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Reflecting‐on‐the‐future: achronological consideration ofreflective practiceJohn P. Wilson aa University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UKPublished online: 29 Apr 2008.

To cite this article: John P. Wilson (2008) Reflecting‐on‐the‐future: a chronological considerationof reflective practice, Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 9:2,177-184

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Reflective PracticeVol. 9, No. 2, May 2008, 177–184

ISSN 1462-3943 print/ISSN 1470-1103 online© 2008 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/14623940802005525http://www.informaworld.com

Reflecting-on-the-future: a chronological consideration of reflective practice

John P. Wilson*

University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UKTaylor and FrancisCREP_A_300718.sgm10.1080/14623940802005525Reflective Practice1462-3943 (print)/1470-1103 (online)Original Article2008Taylor & Francis92000000May 2008JohnWilsonj.p.wilson@sheffield.ac.uk

This paper involves an investigation into the chronological dimensions of reflection and inparticular considers the perspective of reflecting-on-the-future. It is argued that Schön’sreflection-on-action and reflection-in-action do not fully consider the important temporaldimension of the future. An exploration of the published literature would appear to show thatthere is only limited consideration of the future. This paper presents a number of reasons whyreflection-on-the-future has received little attention and argues that it should be given moreprominence. In particular it argues that the development of reflective practice in theprofessions will be constrained by a failure to explicitly consider the future. This article seeksto expand the concept of reflective practice and raise the profile of reflection-before-action orreflecting-on-the-future.

Keywords: reflective practice; reflecting on the future

Introduction

The concept of reflection has been with us for millennia with Aristotle discussing the value ofreflection in helping to shape moral action. Dewey (1938) also investigated the nature ofreflective thought in the context of experiential learning. And, more recently, Schön (1983)highlighted the concept of the ‘reflective practitioner’ which has had a significant impact inmany professional occupations especially education and health.

In particular, Schön discussed two main concepts: those of reflection-on-action and reflec-tion-in-action. The first involves thinking about what has happened during a prior event, and thesecond involves reflecting while one is engaged in an activity. In both of these situations themain purposes are to seek to understand what has or is happening, and to explore the perfor-mance thus revealing tacit knowledge and providing an opportunity to improve performance. Ineach case emphasis is on what has happened and what is happening; in other words the consid-eration is on the past and the present albeit with an eye to future performance.

Although Schön (1983, 1987, 1991) wrote extensively about reflection he would appear tohave given less consideration to how humans reflect and contemplate on how things might be inthe future and how these possibilities might be achieved. This missing temporal dimensionwould appear to diminish the potential for learning and improving performance particularly if itwere explicitly applied.

A consideration of a time dimension in reflection was noted by Hatton and Smith (1995) whodrew attention to the notion of a ‘time frame’. Yet, the temporal dimension which has had littlecoverage in the literature is that of reflection-on-the-future. An investigation of all the articlespublished in this journal Reflective Practice indicates a concentration on past and present

*Email: j.p.wilson@sheffield.ac.uk

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actions, albeit with some reference to planning (Doncaster & Thorne, 2000) or applications inthe future. However, and this would appear to be significant, there are no articles whichspecifically consider reflecting-on-the-future.

This omission is unclear given that it is human nature to reflect and contemplate what mightbe done and achieved in the future. This paper, will reconsider the main tenets of Schön’s reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action and then argue that an important chronological dimension hasbeen omitted. This is the future dimension and the case will be presented that not only can wereflect on the past and the present but that professionals should systematically reflect-on-the-future.

Reflection-on-action

In The reflective practitioner Schön encouraged professionals to investigate and articulate whatand how they did their work. The basis of Schön’s writing was to explore the epistemology ofpractice and identify what professionals knew. It was an attempt to answer the question, ‘Howis professional knowing like and unlike the kinds of knowledge presented in academic textbooks,scientific papers, and learned journals?’ (Schön, 1983, p. viii).

