayforward. Fortunately, thepractice of distance education has not been limited to applied behav­iourism only, and has included approaches which draw upon socialconstructivist and cognitive approaches to learning. These have workedwell in combination with regular feedback to students in programmesat undergraduate level at the UK Open University (UKOU).

Other conceptualisations of learning have also begun to make animpact, notably the experiential and the relational. Theformer empha­sises reflection on direct experience and the transformation of existingknowledge. The latter reveals the shaping influence of students ' con­ceptions in these areas. Distance education already has many examplesofactivities and projects which require students to process existing andnew experience in relation to course concepts and goals. A number ofcourses at the UKOU are also encouraging students to review theirown learning approaches and to be proactive about their study meth­ods. A case study oftwo courses is introduced, as an example ofteach­ing approaches which foster reflection on experience, integrated withconceptual learning, and reflection by the learner on their own learn­ing process in parallel with the study of course content. Evidence isprovided from evaluation of the extent to which these learning processoriented course materials, have affected the learned outcomes studentsidentify for themeselves. The integration ofa reflective component intoassessment of the course has been especially effective. Students reportchanges most frequently at the level ofgeneral awareness ofpurpose ofstudy and learning transfer, rather than in the area of detailed studyski/Is.

Introduction

Distance education currently faces three major challenges. First, it has become the majormeans through which governments the world over seek to achieve significant expansion in the

154 M. THORPE

provision of education and training along with reductions in the unit cost per learner of suchprovision. Second, it must develop effective ways of teaching an increasingly diverse range ofstudents, at different levels and in a growing range of subject areas . And third, it must developapproaches which go beyond the limitations of the behaviourist approach of much (though notall) of its practice. The theoretical challenge to distance education, arising from the elabora­tion of cognitive and social constructivist approaches to learning, has been articulated moreclearly than ever before and is being cogently pressed (Winn, 1990; Laurillard, 1993).

The purpose of this paper is to summarise some of the main features of this third chal­lenge, to the theoretical basis of distance education practice, and to explore the tentative out­comes of evaluative stud ies of some promising new approaches in course materials and coursedesign . The evidence of this and a number of other practical developments at the UK OpenUniversity suggests that distance education is not necessarily doomed to repeat an impover­ished version of behaviourism. It has always included practice which assumes a cognitiveapproach to learning (Rowntree, 1974), and new process oriented approaches offer promisingnew ways ofdeveloping studen ts' awarene ss about how they learn.

Developments in distance education

Distance education as a universal term indicative of a recognized field of theory andpractice, was adopted only as recently as 1982 at the Vancouver conference of theInternational Council for Correspondence Education, and its origins in correspondence educa­tion have strongly influenced perceptions of its practice and its effects . From the beginning,strong criticisms of it as a mode of education have been made by those convinced that face toface discussion is the primary mode of learning, especially at higher education levels , thoughthe theoretical basis of such convictions has often been left implicit in these criticisms. Textbased private study is virtually always presented as a pale shadow of the seminar and the lec­ture in these criticisms, and the quality of the learning outcomes arising from it are portrayedas similarly second rate.

If this is the traditionalist critique of distance education, it was countered initially by the­oretical justifications for the more structured and planned course texts developed by distanceeducators, drawing on the application of behaviourist techniques to programmed instructionand other forms of teaching and training during the 1960's. Distance education indeed is oftenseen as a product of the harnes sing of information technologies and modem communications,with behaviourist and information processing models of teaching and learning. The aims ofcourses are defined in advance, behavioural (if possible) learning objectives are stated, break­ing down broad subject areas into smaller topics, and teaching media are designed to achievethe goals of the course as effectively as possible. The key measure for success is the quantita­tive achievement of students at the end of the course they have taken. However, two pointsabout the adequacy of this generalisation need to be made.

First, the generalisation is often stated as if it were a categorical definition of what dis­tance education is, rather than as a description of much current practice in the field . Therehave always been exceptions to the generalisation, and these exceptions indicate that the quali­ty of learning in distance education can be very different from the behaviourist stereotype. TheUK Open University for example operates continuous assessment on its undergraduate cours­es, with assignments marked by local tutors who know each of their students and developeffective working relationships with them. Tutor marked assignments are not multiple choiceand typically demand essay and problem solving abilities. Project style assignments have alsooften been used. Such practice may not be typical of the field, but it has now been in placeeffectively for twenty five years at the Open University, and it demonstrates that distance edu­cation does not have to be permanently defined by the stereotype of practice which has domi ­nated the sixties , seventies and eighties.

