The Scaling Seeds and Technologies Partnership in Africa

Pesticide Evaluation Report And Safer Use Action Plan

Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA)

October 10, 2014

Contact Details: West End Towers, 4th Floor | Kanjata Road P.O. Box 66773-00800, Nairobi, Kenya

Tel: +254 703 033000 | Fax: +254 20 3675 401

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INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION (IEE) AMENDMENT—PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT AND SAFER USE ACTION PLAN (PERSUAP)

AGRA Scaling Seeds and Technologies Partnership in Africa (SSTP)Implemented by Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA)

PROGRAM AND ACTIVITY DATA

ASSISTANCE OBJECTIVE: Economic Growth (EG)

PROGRAM AREAS/Elements 4.5 Agriculture, Feed the Future

REGIONS & COUNTRIES: West, East and Southern Africa

West Africa: Ghana and SenegalEast Africa: Ethiopia and TanzaniaSouthern Africa: Malawi & Mozambique

ORIGINATING OFFICE: BFS/CIS [manager of AGRA]Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA)

DATE: October 10, 2014

PURPOSE: Perform PERSUAP to evaluate AGRA’s SSTP interventions for pesticide impacts on humans and environmental resources in two West, two Southern and two East African countries. Recommend pesticides that are compliant with 22 CFR 216.3 (b) Pesticide Procedures. Recommend risk reduction and mitigation measures as well as agriculture sector best practices and preventive Integrated Pest Management (IPM) tools and tactics.

Author(s): Alan Schroeder, PhD, MBA Implementation Begin/End: FY2013-FY2016

PERSUAP Expiration Date: September 30, 2018

Parent IEE, filename, approval date: BFS IEE for SSTP, P:/AGRA Scaling Seed and Other Technologies (G8 Enabling Tools)/IEE/BFS_G8_Scaling_Seeds_Technology_Partnership_IEE_FINAL(053013).docx, approved by Steven Fondriest, May 30, 2013

ECD URL: http://gemini.info.usaid.gov/egat/envcomp/repository/pdf/39823.pdf

Potential Environmental Media and/or Human Health Potentially Impacted (check all that apply):None __ Air X Water X Land X Biodiversity X Human health X Other __

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SSTP Background

The overall objective of the SSTP is “Taking agricultural innovations to scale” and involves several enabling actions for sustainable crop yield improvements in national priority value chains, identifying core sets of technologies that will contribute to achieving the country targets, and ensuring access to the identified technologies at sufficient scale. SSTP is assisting countries to coordinate sector strategies and programs to strengthen the seed sector and promote commercialization, distribution and adoption of seeds and related key technologies to increase smallholder farmers’ yields and resilience to climate change. The specific objectives are to; (i) improve the capacity of public and private sector groups to deliver quality seeds and other technologies to smallholder farmers; (ii) improve the capacity of smallholder farmers to adopt quality seeds and technologies; and (iii) improve the policy and regulatory mechanisms for the delivery of quality seeds and technologies to smallholder farmers.

Recommended Primary PERSUAP Conditions and Mitigation Actions

1. The 2014 AGRA SSTP countries PERSUAP addresses the needs of SSTP “Program Activities” (understood to include all those implemented by national and other partners, subgrantees, contractors or credit providers) that will or may involve potential financing or use of pesticides desired by various national partners and/or locally-registered, following 22CFR 216.3 (b) Pesticide Procedures. This PERSUAP addresses the following key findings and recommendations:

PERSUAP/Allowed Pesticides: This AGRA SSTP Agriculture Sector PERSUAP evaluates pesticides desired by various national partners and/or locally-registered that could be potentially supported (used on demo trials, promoted during training, assistance to obtain financing to purchase, or direct procurement) with project resources, as well as those that cannot be supported, including justifications.

Safety Training/Equipment: Recommend that USAID-funded SSTP Program Activities that support the use of pesticides on demo trials, promote the use of pesticides to farmers, or procure pesticides for farmers perform pesticide safety training and procure/subsidize and use PPE.

Good Agriculture Practices: Recommend that SSTP implementation staff, as well as subcontracted staff, promote the use of state of the art Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) for each of their target crops, including use of high yielding and quality seed, soil fertility testing and conservation, plant nutritional/fertilizer needs to grow healthy crops, proper water use, crop rotation, clean storage and marketing.

Pest Management Plans/Integrated Pest Management: Recommend that SSTP Program Activities promote the use of state of the art (used by many international, national and state extension services) pest management plans (PMPs) containing major pests/diseases/weeds of each target crop, with preventive non-chemical IPM (Integrated Pest Management) tools/tactics, available locally-registered synthetic pesticides, as well as any artisanal and available natural pesticides available.

Spray Services: Recommend that SSTP Program Activities promote and support the concept and use of pesticide spray services that have well-trained and PPE-protected spray personnel.

DCHA/FFP Global Fumigation PEA: Recommend that SSTP Program Activities conform specifically to the requirements and conditions contained in the recent DCHA (Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance) Bureau/FFP (Food for Peace) Office Fumigation PEA (Programmatic Environmental Assessment) for the fumigation of stored grains and foodstuff with aluminum phosphide.

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Rhizobium Products: Recommend that SSTP Program Activities promote the use of Rhizobium products, as registered locally, to assist crop plants with nutrient uptake and nitrogen sequestration.

Aflatoxin Management PEA: Recommend that SSTP Program Activities consider the promotion and use of the aflatoxin-reduction products. Such products are evaluated in the Aflatoxin Management PEA (including amendments) that evaluate and promote Aspergillus flavus products, as registered locally, to reduce aflatoxin content of maize grain.

Approved Pesticides

See the PERSUAP Executive Summary, below, for pesticide active ingredients recommended for BEO approval, by country.

Update the 2014 AGRA SSTP PERSUAP Report Annually and Amend the PERSUAP in 2016

New pesticides and USEPA registrations/restrictions change weekly. The list of pesticides registered and available in AGRA SSTP countries will change over time and should be evaluated and updated annually. In addition, new human health and environmental toxicological data is produced continuously. For these reasons, and others, this PERSUAP should be updated at least annually, for the current and any future Implementing Partners (IP), and amended after two years in order for it to remain current, accurate and in compliance with 22 CFR 216.3.