At the time of writing professionals were being publicly challenged and questioned abouttheir roles. Schön (1983) spoke about the ‘mystique of practical competence’ (p. vii) whichenabled professionals to suggest that their operations could not be fully articulated and docu-mented. This line of reasoning is found in the work of Polanyi (1967) and his description of tacitknowledge, i.e., hidden or submerged knowledge. However, without making the tacit knowledgemore explicit it is much more difficult to change behaviour and improve performance.

Learning from an event while it is happening may be difficult because there may be insuffi-cient time and/or we are too close, i.e., physically, chronologically, or emotionally to have theability to make full sense of what is happening. In intensive work environments there is oftenlittle time to look back on past activities because of the incoming demands of further tasks whichneed to be dealt with immediately. For example, Siebert (1999) described how one manager,with a heavy workload, barely had the chance to reflect more than momentarily. There is,therefore, a reduced opportunity to learn from the things we do well and to correct the thingswhich we do less well.

However, by consciously reflecting on past actions there is the opportunity to appraise andevaluate what has happened and to identify possible areas for improved performance. This canbe done individually or as a group and this is what Schön termed reflection-on-action. It is a typeof mental post-mortem of past events. In fact this is something which has probably beenundertaken since the dawn of time because it is an important means of learning from the past inorder to improve performance in the future.

In many cases reflection on past activities is intended to facilitate improved future performance.For example, Hunt (2005) described how a:

… sportsperson reflects on his or her previous winning performances and mentally ‘plays through’the feelings and techniques that will be required in the next race or match. [This is] reflection-on-action with the clear intention of internalising certain actions for future use. (Hunt, 2005, p. 241)

Reflection-in-action

Reflection-in-action is chronologically different to reflection-on-action. While the latter consid-ers what happens in the past, reflection-in-action draws upon internalised knowledge to informand guide current behaviour in the immediate present. Use is made of direct feedback about whatis currently happening and this is interpreted by existing understanding to influence and respond

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Reflective Practice 179

to the events. Schön, who was a musician, used the analogy of jazz musicians who improvisedand responded to what the others were playing.

Reflection-in-action may be thought of as ‘thinking on our feet’ in which there need to beswift responses to immediate requirements for action. Through a consideration of theories in use(Argyris & Schon, 1974) we are able to respond to the circumstances which we face. In effectwe may test our theories and see whether or not they are effective.

The quality of the immediate learning in formal situations may be enhanced by coaching thelearner to stand back from the experience they are undergoing and consider what is happening.This form of activity and reflection is common in team and management development activitieswhere the participants are encouraged not only to succeed in the task but also to consider theirown and others behaviours and interactions.

Reflection-in-action is important since there are many occasions when there is no time to goaway and reflect deeply about something and then return to the situation. Examples, might beunexpected discoveries during a medical operation; a barrister responding to new evidence; apolicewoman responding to an incident on the Underground, etc. Rather than respondingintuitively, there should be some conscious consideration of what is happening, how effectivethe behaviour is, and whether there might be more appropriate alternatives.

There has been some criticism of the terminology used by Schon, in particular the use of theprepositions within the terms, reflection-on-action, and reflection-in-action. Eraut (1995)suggested that there might be better clarity if ‘on’ referred to focus; ‘in’ referred to context; and,‘for’ referred to purpose. It is this idea of purpose and what might be done in the future whichwill be considered next.

Reflecting-on-the-future

The third and final stage in this chronological consideration of reflection is to look at how wemight reflect on the future. This is achieved by considering or imagining various possibilities andthe strategies which are required to achieve them. By imagining or reflecting on what might bepossible we are then able to develop operational strategies which hopefully will deliver theconcrete reality.

When we reflect or speculate about ideas and the way things might be in the future, we areexploring the potential to achieve them and the possible consequences. This speculation is oftendriven by desires and impulses to improve upon current circumstances and they have a clearpurpose, e.g., to find a more effective way of achieving work targets; to plan a holiday whichtakes into account of all the family’s wishes; to examine what might be the best response whenour boss asks why a certain task has not been undertaken etc.