The second point to make about the stereotype of distance education is that it is effective-

REFLECTIVE LEARNING IN DISTANCE EDUCATION 155

Iy being undermined by a variety of theoretical developments from within the field. Thesedevelopments have not been limited to the psychology of learning, however. Distance educa­tion as both manifesting and enabling social and economic change in production and con­sumption for example, has developed as one strand of commentary (Edwards, 1991; Field,1994; Fames, 1993). Evans in this issue also elaborates a sociological perspective in a discus­sion of learner identity in distance education modes of study . However, it is the challenge ofcognitive and constructivist models of learning which has been specifically addressed in rela­tion to instruction and their implications for course materials in distance education requireexploration.

The challenge of a constructivist model of learning

Winn has argued that behaviourism has not realised its promise of generating principlesfor instructional design which can deliver predictable learning outcomes, except arguably inthe case of learning very specific components of skills and knowledge (Winn, 1990).Behaviourism is of limited value where understanding of complex subject areas is concerned,as in undergraduate study . A model of stimulus response in which the learner is seen as react­ing to, rather than as acting upon a stimulus, clearly offers little to distance education in thehigher education context. However, modifications of the behaviourist approach have beenmade, through the incorporation of cognitive approaches into instructional design. These haveconcentrated on strategies for taking into account the mental models learners bring with themand which will affect their progress during new learning (Winn, 1990).

Winn's conclusion is that this attempt to accommodate cognitive approaches itselfrequires reconstruction and development. First it represents a continuation of an unworkablemodel, which is the attempt to find principles which can be applied mechanistically and withpredictable results - to do instructional design "by the numbers" as it were. This (Winnargues) is equally misguided whether the underlying theory is cognitive or behaviourist.Second, cognitivist learning theory is itself under challenge from evidence that learning isabout much more than the construction and manipulation of mental models. Social construc­tivism has reconstructed the theoretical status of the role in learning of the social milieu of thelearner . It has been recognised that social context, roles and relationships are central to what islearned and how learning occurs, rather than its previous conceptualisation as merely a sourceof distorting effects on the learner-stimulus event (Carugati & Gilly, 1993).

Winn draws upon extensive research which demonstrates that the way people solve prob­lems is very context dependent and that human reasoning does not conform to the models oflogic embedded in mathematical or philosophical analysis. He draws on Collins' idea of"plausible reasoning" as a more appropriate interpretation of how people think in every daysituations, and points to the importance of non logical processes such as intuition and percep­tion (Collins, 1978; Streibel, 1989). When we add to this the evidence that learners can and domake their own decisions about the nature of a learning task and the most appropriate strategyfor them to use on task (Laurillard, 1993), we are faced with a conceptualisation of learning asdynamic and, in many ways , unpredictable. Winn's conclusion is that to continue withattempts to perfect instruction in advance, on the assumption that what has been shown towork effectively with one group will continue to work as effectively with others, isinescapably flawed as a strategy . His recommendations as an alternative way forward, includeemphasising evaluation and the development of instructional materials throughout their use,and working directly out of a base in learning theories rather than from a "principles ofinstructional design" approach . Any attempt to "read off" from theory, principles which canbe applied confidently whatever the context, is likely to lead to less effective provision than acontinual return to theory to create the best "fit" for a particular programme with particularstudents. Winn effectively rejects the principles approach as a reductionist strategy for instruc­tional design:

156 M. TIl0RPE

"A complete theory, having predictive power, allows new rules to beinvented when they are needed. Schon (1983) has callcd this inventionprocess "reflection in action" and characterizes it as a kind of sponta­neous research ... To succeed then, instructional decisions need to bemade while instruction is under way and need to be based on completetheories that allow the generation of prescriptions rather than on prede­termined sets of prescriptions chosen ahead of time by a designer" .(Winn, 1990, pp. 64-65)

The implications for distance education materials are not difficult to derive from this cri­tique . Although Winn does not reject task analysis and pre-specified instruction wholesale, hedoes advocate the extension of instructional design to the stage when students are using coursematerials. This would significantly modify the current assumption that instructional design ismost effectively concentrated in the production stage of materials development. This meansthat "teachers" (i.e. those in direct contact with students as they use course materials) need tomonitor student progress and intervene to modify the prescribed instructional strategies, whenstudents meet unforeseen difficulties. It also means that instructional designers themselvesneed to monitor the use of the systems they design, after implementation (Winn, 1990).Winn's view is that "instructional decisions need to be made while instruction is under way"and therefore that "human teachers or trainers will deliver instruction".

It is interesting that Winn's analysis also emphasises the value and role of evaluation ofthe effects of instruction, and this comes at a time when the assessment of quality in highereducation is also putting new emphasis on the desirability of regular evaluation, However, hisprescriptions for teachers with knowledge of instructional design to be involved throughoutthe learning process may not find such favour , in a context (in Europe at least) which has seennumbers of students in higher education double and staff resources stay the same .