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APPROVALS PAGE

2014 AGRA SSTP COUNTRIES AGRICULTURE SECTOR PROGRAM PERSUAP AGRA Scaling Seeds and Technologies Partnership in Africa (SSTP), implemented

by Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA)

CLEARANCE:

BFS BEO: ____________________________________________ Date:________Dennis Durbin (Acting)

Filenme and location (in addition to ECD): _______

Africa Bureau BEO: _____________________________________ Date: ________Brian Hirsch

ADDITIONAL CLEARANCES:

BFS Chief Scientist:

____________________________________ Date: __________Rob Bertram

Africa Bureau (WDC) Mission Environmental Officer:

_______________________________________ Date: __________Walter Knausenberger

USAID BFS AGRA SSTP Project AOR:

_______________________________________ Date: __________Mark Huisenga

COPY:Regional Environmental Advisors / Officers in sub-Saharan AfricaUSAID West Africa Regional Environmental Advisor, Jody Stallings/Ben OpokuUSAID Southern Africa Regional Environmental Officer, Diana ShannonUSAID East Africa Regional Environmental Advisor, David Kinyua

Distribution:IEE filesMission Environment Officers, Regional Env. OfficersUSAID/AGRA SSTP countries project files

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Table of Contents

Recommended Primary PERSUAP Conditions and Mitigation Actions.................4

ACRONYMS.............................................................................................................................. 10

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..........................13

Recommended Primary PERSUAP Conditions and Mitigation Actions...............13

Primary Results of Analyses of Requested/Available Pesticides..........................14

INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 27

1.1 Purpose, Scope & Orientation..............................................................................27

1.2 Regulation 216.......................................................................................................... 27

1.3 The Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP).28

1.4 Integrated Pest Management—USAID Policy.................................................28

1.5 AGRA SSTP Project Countries PERSUAP Methodology................................29

BACKGROUND........................................................................................................................ 30

2.1 AGRA SSTP Countries Backgrounds...................................................................31

2.2 AGRA and SSTP Project Background.................................................................35

2.3 West, Southern & East Africa member countries pesticide sector, risks and areas for improvement............................................................................................... 37

Fertilizer Safety in African Countries.............................................................................39

Seed Treatment: Crop Seeds Treated with Pesticides..............................................42

Rhizobium Use as Seed Treatment and Soil Treatment...........................................43

Fumigation of Seeds, Grains and Stored Food Products with Phosphine Gas...44

Aflatoxin Risk and Reduction...........................................................................................44

PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT (PER).......................................................................48

3.1 Factor A: USEPA Registration Status of the Proposed Pesticides.............48

3.2 Factor B: Basis for Selection of Pesticides.......................................................50

3.3 Factor C: Extent to Which the Proposed Pesticide Use Is, Or Could Be, Part of an IPM Program...................................................................................................... 51

3.4 Factor D: Proposed Method or Methods of Application, Including the Availability of Application and Safety Equipment.....................................................51

3.5 Factor E: Any Acute and Long-Term Toxicological Hazards, either Human or Environmental, Associated With the Proposed Use, And Measures Available To Minimize Such Hazards.............................................................................51

3.6 Factor F: Effectiveness of the Requested Pesticide for the Proposed Use52

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3.7 Factor G: Compatibility of the Proposed Pesticide Use with Target and Non-Target Ecosystems...................................................................................................... 54

3.8 Factor H: Conditions under Which the Pesticide Is To Be Used, Including Climate, Geography and Hydrology................................................................................55

3.9 Factor I: Availability of Other Pesticides or Non-Chemical Control Methods.................................................................................................................................... 56

3.10 Factor J: Host Country’s Ability to Regulate or Control the Distribution, Storage, Use, and Disposal of the Requested Pesticide............................................57

3.11 Factor K: Provision for Training of Users and Applicators........................58

3.12 Factor L: Provision Made For Monitoring the Use and Effectiveness of Each Pesticide........................................................................................................................ 58

PESTICIDE SAFE USE ACTION PLAN (SUAP).................................................................60

4.1 Introduction to SUAP.............................................................................................. 60

4.2 AGRA SSTP Project Pesticides Analysis............................................................60

4.3 Compliance Requirements (Safe Use Measures)...........................................60

Annex 1: Matrix of SSTP Crops with Primary Production Constraints, Pest Prevention GAP/IPM Tools & Tactics and Curative Pesticides..............................65

Annex 2: Guidelines for PMPs for AGRA SSTP countries Crops and Beneficiaries........................................................................................................................... 85

What is a PMP..................................................................................................................................................85

Annex 3: Elements of IPM Program................................................................................88Step 1: Learn and value farmers’ indigenous IPM tactics................................................................88Step 2: Identify key pests for each target crop......................................................................................88Step 4: Choose IPM methods; identify Needs, and Establish Priorities.......................................88Step 5: Do effective activities and training to promote IPM............................................................88Step 6: Partner successfully with other IPM implementers..............................................................89Step 7: Monitor the fields regularly..........................................................................................................89Step 8: Select an appropriate blend of IPM tools.................................................................................90Step 9: Develop education, training, and demonstration programs for extension workers.. .90Step 10: Monitoring, Record-Keeping and Evaluation (M&E)......................................................90

Annex 4: Botanical Active Ingredients in Pesticides, Repellents, and Baits Regulated by USEPA............................................................................................................. 91

Name.......................................................................................................................................... 91

Other Names............................................................................................................................ 91

Use.............................................................................................................................................. 91

Toxicity...................................................................................................................................... 91

EPA Tracking Number.......................................................................................................... 91

Allium sativum........................................................................................................................ 91

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Garlic......................................................................................................................................... 91

Repels insects........................................................................................................................... 91

Low............................................................................................................................................ 91

128827........................................................................................................................................ 91

Allyl isothiocyanate................................................................................................................ 91

Oil of Mustard......................................................................................................................... 91

Kills & repels insects.............................................................................................................. 91

Questionable............................................................................................................................ 91

004901........................................................................................................................................ 91

Annex 5: Natural Pesticides That Have Been Commercialized..............................93

Annex 6: Acute Toxicity of Pesticides: EPA and WHO Classifications..................94

Annex 7: PERSUAP Analyses of Active Ingredients in Pesticides Available in AGRA SSTP countries........................................................................................................... 96

Annex 8: Training Topics and Safe Pesticide Use Web Resources.....................112

Annex 9: Field Monitoring Form for Farmer Best Practices including GAP and IPM options.......................................................................................................................... 114

Annex 10: Farm and Project Record Keeping Associated with Pesticide Use 116

Annex 11: PERSUAP References....................................................................................119

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ACRONYMS

AGRA Alliance for a Green Revolution in AfricaAI Active Ingredient (reference to chemical/s in pesticides)AOR Agreement Officer’s Representative (USAID)BEO Bureau Environmental Officer (USAID)BMP Best Management PracticeBt Bacillus thuringiensis (a bacteria that produces a toxin that is used as a pesticide)CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development ProgrammeCCD Colony Collapse DisorderCFR Code of Federal Regulations (USA)CLI Crop Life International (private sector pesticide companies’ trade association)COP Chief of Party (USAID)DCHA Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance Bureau (USAID)DCN Document Number (USAID documentation system)EA East AfricaEA Environmental AssessmentEC Emulsifiable Concentrate (pesticide formulation)EC50 Effective Concentration 50 (acute toxicity measure)EG Economic GrowthEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentEMMP Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Plan (USAID)EPA US Environmental Protection Agency (also known as USEPA)EU European UnionFAA Foreign Assistance ActFAO Food and Agriculture Organization (United Nations)FDA Food and Drug Administration (USA)FFP Food for Peace Office (USAID/DCHA)FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (USA)FRAC Fungicide Resistance Action Committee G Granular (a pesticide formulation)GAP Good Agriculture PracticeGEF Global Environment Facility (part of World Bank)GlobalGAP Global Good Agriculture Practices, a certification systemGMO Genetically Modified OrganismGUP General Use PesticideHa HectaresHACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (processing standards system)HRAC Herbicide Resistance Action Committee HT Highly Toxic