All these examples are testimony to a natural human condition which is to speculate or reflecton what the future might bring and, importantly, be influenced. For example, Battista and Hodge(1999) considered what the turn of the millennium might bring and stated:

For decision-makers at all levels in rapidly changing health care systems, reflecting on the future ofhealth technology assessment is critical in an environment that is increasingly dominated by cost-effectiveness, evidence based medicine and changing ideas of accountability. (Battista & Hodge,1999, p. 1464)

While it is not possible to reflect on concrete experiences which have yet to happen, it ispossible to give deep consideration to trends and future scenarios. We might also analyse andreflect on the experiences of others who have been involved with an activity which we arecontemplating in the future. Through placing ourselves in the shoes of others we can have areasonable expectation about what might happen and how we might respond.

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One relatively successful application of scenario planning was that conducted in SouthAfrica towards the end of apartheid. There was concern that the country might face serious civildisturbance and as a result the Mont Fleur scenarios were constructed and then discussed amongall the main actors (Kahane, 2004). Four main pictures were painted of what the future mighthold including the continuation of apartheid, weak government, economic collapse and inclusivedemocracy and economic growth. Through discussion and examination of future possibilities aconsensus was developed which enabled a smoother transition to an open democracy.

Unlike the past which cannot be changed, only reinterpreted, it is possible to have a varietyof futures. There is not, as many people subconsciously believe, only one future but there aremany possible alternatives unless one is a fatalist, someone who believes that they have no realcontrol over their destiny and that all is preordained. Many people, on the other hand, believethat they possess the power to influence their own future and that of their organisations. In orderto create a future we need firstly to be able to identify where we wish to go. Through reflectionon current and former experiences we may project a variety of scenarios and examine what mighthappen. It is a form of future reflection and it allows us to examine pathways without thenecessity of expending energy and other resources on inefficient or futile courses of action.

We are able to use our reflection to speculate about possible alternatives and we are able toselect a course of action which can lead towards the achievement of our goals and objectives.Circumstances may intervene to hinder or prevent the achievement of our goals, not least ourown limitations. But, at least we have the ability to weigh up the possibilities of success bytaking into account our own strengths and weaknesses.

Reflecting on what might be is one of the most powerful mental tools we have at ourdisposal. Without this ability to speculate about what might be, we would be constrained withinthe present or the past. If we lack the ability to reflect on the future there could be no plans, nohopes, no aspirations, no wants, no dreams and no desires.

To provide more precision about reflecting-on-the-future a definition would be helpful. It isdefined as: the act or process of reflecting on desirable and possible futures with the purpose ofevaluating them as well as considering strategies intended to achieve the objective(s).

This concept of reflecting on future action is, as we have discussed, a natural human phenom-enon yet there are few acknowledgements in the literature and where they do occur they aresmall and peripheral to the main intentions of the writing. Van Manen (1991) discussed thenotion of ‘anticipatory reflection’ which involved consideration or planning of an event. And thiswas followed by Greenwood (1993) who was critical of Schon’s lack of consideration of thefuture. She stated:

To begin with, Schön’s emphasis on reflection-in-and-on-action implicitly undervalues reflection-before-action. It is at least arguable, however, that much of the suffering in the world, includingthat caused by nurses’ errors, could have been avoided had practitioners stopped to think aboutwhat they intended to do and how they intended to do it before they actually did it. (Greenwood,1993, p. 1186)

Greenwood (1998) later wrote that, ‘this Schönian model of reflective practice is essentiallyflawed in that it fails to recognize the importance of reflection-before-action’ (p. 1049).

An incidental and oblique consideration of the future is to be found in Johns (1994) whosuggested the use of a number of questions to encourage reflection. One of these stated, ‘Howhave I made sense of this experience in the light of past experiences and future practice?’ (Moon,2000, p. 71).