Whatever the future effects of these ideas, distance education docs have, within its cur­rent practice of course design, examples which draw upon more than a behavioural theory oflearning. Lockwood's chapter in this issue evaluates student reaction to activities in coursetexts, which are included generally with a view to encouraging students to process actively thecontent of course study, integrating new knowledge with existing ideas . Project based coursesand project assignments have been perhaps more generally successful at encouraging "deeplearning" and numerous studies have been made of this work (Henry, 1994) .

Both these features of course materials can be linked directl y with a cognitive approachto learning, but other conceptualisations of learning have also begun to make an impact on dis­tance education course design . These developments have becn stimulated by theoreticalapproaches of two kinds : those focusing on the role of experience in learning, and those focus­ing on students' conceptions of learning in higher education. The implications of theseapproaches for distance education, and the evaluation of courses which draw upon them invarious ways , is discussed in the next section.

Theories emphasising reflection and learner conceptions

Experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984) , and Schon's concept of reflective practice(Schon, 1983), have both influenced post compulsory provision of education and training,including higher education (Weil & McGill , 1989) and distance education , These theories giveemphasis to the role of rellection in learning from experience and in integrating theory andanalysis with existing understanding. Kolb outlines a Icarning cycle based on four modes oflearning and knowing: concrete experience, rellectivc observation, abstract analysis and prac­tical experimentation (Kolb, 1984). He argu es for the value ofrellection both on direct expcri­ence and on abstract conceptualisation,as a key means through which experience is trans­formed for the purpose of learning. Schon identifies rcllcction both during and after act ion, askey to the analysis of action and the development of professional expertise (Schon, 1983).

The challenge of both these theories for distance education is that it must enable learners

REFLECTIVE LEARNING IN DISTANCE EDUCATION 157

to "bring into" the course the experiences they have, both prior to and during study, and stimu­late them to engage with both experience and course concepts through a process of criticalreflection . Where students are also practitioners of teaching or training themselves, one of theoutcomes of such an approach may well be to establish habits of critical reflection on practicewhich continu e beyond study , manifesting on going profession learning - thus achieving thereflect ive practitioner model of Schon . Central to this approach, whether for practitioners orlearners with no immediate occupational context for study, is the requirement to processact ively the meanings of both course content and personal experience, and in the context ofdistance education, this processing most often occurs through the thought and activ ities car­ried out by the student independently from course materials, including assessment tasks .

The second area of theory - students' conceptions of learning - presents distance educa­tion with the goal of creat ing courses in which learners are rewarded for demonstrating a deepapproach to learning (Marton , Hounsell, & Entwistle , 1984), in which they process new infor­mation act ively and relate it to a developing structure ofconcepts and meanings in the domain .Some of the roost powerful experiences through which attitudes and thinking can be chal­lenged conventionally involve group discussion , residential study and tutorials which are noteasily delivered through distance education. If they happen at all, they usually account for arelatively small proportion of study time, though their impact can be considerable (Morgan &Thorpe, 1993). However, since assessment has been identified as perhaps the most importantlever on students' conceptions of the study task, and therefore their approach to learning(Laurillard, 1978), distance education may be a more promising site for the encouragement ofdeep approaches to learning than it appears initially . Furthermore, in the context of adultstudy, explicit discussion of the learning process as well as the content of study, and activitiesoriented to meta-learning and awareness raising, may have the potential to affect learningstrategy (Downs & Perry, 1984; McGuiness & Nisbet , 1991; Kurfiss, 1988).

The measure of effective teaching according to both these models has been investigatedin terms of the qualitative outcomes of student learning (Wei! & McGill, 1989; Beaty &Morgan , 1992), although we might expect to see quantitative outcomes where research is doneon courses which arc successful in teaching and assessing explicitly for a deep approach tolearning (Trigwell & Prosser, 1991).

Course design oriented to the learning process

Courses have been developed at the UK Open University which use various strategies toencourage and support students in focusing on their own learning, in addition to the content ofthe subject matter of the course . Two courses in the Education programme for example, bothof which are about adult learning and the provision of education beyond school, aim to stimu­late and reward a reflective and deep approach to learning . Students study the first course aspart of a Professional Diploma in Post Compulsory Education, at postgraduate level. Thecourse is titled Approaches to Adult Learning and requires around 120 hours study. The sec­ond is a half credit course (approximately 240 hours study) in the undergraduate programme,and was presented for the first time in 1993. The first course concentrates on the reflectivepractitioner model of learning. In addition , both courses introduce features specifically orien­ted to encourage reflection and deep learning , though in rather different ways, (see Figure I,Course I and Course 2).