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ID IdentificationIEE Initial Environmental Examination (USAID)IGR Insect Growth Regulator (type of pesticide)IP Implementing Partner IPM Integrated Pest ManagementIRAC Insecticide Resistance Action Committee ISFM Integrated Soil Fertility ManagementIUCN International Union for Conservation of NatureLC50 Lethal Concentration 50 (acute toxicity measure)LD50 Lethal Dose 50 (acute toxicity measure)LOP Length of ProjectM&E Monitoring and Evaluation MEO Mission Environmental Officer (USAID)MOA Ministry of AgricultureMOE Ministry of EnvironmentMRL Maximum/Minimum Residue Level/LimitMSDS Material Safety Data SheetMSL Meters above Sea LevelMT Moderately ToxicNAFSN New Alliance for Food Security and NutritionNAT Not Acutely ToxicNCAT National Center for Appropriate Technology (USA)NEPA National Environmental Policy Act (USA)NGO Non-Governmental OrganizationNIFA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (USA)OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentPAN Pesticide Action Network (pesticide NGO)PEA Programmatic Environmental Assessment (USAID)PER Pesticide Evaluation ReportPERSUAP Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action PlanpH log of Hydrogen concentration, measure of acidityPHI Pre-Harvest IntervalPI Project ImplementorPIC Prior Informed Consent (a treaty, relates to toxic pesticides)POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants (a treaty, relates to toxic persistent pesticides)PMP Pest Management PlanPNT Practically Non-ToxicPPE Personal Protection EquipmentRCE Request For Categorical Exclusion (RCE) R&D toxin Reproductive and Developmental toxinREA Regional Environmental Advisor

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Reg 216 Regulation 216 (USAID Environmental Procedures under 22 CFR 216.3 (b))REI Re-Entry Interval (safety period after pesticide spraying)RUP Restricted Use PesticideS&C Standards and CertificationSO Strategic ObjectiveSOW Scope of WorkSSA Sub-Saharan AfricaSSTP Scaling Seeds and Technologies Partnership in AfricaST Slightly ToxicSUAP Safe Use Action PlanUC University of CaliforniaUN United NationsUNFAO UN Food and Agriculture Organization (also known as FAO)US United StatesUSAID US Agency for International DevelopmentUSDA US Department of AgricultureUSEPA US Environmental Protection Agency (also known as EPA)VHT Very Highly ToxicWA West AfricaWB World BankWHO World Health Organization (United Nations)

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Risks are inevitably present with the use of pesticides and similar chemicals in sectors including agricultural crop and livestock production. The main purpose of a Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) and Safe Use and Action Plan (SUAP) is to bring United States Agency for International Development (USAID)-funded projects into full compliance with USAID’s environmental regulations (Title 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), part 216, or Regulation 216) on pesticide use. Beyond compliance, this document offers best practices and helps ensure that the USAID-funded project reduces the chances of environmental and health impacts that could occur during pesticide training, promotion or use. If a project desires to promote or use pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP analysis, it will need to perform an Environmental Assessment (EA) on those chemicals.

The overall objective of the SSTP is “Taking agricultural innovations to scale” and involves several enabling actions for sustainable crop yield improvements in national priority value chains, identifying core sets of technologies that will contribute to achieving the country targets, and ensuring access to the identified technologies at sufficient scale. SSTP is assisting countries to coordinate sector strategies and programs to strengthen the seed sector and promote commercialization, distribution and adoption of seeds and related key technologies to increase smallholder farmers’ yields and resilience to climate change. The specific objectives are to; (i) improve the capacity of public and private sector groups to deliver quality seeds and other technologies to smallholder farmers; (ii) improve the capacity of smallholder farmers to adopt quality seeds and technologies; and (iii) improve the policy and regulatory mechanisms for the delivery of quality seeds and technologies to smallholder farmers.

Recommended Primary PERSUAP Conditions and Mitigation Actions

1. The 2014 AGRA SSTP countries PERSUAP addresses the needs of SSTP “Program Activities” (understood to include all those implemented by national and other implementing partners (IP), subgrantees, contractors or credit providers) that will or may involve potential financing or use of pesticides desired by various national partners and/or locally-registered, following 22CFR 216.3 (b) Pesticide Procedures. This PERSUAP addresses the following key findings and recommendations:

PERSUAP/Allowed Pesticides: This 2014 AGRA SSTP Agriculture Sector PERSUAP evaluates pesticides desired by various national partners and/or locally-registered that could be potentially supported (used on demo trials, promoted during training, assistance to obtain financing to purchase, or direct procurement) with project resources, as well as those that cannot be supported, including justifications.

Safety Training/Equipment: Recommend that USAID-funded SSTP Program Activities that support the use of pesticides on demo trials, promote the use of pesticides to farmers, or procure pesticides for farmers perform pesticide safety training and procure/subsidize and use PPE.

Good Agriculture Practices: Recommend that SSTP implementation staff, as well as subcontracted staff, promote the use of state of the art Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) for each of their target crops, including use of high yielding and quality seed, soil fertility testing and conservation, plant nutritional/fertilizer needs to grow healthy crops, proper water use, crop rotation, clean storage and marketing.

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Pest Management Plans/Integrated Pest Management: Recommend that SSTP Program Activities promote the use of state of the art (used by many international, national and state extension services) pest management plans (PMPs) containing major pests/diseases/weeds of each target crop, with preventive non-chemical IPM (Integrated Pest Management) tools/tactics, available locally-registered synthetic pesticides, as well as any artisanal and available natural pesticides available.

Spray Services: Recommend that SSTP Program Activities promote and support the concept and use of pesticide spray services that have well-trained and PPE-protected spray personnel.

DCHA/FFP Global Fumigation PEA: Recommend that SSTP Program Activities conform specifically to the requirements and conditions contained in the recent DCHA (Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance) Bureau/FFP (Food for Peace) Office Fumigation PEA (Programmatic Environmental Assessment) for the fumigation of stored grains and foodstuff with aluminum phosphide.

Rhizobium Products: Recommend that SSTP Program Activities promote the use of Rhizobium products, as registered locally, to assist crop plants with nutrient uptake and nitrogen sequestration.

Aflatoxin Management PEA: Recommend that SSTP Program Activities consider the promotion and use of the aflatoxin-reduction products. Such products are evaluated in the Aflatoxin Management PEA (including amendments) that evaluate and promote Aspergillus flavus products, as registered locally, to reduce aflatoxin content of maize grain.

Primary Results of Analyses of Requested/Available Pesticides

Upon approval of this PERSUAP, the pesticide active ingredients (AIs) listed as “allowed” in the following tables—and ONLY those AIs—may be supported by the SSTP project and their sub-grantees/partners. This includes chemicals already on treated seed provided to beneficiary farmers. Such support is subject to the safe use conditions summarized below and set out in detail in the SUAP, section 4 of this PERSUAP.

Allowed pesticides are those that passed the 12-factor analyses, particularly Factor A (EPA Registration and Restricted Use Pesticide—RUP Status) & Factor E (Acute/Chronic Toxicological Hazards), as analyzed and summarized in Annex 7.

Synthesizing across the PER analysis, ONLY the below-listed pesticide AIs—and with the implementation of specific noted conditions—are permitted for use/support/seed treatment on the SSTP project and by their sub-grantees.