On the other hand it has been argued that Schön might have been justified for not includinga separate category for reflective practice regarding anticipation of events. Moon (2000)suggested that:

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Anticipation may imply a combination of reflection and imagination. In this combination, reflection-on-action – the revisiting of prior experiences of the same or similar events – is stretched into thefuture with the use of imagination. Imagination may work with the outcomes of reflection-on-action,but would not be considered to be part of reflection. (Moon, 2000, p. 49)

This semantic argument was continued with Moon suggesting that:

Reflection could be said to be involved in anticipation and planning, but it needs to be combinedwith imagination to extend its application into the future. The word ‘reflection’ has the connotationof a link to the past – going back over ideas and experiences or gathering current ideas so that think-ing or learning may be progressed. (Moon, 2000, p. 97)

However, this line of reasoning is somewhat counterintuitive to much human behaviour ashas been described above (e.g., Battista & Hodge, 1999). Greenwood (1993) maintained thathuman action was intentional, i.e., it was purposive and directional. In order to achieve an objec-tive we firstly have to plan what needs to be done to achieve the objectives. She used the exampleof someone wanting to go to London. In order to get there one first had to catch a train; to catchthe train one first had to get to the station, etc.

In other words, our actions are determined from our intentions. Argyris et al. (1985) statedthat people ‘do not just happen to act in a particular way. Rather, their action is designed; and asagents, they are responsible for the design’ (p. 82). This case was also presented by Greenwood(1993) who stated, ‘Reflection-in-and-on-action, by contrast, requires the agent to reason fromher actions to her intentions’. She also added that it was necessary for human beings to respondto action feedback in an iterative manner (p. 1186).

The case for reflecting on the future is well made by Greenwood (1993). Moon, too,appeared to warm to the concept particularly later in her book. In spite of earlier scepticismsuggesting that reflection in anticipation was not correct she (2000) suggested a series of guidedphases to encourage reflective practice, the last one being particularly pertinent.

Phase 1: Develop awareness of the nature of current practice.Phase 2: Clarify the new learning and how it relates to current understanding.Phase 3: Integrate new learning and current practice.Phase 4: Anticipate or imagine the nature of improved practice. (Moon, 2000, p. 180)

Furthermore, later in the book Moon (2000) once again returns to a consideration of thefuture by briefly discussing guided fantasy. She wrote, ‘Leaders might be led to imagine them-selves performing effectively in a situation that they fear, such as examinations or a difficultprofessional situation’ (p. 207).

A final point to raise is the question of how can we use existing forms of reflection, i.e.,reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action to help with new and original problems? We cannotdepend upon reflection on past or even current events. They are largely of benefit for incrementalimprovements. Creating new and innovative solutions to future challenges require us speculateon the future, not rely upon the past.

A chronology of experiential learning

In the preceding discussion we have considered reflection on past, present and future events, i.e.,reflection-on-action, reflection-in-action and reflection-on-the-future. Yet the latter one reflec-tion-on-the-future, or reflection-before-action, would appear to be little discussed in spite of itappearing to be a natural human condition. It has not been deeply codified within reflective practiceand we will now consider a number of reasons why it seems to be rarely discussed in the literature.

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Firstly, reflecting on past and present actions has an inherent and tacit recognition that theremay be scope for improving future performance. It might be stated that this is so obvious that itneed not be considered. This might be regarded as the ‘reflective elephant in the roomsyndrome’. What is the purpose of reflection if not to improve performance or understandevents?

This implicit and tacit perspective on future reflection means that it is just mentioned ratherthan discussed in detail. For example, MacDonald et al. (2005) stated:

Two objectives drive student portfolios. One objective looks back and the other looks forward.Looking back involves reflecting on achievement and learning. Looking forward involves identify-ing gaps and future development opportunities based upon reflection. … As with student portfolios,both past and future reflection is an element of teacher portfolios. (MacDonald et al., 2005, p. 2)

Another example of this is found in an article by Doncaster and Thorne (2000) whichdiscusses reflection and planning as part of professional doctorates. ‘This task focuses heavilyon the processes of planning. It is forward looking, but builds on both the research capability thatcandidates by this time must have demonstrated …’ (p. 397).