Both courses include activities , and attempt to convey an open minded and questioningapproach throughout, to role model as it were, the kind of critical questioning required of stu­dents . It is not suggested that reflection can be "added on" or located only in isolated featuresrather than in the approach and stance of the course as a whole. A more elaborated account ofthe course design implications of course I, is given in Thorpe, 1993.

Semi structured interviews were undertaken with students studying Course I in 1988 anda much more extensive evaluation of Course 2 in 1993/4. The findings are discussed below.

158 M. THORPE

Course 1 "Approaches to Adult Learning" (quarter credit module in the ProfessionalDiploma programme):

(I) Activit ies -linking course concepts to the leamer's existing experience as a prac­titioner, and incorporating self review of learning outcomes during study.

(II) students to keep a learning journal or portfolio .

(III) an "experiential" or project based assignment (interviewing other adult learners),which also has two parts, where the second part asks the student to reflect on :

"the value to me of completing this assignment and whether changes in itsdesign would have made it more producti ve for me".

Course 2 "Learn ing Through Life: education & training beyond school" (half creditcourse in the undergraduate degree programm e)

(I) A learning oriented course component which includes I) set book (The GoodStudy Guide, Northedge, 1991), providing study guidance in the context of a cog­nitive and discourse approach to learning, 2) an audio cassette and a unit devotedto practical activities encouraging reflection on the student's own learningprocess and self review of progress made . This unit is titled "Learning File" . Thevalue of keeping a personal learning file is also emphasised, and students maychoose to use some of the work in such a file in the last assignment of the course .

(II) the (four) assignments offer different options for student choice but each has twoparts where the second asks the student to "Reflect criticall y on what you havelearned from from undertaking this assignment" . The marks for the assignmentare clearly allocated to explicit criteria : on the first assignment, 40% is allocatedto reflection, rising to 50% for each of the other three assignments.

(III) to underline the key role of the tutor-student relationship and the teach ing com­ments students receive on their assignments, a small proportion of the marks onthe last two assignm ents is allocated to students' use of their tutor's comments.

Figure 1. Course features designed for reflection and deep learning.

Discussion of evaluation findings

Course 1: "Approaches to Learning"

The sample of students on Course I who were interviewed all had some links with educa­tion or training . Their responses ranged from mildly to strongly positive about the value ofreflection, both personally and professionally. Only one interviewee was sceptical of the directrelevance of the idea of reflection and of the value of keeping a portfolio or learning file. Hefound it difficult to relate these ideas to his experience of high pressured teaching he wasrequired to do for first year computer scientists . There were also three general outcomes fromthe research on this course .

First, the idea of stepping back from practice to reflect on it in relation to concepts andtheories of adult learning was welcomed, but reflection is valued as part of the conceptualisa­tion of adult learning, rather than as an isolated technique for learning, separated out from itstheore tical context. Second, the use of writing in a portfolio or journal kept by the student andnot assessed by a tutor , was a relativel y weak strategy for stimulating critical reflection. Onthe whole , those students who already reflected , or worked through ideas in writing, valuedthe legitimation the course gave to this aspect of their learning practice s and identity . Otherstudents found that they were not able to expand their usual practice of note taking durin g

REFLECTIVE LEARNING IN DISTANCE EDUCATION 159

study, although they did not report any sense of low morale in not doing so. Some felt thatthey had "always kept a learning file", though it did not take the form of notebooks with con­tinuous prose, but was more disorganised or ad hoc in approach, as they saw it.

The third outcome was spontaneous reporting by students on the value of the direct experi­ence provided by the assignment in which they interviewed a small number of adult learnersabout their approaches to learning. Students appear to have been surprised to find such diversityof approach to learning in practice - sometimes from people they already knew as learners butabout whom they made new discoveries , which could be integrated with material in the course :

"I wasn't consciously aware that there were so many differences in the waypeople learn and how opposite they are, you know, how contrasting" ...

"The most important part of studying (Course I) was the assignment that Idid because I interviewed people for the first time ever on tape. I did anassignment concerning the different ways in which adults learn, and it sud­denly made all sorts of pennies drop for me. I could actually suddenly feelsomething that I could understand that I hadn't understood before, whiehwas that people who had done well at school and so on, it hadn't just hap­pened... The people I spoke to who had been "successful" learners had hadactual strategies for doing it, even when they were just at school, and theydeveloped these strategies as they got older... these are all people that Iknew reasonably well and it was quite fascinating to do it, so I reallyenjoyed doing the assignment".

One of the conclusions to come out of this research, was that assessment, when appropri­ately designed, provides a powerful mechanism for stimulating and supporting reflection anddeep learning. By incorporating a sect ion where students "stand back" from their work andreflect on what they have learned from the exercise itself, further opportunities for the devel­opment of learning and personal outcomes were provided, and tutors gained better insightsinto the students' learning processes than they would otherwise have had.