All West, Southern and East African SSTP countries and activities

Fumigant AIs in products found in all West, Southern and East African countries, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in West, Southern and East African countries (with strict conditions that SSTP fumigation of stored grains, foodstuffs and seeds with aluminum phosphide activities conform specifically to the requirements and conditions contained in the recent DCHA/FFP Fumigation PEA)

aluminum phosphide for stored grain pests (for use only by trained and certified applicators, not smallholder farmers; see 2013 USAID Fumigation PEA)

magnesium phosphide for stored grain pests (for use only by trained and certified applicators, not smallholder farmers; see 2013 USAID Fumigation PEA)

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Rhizobium inoculant and Aspergillus flavus aflatoxin reduction products recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in West, Southern and East African countries with condition that label instructions be followed

Rhizobium species as registered locally Aspergillus flavus strains AF 36 and NRRL 21882 as registered locally

Senegal (Sahelian and Savannah climate/ecosystems covered by Institut du Sahel (INSAH)-harmonized registration)

Senegal (INSAH) insecticides

Insecticide AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization for Senegal, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Senegal, with condition that label instructions be followed

azadirachtin/neem tree seed extract Bacillus sphaericus Bacillus thuringiensis/BT flubendiamide fludioxonil/fludioxonyl indoxacarb, S isomer lufenuron malathion Metarhizium flavoviride anisoplae novaluron permethrin pirimiphos-methyl spinetoram spinosad spirotetramat Tagetes oil tetramethrin thyme oil

Insecticide AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization for Senegal, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Senegal (with specific conditions)

abamectin (use formulations below 1.9%; most formulations below 1.9% are General Use Products (GUP)1, and above 1.9% are Restricted Use Products (RUP)

acetamiprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not during flowering to protect foraging honeybees)

bifenthrin (use only 10% EC and 2.5% ULV formulations which are GUP, all other formulations are RUP)

deltamethrin (GUP for all uses, except on cotton, which in USA are RUP) diflubenzuron (use formulations less than 25%, most formulations below 25% are GUP,

and above 25% are RUP)

1 GUP Pesticides for use by general public and non-certified farmers

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fenothrin/phenothrin (use care around water) imidacloprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering) , not during

flowering to protect foraging honeybees) lambda cyhalothrin (GUP formulations 10% and below, most formulations below 10%

are GUP, and above 10% are RUP) thiamethoxam (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not during flowering to

protect foraging honeybees) zeta-cypermethrin (use only non-RUP products)

Senegal (INSAH) miticides/acaricides

Acaricide/Miticide AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization for Senegal, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Senegal, with condition that label instructions be followed

amitraz

Acaricide/Miticide AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization for Senegal, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Senegal (with specific conditions)

abamectin (use formulations below 1.9%; most formulations below 1.9% are General Use Products (GUP)2, and above 1.9% are Restricted Use Products (RUP)

Senegal (INSAH) rodenticide

Rodenticide Fumigant AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization for Senegal, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Senegal (with strict conditions)

brodifacoum (use in bait traps if available, not just bait)

Senegal (INSAH) fungicides

Fungicides AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization for Senegal, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Senegal, with condition that label instructions be followed

azoxystrobin iprodione mancozeb metalaxyl-M (mefenoxam) myclobutanil thiram/TMTD

Fungicides AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization for Senegal, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Senegal

2 GUP Pesticides for use by general public and non-certified farmers

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(with specific conditions) copper sulfate (pentahydrate) (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I)

Senegal (INSAH) herbicides

Herbicides & PGR AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization for Senegal, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Senegal, with condition that label instructions be followed

2,4-D 2,4-D amine bensulfuron bensulfuron methyl clethodim clomazone fluazifop-P-butyl fluometuron isoxaflutole mesotrione nicosulfuron orthosulfamuron oxadiazon pendimethalin penoxysulam/penoxsulam prometryn propanil terbuthylazine thiobencarbe/benthiocarb triclopyr trifloxysulfuron sodium

Herbicides AIs in products registered by INSAH harmonization for Senegal, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Senegal (with specific conditions)

diuron (known water pollutant, use care around open water) glyphosate (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I products which

are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE) hexazinone (known water pollutant, use care around open water) metolachlor (known water pollutant, use care around open water) S-metolachlor (known water pollutant, use care around open water)

Ghana (Humid/Tropical Zone to Savannah Zone)

Ghana insecticides

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Ghana, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ghana, with condition that label instructions be followed

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acephate Bacillus sphaericus Bacillus thuringiensis/BT dimethoate malathion Metarhizium anisopliae novaluron permethrin pyrimiphos methyl pyrethrum sulfur/sulphur tetramethrin

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Ghana, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ghana (with specific conditions)

abamectin (use formulations below 1.9%; most formulations below 1.9% are General Use Products (GUP)3, and above 1.9% are Restricted Use Products (RUP)

acetamiprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not during flowering to protect foraging honeybees)

bifenthrin (use only 10% EC and 2.5% ULV formulations which are GUP, all other formulations are RUP)

imidacloprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering) , not during flowering to protect foraging honeybees)

lambda cyhalothrin (GUP formulations 10% and below, most formulations below 10% are GUP, and above 10% are RUP)

thiamethoxam (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not during flowering to protect foraging honeybees)

Ghana fungicides

Fungicides AIs in products registered by Ghana, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ghana, with condition that label instructions be followed

azoxystrobin difenoconazole fosetyl aluminum mancozeb metalaxyl propiconazole sulfur (sulphur, hydrogen sulfide) thiophanate methyl Trichoderma asperellum

Fungicides AIs in products registered by Ghana, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ghana (with specific conditions)

captan (known carcinogen at repeated high dose uses over time; PPE essential with

3 GUP Pesticides for use by general public and non-certified farmers

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repeated use) copper-fixed or tribasic copper sulfate (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products;

not Class I) copper (cupric) oxide (CuO) (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I) copper (cupric) hydroxide (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I) cuprous oxide (Cu2O) (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I) folpet (known carcinogen at repeated high dose uses over time; PPE essential with

repeated use) triadimenol (EPA use on sorghum canceled—do not use on sorghum; other uses

permitted)

Ghana herbicides

Herbicides & PGR AIs in products registered by Ghana, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ghana, with condition that label instructions be followed

bensulfuron methyl bentazon bispyribac-sodium fluazifop-P-butyl gibberellic acid imazapyr/imazapir mesotrione nicosulfuron oxyfluorfen pendimethalin propanil terbuthylazine triclopyr

Herbicides AIs in products registered by Ghana, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ghana (with specific conditions)

2 4 D amine (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I) 2 4 D amine salt (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I) bromacil (known water pollutant, use care around open water) diuron (known water pollutant, use care around open water) glyphosate (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I products which

are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE) metolachlor (known water pollutant, use care around open water)

East Africa

Ethiopia SSTP-requested insecticides

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Ethiopia, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ethiopia, with condition that label instructions be followed

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pyrimiphos methyl

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Ethiopia, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ethiopia (with specific conditions)

imidacloprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering) , not during flowering to protect foraging honeybees)

lambda cyhalothrin (use GUP formulations 10% and below, most formulations below 10% are GUP, and above 10% are RUP)