If we accept the argument that reflective practice involves a consideration of the future thenwhy not make it explicit. Reflection on the past and present is strongly emphasised but the futuretends to be less considered. Given that the future is where we are all heading it demands moresystematic consideration.

Secondly, as Moon (2000) observed, the semantic understanding of reflection suggests aconsideration of what has happened rather than what might happen. It is not possible to reflecton something which has yet to happen without the use of imagination.

Thirdly, reflection is generally considered to deal with concrete reality. We cannot addressor change behaviour if something has not yet happened. Both reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action are rooted in the notion of experiential learning. That is, they both link theory and prac-tice in a cycle. Theory informs and is tested by putting it into practice. The practice exposes thetheory to intense scrutiny identifying what parts of the theory work and what don’t work. Thusthe theory is refined and improved through practical application (Dewey, 1938).

This emphasis on practicality and interaction with concrete reality was described by Deweywho emphasised the value of combining theory and practice through consideration of the totalexperience. Dewey (1938) defined reflective thought as:

Active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the lightof the grounds that support it and further conclusions to which it leads… it includes a conscious andvoluntary effort to establish belief upon a firm basis of evidence and rationality. (Dewey, 1938, p. 9)

Another writer who emphasised the importance of developing knowledge through real interac-tion with the world was Friere (1982, p. 56) who maintained that, ‘Problem posing educationbases itself on creativity and stimulates true reflection and action on reality’.

A fourth reason for there being little emphasis on the future was that the very terms ‘practice’or ‘practitioner’ both imply practice, i.e., the act of doing something. Thinking or reflectingabout something ethereal is not doing.

Fifthly, there may be a self-fulfilling prophecy in operation. Because there has been littleexploration of the future temporal dimension it has not entered the mainstream of reflective prac-tice. It is argued here that this reduced level of thought about the future constrains a holisticconsideration of reflection and thereby inhibits the full development of professionals.

The three stages of reflection-on-action, reflection-in-action and reflection-before-action orreflecting-on-the-future are illustrated in Figure 1. Although they are neatly circumscribed

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within boxes the boundaries, in reality, are less exact and will probably tend to merge with oneanother. This may particularly be the case where people explore options and work their waybackwards and forwards along the time line as they juggle possibilities in order to choose thebest way forward.

Conclusion

It has been argued that Schön’s view of reflective practice, i.e., reflection-on-action and reflec-tion-in-action gave little consideration to the concept of reflecting on the future. A few writershave given some brief consideration to the concept, e.g., Greenwood (1993), Moon (2000).Others have mentioned future reflection in passing as if it were nothing extraordinary, e.g.,MacDonald (2005). We described this as the ‘reflective elephant in the room syndrome’.

It has been argued that reflecting on the future is a natural human condition and is a meansof improving future performance. Yet, if the process of reflective practice is undertaken system-atically and without overt and explicit consideration of the future we are limiting the potentialfor the development of professionals.

This chronological consideration of reflective practice is summarised in the Figure 1 above.By placing these thoughts in the public realm it is intended to spark more discussion about thevalidity of reflecting-on-the-future and how it might be achieved.

Finally, thought or reflection without being related to action is limited process. As Brook-field (1995) argued, ‘Reflection in and of itself is not enough; it must always be linked to howthe world can be changed’ (p. 217).

Notes on contributorJohn P. Wilson works for Oxford, Sheffield and Bradford universities and a number of training consultan-cies. He has just written a book on call centre training and this will shortly be followed by one on educationand employment from 1839 until the present day.

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Past Present Future

Figure 1. A chronological perspective of reflective practice.

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