Course 2: "Learning Through Life: education and training beyond school".

This course, "Learning Through Life: education and training beyond school" (EH266),was first presented to students in 1993 and was extensively evaluated during that year. Fourhundred and forty four students registered for the course and two postal surveys were carriedout of all students actively studying, at the beginning and at the end of the first year . Responserates were 62% and 70% respectively. The course has a scheduled life of eight years. Face toface and telephone interviews were carried out with over 60 students, during and immediatelyfollowing the study period. The results of this evaluation have been reported elsewhere(Thorpe, 1994) and only aspects relevant to the issue of reflection and the quality of students'learning will be reported here.

As the title suggests, this course is about the provision of post-compulsory education andtraining, focusing particularly on the theories and ideologies developed by those in the field,and on the social contexts through which provision is developed. The goals of the course speci­fy a critical and analytical grasp of relevant issues as the prime, content related goal of studyfor the students. Students are also specifically required to "reflect on, synthesise and evaluate",their knowledge of these issues, and to develop their own learning; to demonstrate an ability:

a) to learn independentlyb) to communicate effectively in writing

More than is usual in undergraduate courses, students are required to pay attention to theprocess as well as to the content of their own learning. In order to support them in so doing, anumber of process oriented features have been incorporated into the course and these are sum­marised in Figure 1.

As a result of the findings from the first questionnaire, we can conclude that students do

160 M. THORPE

not ignore or avoid working on these features of the course; ninety per cent or over started workon the Learning File and the Good Study Guide with in the first three weeks of study, mostspending between five to ten hours on each . The audio cassette played a less prominent role,thou gh some students ex pressed a preference for it dur ing interview. Over half the respo ndentsstarted a personal diary or learni ng file , as recommended in course mater ials, and by the end ofthe cour se, about one quart er stated that they had kept a per sonal file on their learn ing. Forty sixper cent said that the y had start ed, but stopp ed - most of them bet ween four and ten weeks intothe course (which ex tend s over 32 weeks in total ). Students were also asked how these materi­als had affected the way they felt about learn ing for the course , and the results showed on thewhole a positive shift in atti tude. 40% felt either more/much more confident, 40 % more/muchmore enthusiastic and 60% felt more/much more intere sted . About one third felt more able tocope and about one third felt less anx ious. About half the respondents howe ver reported nochange in levels of anxiety and cop ing and 17% cla imed to feel more anx ious.

In terms of study hou rs, the process oriented materials occupied a relatively small propor­tion of the estimated 250 hours study time for a half credit undergradu ate co urse. In term s o fimpact however, their effect co mbined with that of the as sessment design , was very signifi­cant. Students are required to co mplete four essay style assi gnm ents whi ch count 50% towardsa course credit (an end of course examination accounts for the other 50% of marks). Eachassignment has two parts. The first part is a question (1500 words) oriented conventionallytowards discussion and critique of course issues, but the second (500 words) requires the stu­dent to reflect on the work the y have just completed for the ass ignment whether content relat­ed , process related or both . Thi s space for reflection is supported by a self review act ivit y inthe unit titled " Learning File " . This activity sets students a number of qu estions to ask them­selves, both be fore and afte r submi tting their assignment to their tutor for mark ing. The aim isto enc ourage students to identi fy both strengths and weaknesses in their ow n work, to learnfrom the comments of the tutor on the ir work, and to identi fy the outcomes of their studies asthese develop. This activity in the "Learn ing File" unit is recommended to students, thoughthey may choo se not to do it; they co uld not choose to omi t the re lle ctive Part 2 o f eac hassignment however, if they wan ted to ga in a course credit.

... " What have been the outcomes for you person ally, of studying "Lea rning Through Life"?"

Number of Comments

1. Knowledge of provi sion of education and tra in ing , diversi ty , 62Europe, trends and future s, NVQs, work-based learning

2. Greater understanding of how and wh y adults learn, what pre- 49vents learning, learning process, lifelong learning, refl ect ion

3. Inte rest and awareness of own way s of learning, moti vati on 444. Work related insights/applications to work, career shiftslinten- 42

tions, improvements at work

5. Knowledge of class, soc ia l and political factors, participation/ 33/non-participation in learning

6. Achieved a half- credi t/completed my degree 217. Improved ab ilit y to organ ise study tim e, writing essays, exam 20

ski lls

8. More cr itical of ideas/arguments, more confident in criticisin g, 12challenging

9. Other (Some but not all, expres sing disappo intment/crit ici sms) 32

Figure 2. Student s End of Course Expressed O utcomes - in summary. Source : Annua l SurveyofNe w Courses, lET, 1993, 269 stud ent respondents in total.