Ethiopia SSTP-requested fungicides

Fungicides AIs in products registered by Ethiopia, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ethiopia, with condition that label instructions be followed

difenoconazole metalaxyl propiconazole tebuconazole thiophanate methyl thiram

Ethiopia SSTP-requested herbicides

Herbicides & PGR AIs in products registered by Ethiopia, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ethiopia, with condition that label instructions be followed

clodinafop-propargil florasulam flumetralin glyphosate pendimethalin

Herbicides AIs in products registered by Ethiopia, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Ethiopia (with specific conditions)

2 4 D (use only acute toxicity Class II or III products; not Class I) glyphosate (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I products which

are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE) pyroxsulam (use formulations of 4.5% and lower, most formulations below 4.5% are

GUP and above 4.5% are RUP) s-metolachlor (known water pollutant, use care around open water)

Tanzania SSTP-requested insecticides

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Tanzania, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use on SSTP in Tanzania, with condition that label instructions be followed

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permethrin pirimiphos-methyl spinosad

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Tanzania, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use on SSTP activities in Tanzania (with specific conditions)

abamectin (use formulations below 1.9%, most formulations below 1.9% are General Use Products (GUP)4, and above 1.9% are Restricted Use Products (RUP)

bifenthrin (use only 10% EC and 2.5% ULV formulations which are GUP, all other formulations are RUP)

deltamethrin (GUP for all uses, except on cotton, which in USA are RUP) imidacloprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering), not during

flowering to protect foraging honeybees) lambda cyhalothrin (GUP formulations 10% and below, most formulations below 10%

are GUP, and above 10% are RUP) thiamethoxam (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not during flowering to

protect foraging honeybees)

Tanzania SSTP-requested acaricides/miticides

Acaricide/Miticide AIs in products registered by Tanzania, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use on SSTP activities in Tanzania, with condition that label instructions be followed

fenpyroximate

Acaricide/Miticide AIs in products registered by Tanzania, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use on SSTP activities in Tanzania (with specific conditions)

abamectin (use formulations below 1.9%, most formulations below 1.9% are General Use Products (GUP)5, and above 1.9% are Restricted Use Products (RUP)

Tanzania SSTP-requested rodenticides

Rodenticide AIs in products registered by Tanzania, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use on SSTP activities in Tanzania, with condition that label instructions be followed

brodifacoum bromadialone diphacinone

Rodenticide AIs in products registered by Tanzania, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use on SSTP activities in Tanzania (with strict conditions)

aluminum phosphide fumigant for stored grain/food rodent pests (for use only by trained and certified applicators, not smallholder farmers; see 2013 USAID Fumigation PEA)

zinc phosphide (only in concentrations at or less than 2% for field rodent pests)

Tanzania SSTP-requested fungicides

4 GUP Pesticides for use by general public and farmers5 GUP Pesticides for use by general public and farmers

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Fungicides AIs in products registered by Tanzania, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use on SSTP activities, with condition that label instructions be followed

azoxystrobin copper (cuprous) oxide (Cu2O) copper oxychloride copper sulfate (pentahydrate) cymoxanil difenoconazole mancozeb metalaxyl pyrimethanil sulfur (sulphur, hydrogen sulfide) tebuconazole thiophanate-methyl triadimefon triadimenol trifloxystrobin

Fungicides AIs in products registered by Tanzania, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use on SSTP activities in Tanzania (with specific conditions)

chlorothalonil (Class I eye toxicity for concentrations generally over 50%, goggle use is mandatory; do not use USAID funds to promote, support or purchase fungicide mixtures containing chlorothalonil in concentrations greater than 50%)

copper/cupric hydroxide (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I which are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE)

copper (cuprous) oxide (Cu2O) (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I which are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE)

copper oxychloride (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I which are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE)

copper sulfate pentahydrate (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I which are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE)

Tanzania SSTP-requested herbicides

Herbicides & PGR AIs in products registered by Tanzania, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use on SSTP activities in Tanzania, with condition that label instructions be followed

2 4 D amine 2,4-D dimethyl amine bromoxynil octanoate, heptanoate clomazone cyhalofop-butyl flumetralin foramsulfuron halosulfuron methyl imazapyr maleic hydrazide MCPA mesotrione metribuzin nicosulfuron

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oxyfluorfen pendimethalin penoxsulam propanil quinclorac terbuthylazine thiobencarb triclopyr

Herbicides AIs in products registered by Tanzania, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use on SSTP (with specific conditions)

bentazone, sodium salt butralin (use only acute toxicity Class III products; not Class I products which are too

toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE) glyphosate (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I products which

are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE) metolachlor oxadiazon S-metolachlor (known water pollutant, use care around open water)

Malawi registered insecticides

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Malawi, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Malawi, with condition that label instructions be followed

acephate carbaryl dazomet dimethoate indoxacarb malathion permethrin pyrimiphos methyl spinosad

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Malawi, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Malawi (with specific conditions)

acetamiprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder)

beta cyfluthrin (few RUPs, but Bayer Bulldock formulations similar to non-RUPs) deltamethrin—registered in Malawi for agriculture & public health (RUP only on cotton;

other uses permitted) imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk

to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) lambda cyhalothrin at or below 10% AI—registered in Malawi for agriculture & public

health (some RUPs, especially at concentrations above 10%, but concentrations in Malawi between 5-10%, below the RUP range)

thiacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk

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to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to

risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder)

Malawi registered fungicides

Fungicides AIs in products registered by Malawi, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Malawi, with condition that label instructions be followed

acibenzolar-s-methyl azoxystrobin copper ammonium acetate—Registered in Malawi for animal health use cyproconazole difenoconazole mancozeb metalaxyl metalaxyl-M propamocarb hydrochloride propiconazole sulfur tebuconazole thiram/TMTD

Fungicides AIs in products registered by Malawi, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Malawi (with specific conditions)

chlorothalonil (Class I eye toxicity for concentrations generally over 50%, goggle use is mandatory; do not use USAID funds to promote, support or purchase fungicide mixtures containing chlorothalonil in concentrations greater than 50%)

copper hydroxide (use only Class II and III products, not Class I) copper oxychloride (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I which

are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE) triadimenol (EPA use on sorghum canceled—do not use on sorghum; other uses

permitted)

Malawi registered herbicides

Herbicides & PGR AIs in products registered by Malawi, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Malawi, with condition that label instructions be followed

ametryne bentazon butralin PGR dicamba fluazifop-p-butyl flumetralin PGR halosulfuron methyl MCPA metribuzin N-decanol/decyl alcohol PGR

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pendimethalin prometryn tebuthiuron terbuthylazine triclopyr trifluralin

Herbicide AIs in products registered by Malawi, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Malawi (with specific conditions)

glyphosate (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I products which are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE)

glufosinate ammonium (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I products which are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE)

flufenacet (few RUPs, but Malawi-registered Bayer Tiara 500SC is the same product as EPA-registered Bayer flufenacet 500SC, which is not a RUP)

flumetsulam (few RUPs, but Malawi-registered Dow Broadstroke 800WDG is the same as EPA-registered Dow Broadstroke, which is not a RUP)

Mozambique

Mozambique SSTP-requested insecticides

Insecticide AIs in products registered by Mozambique, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Mozambique (with specific conditions)

imidacloprid (recommended for use during vegetative growth, not flowering), not during flowering to protect foraging honeybees)

lambda cyhalothrin (GUP formulations 10% and below, most formulations below 10% are GUP, and above 10% are RUP)

thiamethoxam seed treatment (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder)

Mozambique SSTP-requested fungicides

Fungicides AIs in products registered by Mozambique, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Mozambique, with condition that label instructions be followed

difenoconazole seed treatment metalaxyl seed treatment

Mozambique SSTP-requested herbicides

Herbicide AIs in products registered by Mozambique, and recommended by this PERSUAP

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for BEO approval for use in SSTP activities in Mozambique (with specific conditions) glyphosate (use only acute toxicity Classes II and III products; not Class I products which

are too toxic for small-scale farmers who will not use PPE)

Rejected Pesticides: Note that this PERSUAP rejected acceptance of some requested and available pesticide AIs because they are not in any EPA-registered pesticides products, are labeled by EPA as RUPs, or are too toxic for smallholder farmer use (Class I). These are listed in the PER, under Factor A.