REfLECTIVE LEARNING IN DISTANCE EDUCATION 16\

One measure of the impact upon students is their expressed views on the outcomes ofcourse study. Open-ended comments from 269 respondents received from the end of coursesurvey were analysed and post coded, and the results are shown in Figure 2. Although the sin­gle largest category is "knowledge of provision of education and training", those categories (2,3, 5, and 7) which refer to learning related outcomes - for self and others- taken together faroutweigh all others . A selection of the type ofcomments coded under this heading is indicative:

"Ability to reflect more meaningfully on my own learning, and to trans­fer this "understanding" to other learners" .

"I can now appreciate and understand the learning challenges andobstacles for people, particularly people of different races, workingclass people and older people. My horizons have been extended and thework on learning processes was particularly useful for me. The "learn­ing through life" concept was completely new but 1 now realise thevalidity and relevance of it".

" I am a University lecturer. 1 am not only now more aware of my ownlearning, but of that of my students . This has changed my view of whatcourses should contain and how they should be presented. I am alsomore aware of the framework of adult education in which it operates .the study of new developments - e.g. competence-based approacheswas also very useful".

The responses of students interviewed by telephone at the end of the course is if anythingeven more dominated by the issue of their own learning, even where students had mixed viewsabout the value of the course for them. For experienced Open University students for example,the course asked them to re-examine ways of studying which they feIt had been addressed and"sorted out" in the first few years of OU course work.

Some students experienced work on the Learning File as going back to issues they nolonger needed, having developed a way of studying that worked for them. The extract whichfollows for example (see Figure 3), is from the comments of an experienced OU student whobegan his studies in the late eighties and did not feel the course had developed his study skills.He did however feel that it had changed his awareness of his style as a leamer, and made himthink more about reflection .

Students for whom this was their first course or who were not as experienced as this stu­dent, were more likely to report changes in both attitudes toward and practice of their ownlearning. The next extract (see Figure 4) shows a student who has not only learned how toreturn to study, but has opened her mind generally, towards new perspectives both in everyday exper ience and in study.

These findings suggest that, while students varied in the range and degree of positiveeffects made on their learning, most of them were affected by the idea of reflection and bypractising reflection in submitting their assignments for tutor marking. Some students reportchanges in note taking and organising study time but the most powerful impact is not at thelevel of study detail but at a general orientation to learning. This involves becoming consciousof the role of reflection in learning, increased self awareness in setting study goals and ques­tioning the self about why one is studying and future directions for study. These issues of gen­eral orientation to and awareness oflearning seem to be immediately transferable to other con­texts . This transfer was not prompted directly by guidance in the course materials, and wasoften reported spontaneously in interviews . While it does reflect the spirit of a course aboutlearning through life , it is interesting to see how many students quickly saw the practicalimplications of their new appreciation of learning, in contexts beyond the course environmentin which they learned it (see Figure 5).

The evidence that the effects on students ' perceptions of learning were widespread,comes from the findings of the end of course survey, summarised in Table 1.

162 M. TIIORPE

Start of extract

Student:

Student:

Student:

Student:

Student:

Student:

Student:

Interviewer:

Student:

Student:

Interviewer: Do you feel that you now know more about your own learning?

Strangely enough, yes.

Interviewer: You do yes? Sounds like a qualified yes.

Well no, only because it is a series of contradictions. I know more about myown learning by comparing my learning for EH266 (Course 2) with mylearning for the psychological subjects and social science subjects... I actual­ly tried at one point to approach EII266 in a way that had been successfulwith social sciences and failed completely.

Interviewer: Oh right you had to look for a new track , a new approach.

Yes, so I mean, as I say, it is sort ofa series of contradictions.

Contradictions in your learning approaches?

In styles of learning...

Interviewer: Has the course affected your own learning, changed it whether positively ornegatively?

I have become a lot more aware of reflection and that is definitely due to theEH266 . The other thing is that I have become more aware of styles of notetaking, again, that is due to £11266 and that has helped a lot.

Interviewer: Right, you think you might be able to use that elsewhere is it?

I already have in revision for my full credit course this year.

Interviewer: And regarding reflection, is that something you would say that is a positivething?

Yes I would...Interviewer: Did you make any discoveries about your own learning during 1993?

As I said , I discovered that I do reflect a lot more than I thought, I have alsodiscovered that I work better to a deadline and strangely enough, one of themost important things for me is having the TMAs (tutor marked assign­ments), so that for a particular piece of learning, I have a goal , I have got aquestion to answer and then I have to organise my thoughts to make argu­ments to answer those questions... So the TMA for me is a vital part of learn­ing.