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INTRODUCTION

This section introduces the purpose, scope, compliance context and methodology.

1.1 Purpose, Scope & Orientation

PurposeTo maintain compliance with USAID’s Pesticide Procedures (22 CFR 216.3(b)), this 2014 Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) for AGRA’s SSTP Project:

Establishes the pesticides available in AGRA SSTP countries for which support is authorized for ‘use’ (see below) on the SSTP project agriculture sector and value chain projects and activities.

Establishes requirements associated with support for these pesticides to assure that pesticide use/support (1) per USAID policy, is within an IPM framework and (2) embodies the principles of safe pesticide use.

These requirements come into effect upon approval of the PERSUAP.

ScopeThis 2014 AGRA SSTP PERSUAP covers the SSTP countries, and their sub-grantees, partners, financiers and beneficiaries.

Orientation The set of authorized pesticides and requirements for safe use are established through Section 3 of the document, the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER), which assesses the 12 pesticide risk evaluation factors (a through l) required by 22 CFR 216.3(b).

The Safe Use Action Plan (SUAP) in Section 4 provides a succinct, stand-alone statement of compliance recommendations for pesticides, risk reduction, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis.

1.2 Regulation 216

According to Regulation 216, all USAID activities are subject to analysis and evaluation via – at minimum – an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE), and – at maximum – an Environmental Assessment (EA). Most USAID countries have produced IEEs to cover all economic growth and agriculture projects and activities, and these generally recommend that a PERSUAP be produced for production activities requiring pesticide use. This 2014 AGRA SSTP PERSUAP responds to that recommendation.

A large part of Regulation 216 – part 216.3 – is devoted to pesticide use and safety. Part 216.3 requires that if USAID is to provide support for pesticides in a project, 12 pesticide factors must be analyzed and recommendations must be written to mitigate or reduce risks to human health and environmental resources. This plan must be followed up with appropriate training, monitoring and reporting for continuous improvement on risk reduction. The adoption of international best practices for crop production, protection and pesticide use safety is strongly

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encouraged.

Pesticide Definition

For the purposes of this PERSUAP, the word pesticide is used, following EPA’s guidelines6, for the following: fumigants, insecticides, miticides/acaricides, nematicides, molluscicides, fungicides, antimicrobials, bactericides/biocides, microbicides/antibiotics, herbicides, rodenticides, avicides, algicides, ovicides (kill eggs), disinfectants/sanitizers and anti-fouling agents. Even biological agents such as biopesticides, microbial pesticides, repellents, attractants/pheromones, defoliants, dessicants and insect growth regulators are included as pesticides.

USAID “Support for Pesticide Use”

“Support for pesticide use” by the SSTP project, sub-grantees and financing partners was defined and agreed upon at the outset of this PERSUAP study as potentially including:

Support for promotion or use during training of farmers by the SSTP project or its sub-grantees.

Use or support by the SSTP project, sub-grantees, partners or farmers on demonstration farms.

Purchase directly by the SSTP project, or indirectly through the project’s sub-grantees or financing mechanisms.

Pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP analysis cannot be ‘supported or used’ for any of the above SSTP project activities, unless an EA is performed.

1.3 The Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP)

In the late 1990s, a USAID Bureau for Africa, East Africa Regional staff member and an independent consultant developed the Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) concept as a tool to analyze the pesticide system or sector in any given country or territory. The PERSUAP tool focuses on the particular circumstances, crops, pests and IPM/pesticide choices of a project or program. This approach analyzes the pesticide sector or system from registration to import through use to disposal, and develops a location-specific pesticide risk profile based on the analysis. A PERSUAP is generally recommended by and submitted as an amendment to the project IEE or an EA.

1.4 Integrated Pest Management—USAID Policy

In the early 1990s, USAID adopted the philosophy and practice of IPM as official policy. IPM is also strongly promoted and required as part of Regulation 216.3. Since the early 2000s, IPM—which includes judicious and safe use of pesticides—has been an integral part of Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) and is increasingly considered to constitute best management practices in agriculture.

A good definition of IPM from University of California (UC)-Davis7 follows: 6 http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/types.htm7 http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/IPMPROJECT/about.html

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“Integrated pest management (IPM) is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term prevention of pests or their damage through a combination of techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation, modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties. Pesticides are used only after monitoring indicates they are needed according to established guidelines, and treatments are made with the goal of removing only the target organism. Pest control materials [pesticides] are selected and applied in a manner that minimizes risks to human health, beneficial and nontarget organisms, and the environment.”

1.5 AGRA SSTP Project Countries PERSUAP Methodology

SSTP national agronomist partners in each country were asked to provide either a list of pesticides that are desired for certain pests, if they knew that information, as well as currently registered in their country. If a list of desired pesticides this was not provided, then all pesticides registered in their country were analyzed. In each SSTP country, agriculture experts responded to questionnaires developed by international consultant Alan Schroeder to collect information on common crop pests and diseases of SSTP clients, as well as specific information on IPM and GAPs, including pesticides. The questionnaire also addressed the 12 factors of Regulation 216.3.

This study was completed from late July to early September of 2014. The complexity of the tasks needed for this study required that the consultants provide accurate interpretation of 22 CFR 216.3 as well as cutting-edge knowledge of GAP, IPM, agronomic, entomological, phytopathological, rodentological, weed, agribusiness and chemical topics. This PERSUAP study chose pesticide active ingredients (instead of product names) as the common denominator for analysis.

This PERSUAP contains as many links to websites with agriculture and pesticide best practices as possible, both to make it easier to use (reduce the report’s length) and more up-to-date or accurate (as websites are updated continually, but static information is not). So, instead of having numerous annexes containing pesticide safety equipment recommendations or safe pesticide use practices, hot-linked websites now take their place. However, if SSTP-supported project participants do not have access to the Internet, the projects should reproduce and distribute key updated information in written form.

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BACKGROUND

This section introduces AGRA SSTP WA, SA and EA regions and countries and their resources to provide a background context for the agricultural systems in the two regions. For perspective, maps of each are provided below.

Figure 1: West Africa Map

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Figure 2: East and Southern Africa Map, with Important Climate Information8

2.1 AGRA SSTP Countries Backgrounds

West Africa

Ghana

Including inland water bodies, like the very large Volta Lake, Ghana covers 238,539 km2 and is located on the south central coast of West Africa. The country shares borders in the east with Togo; in the north with Burkina Faso; and in the west with Cote d’Ivoire. Most of Ghana lies below 600 m; less than 10% of the land is above 300 m, few places have elevations above 1000 m (http://www.fao.org/ag/agL/swlwpnr/reports/rc_codes.htm). The lowest areas are the middle Volta Basin and along the coast.