Interviewer: Oh right... What does reflection mean for you?

It means considering the questions, considering responses, the ways that 1am developing an argument, whether something does or doesn't work , whothe different authorities are, what they have said and comparing them witheach other. So that, as I say, I can try and work out a balanced argument...

Interviewer: ... So you mention now you have more awareness of reflection, do you feelyou have a better grasp of what it is about?

I actually feel that I have a better grasp of education and being perhaps themost important thing, being able to build up logical arguments now than Idid back in say "85 or "86 before I started with the Open University, and Ithink reflection is just one part of it.

Interviewer: OK right. Is reflection on what you are learning something you may do moreoften in the future?

Student: Oh that is for certain .

End of extract

Student:

Figure 3. Extract from an interview with an experienced au student.

REFLECTIVE LEARNING IN DISTANCE EDUCATION 163

Student:

Student:

Student:

Interviewer:Student:Interviewer:

Interviewer:

Student:

End of extract

Start ofextract

Interviewer: Now do you feel that you now know more about your own learning?Student: Definitely, well, I know where I went wrong. I think I will be more assertive

next time. I wouldn't feel guilty about trying to make time to do the studying,in fact, the next course that I do, it is already worked out and timetabled andnothing will interrupt it.OK right. So that's about getting yourself organised for learning.Definitely getting organised yes, that was the biggest part.OK right. Is there anyth ing else about your learning that you relate to thecourse. Do you feel there is anything else, more insights you might havegained?Yes, reflection, I just didn't know what the word meant, and with leading abusy life there is always hidden preparation . I would use that valuable time tolook back and work things out in my mind which I have never ever done . Infact, it has motivated me to think, well instead ofplodding on, and have a struc­ture to what I want and an aim and an objective and I will do it.

Interviewer: OK and you feel the course helped put you on that road as it were, helped giveyou that structure?Yes, thinking more about everything more deeply and different alternatives.The only thing I have found is, I can't hold a conversation with people withoutwanting to put another side that I have just thought of...

Interviewer: Oh right. OK has the course affected your own learning, has it changed whetherpositively or negatively?Oh it has changed it positively, I don't read anything now without question ingit and taking it apart.

Interviewer: Right without referring to materials like newspapers and books and things?Student: Yes, I have started getting better quality papers. I have started reading the

"Guardian" just rather than reading the "Daily Express" I think has gone off(sic). I start buying the "Mail" or the "Guardian". I buy each day now...Do you have any plans for future study or learning?

Yes, this year I am doing the Foundation course for the Open University.

Figure 4. Extract from an interview with a new au student.

Student:Interviewer:Studen t:

Start of extract

Interviewer: ... Well is reflection on what you arc learning something you may do moreoften in the future?Oh definitely yes.You don't have a choice?No I mean I think the other thing that has been interesting is that I have alsopassed on some of the work I did through my teaching in that I am getting theadults that I work with to reflect on their learning.

Interviewer: Oh great how are you finding that then? How is it going with them?Student: Well I think particul arly the whole thing about experient ial learning and learn­

ing cycles and that kind of work goes down very well because it can be easilygrasped by people , and for adults I think there is a sort of enthusiasm to under­stand about their own learning. It puts them more in control so, certainly thetwo groups that I have done some work on with in were very responsive to it.

End of extract with an associate student , already a graduate but new to the OU

Figure 5. Extracts from a student interview

164 M. THORPE

Table IOutcomes in Relation to Learning and Reflection. for Students of Learning Through Life:Education and training beyond school'

Percentageofthose responding (base=278)

Agree Neutral Disagree

Com- to some Total to some Com-

pletely extent extent pletely

[ now feel that I know more about my own learning 32 44 76 9 14

I have found reflection very difficult to do 24 31 55 II 19 15

(now have a better grasp for myselfofwhat reflection is 21 45 66 20 8 6

I think ( will reflect more on what 1am leaming in future 33 36 69 20 6 5

Three quarters of all students said that they now felt that they knew more about their ownlearning, and one third agreed with this statement comp letely. Over half had found reflectiondifficult to do. However, two thirds felt that, at the end of the course, they had a better graspof what reflection is. Almost 70% stated that they were more likely to reflect on what theywere learning in future. Some studen ts were not studying the course as a registred undergradu­ate, and these "associate" studen ts include some who already have a degree and many whotake the course for its relevance to an occupation or hoped for career change. These associatestude nts were analysed sepa rate ly and showed a rather more positive attitude than undergradu­ates on knowing more about their own learning and improving their grasp of reflection by theend of the course. A smaller percentage of associate students than undergraduates had foundreflection difficult to do: 44% by comparison with 61%. However, undergraduates were aspositive as associates about reflecting more in future .