Generally, rainfall decreases and temperature increases from the rain forest zone in the south to the savanna zone in the north. By far the most important climatic factor influencing vegetation in Ghana is rainfall. The wet evergreen forest lies within the wettest part of the country and receives a mean annual rainfall over 2,000 mm. The drier forest areas receive between 1,000 and 1,500 mm, whereas in the northern savanna annual rainfall ranges between 800 and 1,000 mm. The amount of rainfall however, varies within the vegetation zones owing to the local effect of relief. The driest area of the country is the coastal savanna, where the total annual rainfall ranges between 600 and 800 mm.

Over the whole country the mean monthly temperature is about 25oC. Although temperatures are uniformly moderate, there are important variations over different parts of the country as a result of altitudinal variations in the landscape and distance from the sea. In the coastal areas, due to the modifying influence of the sea, the annual difference between the maximum and the minimum monthly temperature is about 5o-6oC. On the other hand, much farther inland, the difference is between 7o-9oC. Diurnal temperature ranges are more significant than the monthly ranges. In the forested zones of the south the mean diurnal range is still moderate, but in the northern savannas the difference may be as much as 14o-20oC, especially during the Harmattan season.

There are six broad physiographic regions: the coastal plains, the Buem-Togo ranges, the forest dissected plateau, the southern Voltaian plateau, the savanna high plains, and the Gambaga escarpment. Agriculture in Ghana accounts for about 25% of GDP and employs over 60% of the workforce. Primary crops include cocoa, rice, maize, cassava, peanuts, shea nuts, bananas and timber.

Senegal9

Senegal is a coastal nation located 14 degrees north of the Equator and 14 ° west of the Prime Meridian. The country's total area is 196,190 km² of which 192,000 km² is land and 4,190 km² is water. Senegal is on the North Atlantic Ocean. The nation's longest border is with Mauritania to the north, along the Senegal River. To the east is Mali. To the south are Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, both borders running along the Casamance River. Senegal has a near-enclave within its borders—the small nation of The Gambia in the interior. 8 http://www.ifad.org/climate/infocus/ESA_water_deforest.jpg9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Senegal ; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Senegal

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Most of Senegal lies within the drought-prone Sahel region, with irregular rainfall and generally poor soils. With only about 5 % of the land irrigated, Senegal continues to rely on rain-fed agriculture, which occupies about 75 % of the workforce. Despite a relatively wide variety of agricultural production, the majority of farmers produce for subsistence needs. Dakar's annual rainfall of about 600 mm occurs between June and October. Rainfall decreases to the north and increases substantially farther south, exceeding 1,500 mm annually in some areas.

Production is subject to drought and threats of pests such as locusts, quelea birds, fruit flies and white flies. Millet, rice, maize and sorghum are the primary food crops grown in Senegal. Senegal is a net food importer, particularly for rice, which represents almost 75 % of cereal imports.

Peanuts, sugarcane and cotton are important cash crops, and a wide variety of fruits and vegetables are grown for local and export markets. In 2006 gum Arabic became the leading agricultural export. Green beans, industrial tomato, cherry tomato, melons and mangos are Senegal's main vegetable cash crops. The Casamance region, isolated from the rest of Senegal by Gambia, is an important agriculture producing area, but without the infrastructure or transportation links to improve its capacity.

East Africa

Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a country of 1,098,000 km², located in the Horn of Africa, and is twice the size of Texas. It is characterized by a cool temperate central highlands surrounded by hot lowlands on all sides. This unique combination has led to an island biogeography effect with the highlands surrounded by inhospitable terrain, and producing unique animal species and plant diversity found nowhere else.

Ethiopia ranks as one of 12 places in the world with exceptionally high crop plant diversity, a valuable pool of genetic material from which to draw. Up to 1400 species or 20% of all plants may be endemic as well. Ethiopia claims 277 mammal species, 31 of which are endemic. In addition, 31 amphibian species, 16 bird species, 9 reptile species and 4 fish species are endemic.

Animal husbandry and agriculture are the most important enterprises, providing employment for more than 85 percent of the country’s population. They account for about 50 percent of the total GDP and 90 percent of export earnings. Approximately one third or 31 million hectares of the total land area has agricultural/pasture potential, however only about 9 million hectares or one third of the potential is actually cultivated or grazed annually.

Ethiopia has the largest livestock inventories in Africa, including more than 38 million cattle, 30 million small ruminants, <1 million camels and 4.5 million equines and 40 million chickens (CSA, 2004), with livestock ownership currently contributing to the livelihoods of an estimated 80% of the rural population. In the arid and semi-arid extensive grazing areas in the eastern, western and southern lowlands cattle, sheep, goats and camels are managed in migratory pastoral production systems. In the highlands, livestock are kept under settled or transhumant systems utilizing common pastures, many of which have a high clover content and crop residues. Such livestock includes some 9.3 million oxen providing draught power, for the mixed farming system that prevails.

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Tanzania

Tanzania is located on the eastern coast of the African continent south of the equator between latitudes 1o 00’ S and 11o 48’ S and longitudes 29o 30’ E and 40o 30’ E. Eight countries--Kenya and Uganda in the north, Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia in the west, Malawi and the Republic of Mozambique to the south--share boundaries with Tanzania. The eastern side of Tanzania is a coastline of about 800 Km long marking the western side of the Indian Ocean.

Tanzania, with an area of 942,784 Km2, is the largest country of the five East African Community member countries, the others being Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda. Out of the land mass area, water bodies cover 61,495 Km2 (6.52% of the total area), 88% of which is made up of the three big lakes of Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa. Other major water bodies include Lake Rukwa and the soda lakes Natron, Manyara, Burunge and Eyasi. There are several inland major wetlands including the Malagarasi/Moyowosi and Lake Manyara, both of which have been declared Ramsar sites of international significance under the international Ramsar Convention.

Tanzania is a country of 43.6 million people. It is tropical on the coast and semi-temperate inland. In the eastern rift zones and on the southeastern slopes of the volcanoes precipitation of 1,500 to 2,000 mm occurs due to orographic rain with more than 10 wet months. Along the coast, the monsoon brings moderate rainfall (500 to 1,000 mm) with 5 to 6 wet months. The highland in the interior is relatively dry with 3 to 4 wet months and annual precipitation of below 500 mm.

Tanzania's economy relies heavily on agriculture, which accounts for nearly half of GDP and employs 80% of the workforce. Smallholder farmers who dominate Tanzanian agriculture cultivate 0.9 to 3.0 hectares on rain fed land.  About 70 percent of Tanzania’s crop area is cultivated by hand hoe, 20 percent by ox plow and 10 percent by tractor. Food crop production dominates the agriculture economy with 5.1 million hectares cultivated annually, of which 85 percent is under food crops.  Women constitute the main part of the agricultural labor force. The major constraint facing the agriculture sector is the falling labor and land productivity due to application of poor technology, dependence on unreliable and irregular weather conditions. Both crops and livestock are adversely affected by periodical droughts.