Conclusion

The UK Open University has been teaching to graduate and postgraduate levels of studyfor ove r twe nty five years, involving external assessors and examiners from other British uni­versities in the examination of the quality of its teaching and of the learning of its students. Inthis sense, the general case that distance education (in the form of state of the art course mate­rials together with local tuition) can support higher level learning, the critical, personal graspof conceptual bodies of knowledge, has been made. This is not to argue that perfection hasbeen achieved, and Winn's argument that evaluation and deve lopment of materials in use isthe way forward, confirms much best practice in some if not all distance education institu­tions .

Both conventional and distance higher education however, have typically not made thedevelopment of general learning abilities, and self-awareness as a leamer, an explicit goal oftheir practice. At best, the goal has been to foster deep learning, and even conventional univer­sities well before the expansion of the late eighties in Britain, have noted that a marked suc­cess in university examinations does not guarantee that a student has learned to think scientifi­cally (Abercrombie, 1960). Higher education students now need not only to develop a criticalgrasp of knowledge but to leam how to learn both in the context of universities and of theircommunities after graduation. Universities offer a diminishing amount of personal contactwith teac hing staff, and students need to be proactive and independent learners if they are tosurvive and to develop intellectually. During and after degree studies, in the circumstances ofthe rest of their working lives, their success will depend on their ability to continue learningand to support and stimulate the learning of others. It is in this context that the emphasis on

REFLECTIVE LEARNING IN DISTANCE EDUCATION 165

"learning to learn ", capability (Ball , 1990), experiential learning and even the competencemovement in the UK, has come about. Behaviourist principles of course design may not havebeen oriented to goals of understanding and self awareness, but distance education is notdoomed by such limitations. It can use other theories and the inspiration of best practices inadult education as well as university teaching, to develop new forms of assessment and coursedesign .

The evaluation of two courses which have aimed to do this shows some promising newdirections, building on the centrality of assessment for student learning and motivation whichhas been well established in numerous prior studies (Marton et al., 1984). The commitment tolearning development as well as understanding new subject knowledge needs to be an explicitcourse aim, embedded in the teaching as a whole and also localised in explanations and dis­cussions which communicate the reasons for and the arguments in favour of an emphasis onthe process of students' own learning as well as on course content. As important as the genera­tion of such material is that the course team or instructional designer creates space for studentsto reflect on their own learning in ways which encourage them to "think out" to their own his­tories and current circumstances. This "space" has elements both of time and space. Thus stu­dents will not reflect on the outcomes and the processes of their own learning if they are over­whelmed by course material which they perceive must take priority. Study time must be calcu­lated to include time for reflection. Space must also be created in the sense of creating areas ofthe course where reflection is required and is discussed and legitimated. In the coursesreviewed here, these areas were built around learning process oriented course materials andthe tasks and marking criteria specified in the assignment.

The evidence presented shows that, as we would expect , some students are more pro­foundly affected by the emphasis on reflection in the courses discussed, but that the greatmajority expressed personal outcomes in the area of new awareness of and approaches to theirown learning. There is also considerable, unprompted evidence of the transfer of this learningto other contexts of study , work and personal life. We do not advocate a formula approach fora "new direc tion" in course design, based on reflection. Each course team or instructionaldesigner has to face anew the creative task of working out how an explicit emphasis on thestudents' own learning processes can be expressed through the course in hand. That goal how­ever, is a new point of departure, since ability to learn, ability to develop as a leamer, hasalways been assumed to happen automatically, as a by-product of effective study of a dis­course of texts or of laboratory experience.

The evaluation reported here also suggests that course designers should work with thegrain of the known pressures on students, of time and ofthe wish to succeed in the assignmentprocess. It also suggests that learners will need to be convinced that reflection on learning islegitimated by the course as a whole, and leads to rewarding outcomes related both to coursecontent and to learning abilities of general personal value. These are ambitious goals , but ithas been demonstrated that such goals are not beyond the capacities of course teams andinstructional designers in distance education .

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Key words : Adult independent learning, Assessment, Learning to learn, Reflection .

Received: September 1994

Revision received: December 1994

Mary Thorpe, Institute of Educational Technology, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes,MK7 6AA, United Kingdom.

Current theme ofresearch:

The development of skill in learning/learning to learn, among students in Higher Education .

Most relevant pu blications in the field ofPsychology ofEducation:

Thorpe, M., Edwards, R., & Hanson, A. (1993). Culture and Processes ofAdult Learning. London: Routledge.

Morgan, A., & Thorpe , M. (1993). Residential schools in open and distance education : quality time for quality learning?

In T. Evans & D. Nation (Eds.), Reforming Open and Distance education (pp. 72-87). London: Kogan Page.