The use of new resistant varieties and hybrids, mechanization, quality inputs and sufficient water are keys to stabilizing agricultural production in Tanzania to improve food security with staple crops, respond to climate change, increase farmers’ productivity and incomes, and also to produce higher valued crops such as vegetables, fruits and flowers for export.

Southern Africa

Malawi

Malawi is landlocked, and most of the country lies on a plateau between 750-1500 MSL dissected by numerous rivers. One fifth of the country is covered by Lake Malawi to the East. Most people living along the lakeshore are fishermen. Farmers living there benefit from the high water table, extensive wetlands and access to irrigation water. For the rest of the country, agriculture is rain fed, as wells and irrigation systems are underdeveloped. Even the use of small pumps is rare. Small-scale mechanization is also rare.

Beginning in mid-November, Malawi has a five month wet season, which is enough to grow maize, the main staple crop. Malawi is one of Africa's most densely populated countries, now

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over 11 M people, 85% of whom live in rural areas. There are six principal tribes, with more than 50% of the people speaking Chichewa, the other principal language after English. The country’s strength lies in agricultural production. Agriculture contributes 39% to GDP and 90% of export earnings. Malawi exports a number of crops with tobacco alone accounting for more than 70% of agricultural exports. Tea makes up 8% and sugar 7%.

The smallholder sector accounts for the bulk of the agricultural sector and is largely involved in the production of food crops with maize, pigeonpea, cassava, rice and others for domestic consumption. Some 2.6 M smallholder farmers cultivate plots of 0.5 to 1.0 ha. Maize is grown on 95% of the cultivated smallholder area and is consumed as a stiff porridge known as nsima. Maize production is estimated at 1.4 MT nationwide for several decades despite steady population growth. Women head a third of households and contribute to 80% of agricultural workforce.

The smallholder sub-sector contributes more than 70 per cent and the estate sub-sector contributes less than 30 per cent to the agricultural GDP. Among other cash crops, the smallholder sub-sector produces tobacco, cotton, groundnuts, soya beans, coffee and paprika. As for food crops, the smallholder sub-sector produces mostly maize, rice, cassava, sugar, Irish and sweet potatoes to meet their subsistence requirements. In case of estates, concentration is on high value cash crops of tobacco, tea, sugar, coffee and macadamia to meet export demands. Poultry, goats, sheep, cattle (beef and dairy), pig, and rabbits are the common livestock enterprises managed on both the smallholder and estate sub-sectors.

Agriculture and food security is one of the nine key priority areas of the MGDS expected to accelerate the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and sustainable economic growth. The emphasis on agriculture in Malawi is to strongly increase contribution of the agriculture sector to economic growth through production of food crops and value added for domestic and export markets. The national and agriculture sector development strategies are focused on enhancing increases in value addition to agricultural products by smallholder farmers and orient the sub sector to greater commercialization and strengthen its linkages to markets through infrastructure development that include roads, communication, power, milling houses, milling machines, abattoirs and other market development facilities and services.

Mozambique

Mozambique is located on the southeastern coast of Africa, bounded by Tanzania and Rovuma River to the north; by the Mozambique Channel (Indian Ocean) in the east; on the south and southwest by South Africa and Swaziland; and on the west by Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi. The country has a coastline of more than 2,500 km and is generally low-lying, with only 13 percent of the country above 1,000 m. The land ascends in a westward direction from the coast through a coastal lowland that is narrow in the north but broad in the south (44 percent of the total land area), through a sub-plateau zone to an extensive low-lying plateau of moderate height, and finally up to a narrow higher-lying area on the western border.

The climate ranges from subtropical in the south to tropical in the center and north. Most of the country receives above 400 mm of rainfall per annum, with the rainy season extending from October to April. The coastal zone receives up to 900 mm of rain per year. The north region is more humid than the south, except in the Upper Zambezi region in Tete, where it is dry and hot. At ranges with more than 2,000 mm of rain, these areas are covered with dense forests.

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Mozambique has an abundance of natural resources. Out of a total land area of 780,000 km2, 620,000 km2 are covered with vegetation, of which 87,000 km2 are in protected areas (11.1 percent). The country is sparsely populated, with large areas of unused land. It has 36 million ha of cultivable land, but only one-tenth is suitable for crop production, of which 12 percent is being used. Its water availability per capita is close to the average of Africa and the world, but access to water continues to be a problem throughout urban and rural areas. The country is rich in fish resources, but marine-coastal zones suffer from large- and small-scale fishing, and vital mangrove habitat is disappearing rapidly. In addition, Pemba Bay suffers from increasing pollution and salinity due to human activity, while Lake Niassa, which supports unique species and ecosystems, is under threat from fishing and tourism development on the Malawi side.

There are significant mineral resources and prospecting is occurring for coal, oil, gas, diamonds and uranium, with export revenue expected to reach $500 million by 2010. These activities will increasingly come in to conflict with tourism and conservation.

2.2 AGRA and SSTP Project Background

The Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) is working with African governments, donors, NGOs, the private sector and African farmers to significantly and sustainably improve the productivity and incomes of resource poor farmers in Africa through agricultural development. AGRA has its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya, and country offices in Accra, Ghana, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Maputo, Mozambique and is opening country-based offices in Ethiopia, Malawi and Senegal under SSTP. AGRA has partnered with the USAID through a Cooperative Agreement No. AID-OAA-A-13-00040 to implement the Scaling Seeds and Technologies Partnership in Africa (SSTP) to contribute towards the New Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition (NAFSN) announced by President Obama at the May 18, 2012 G8 Summit at Camp David. This NAFSN is a shared commitment and partnership between African leaders, donors, and private sector partners to achieve sustained and inclusive agricultural growth and raise 50 million people out of poverty over the next 10 years. The aim is to promote responsible private sector investment in country investment plans and thereby support the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) as the guiding framework for agricultural transformation in Africa. SSTP is working in six countries, Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Senegal.

The SSTP objectives (discussed in the Executive Summary of this report) will be achieved through a number of actions that will involve the use of agro-chemicals and construction of small-scale infrastructure including research station irrigation and cold storage facilities for germplasm preservation. These activities will generally be uniform across all the countries, with variations informed by country context. However, it is important to cover all the areas for potential investment as envisioned at this stage.

SSTP anticipate’s conducting the following activities across the six countries through sub-grants to implementing partners, among then government institutions, non-governmental organisations, private sector players and regional bodies. The areas of work include funding the following activities:

1. Seed production2. Yield enhancing technology supply3. Convening over topics relevant to delivery of seed and related technologies

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4. Construction of small-scale irrigation infrastructure of not more than 5 hectares per research station for seed production, and

5. Construction of small-scale cold storage infrastructure of no larger than 9 m3 per research station for germplasm conservation

Under activities 1 and 2, implementing partners will use SSTP funding to support chemicals that include mineral fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, insecticides, fungicides, rhizobium, and hormones.

Table 1: Countries, target regions, crops, identified and related technologies with which SSTP and the sub grantees will be work

Country Target ecological areas

Target crops Related Target Technologies / Interventions

Mozambique

Beira, Nacala, Limpopo corridors

Maize, Cassava, Soybean, Pigeonpea

Fertilizer Fertilizer blends Rhizobium Seeds and vegetative planting

materials of new and promising varieties

Tanzania Southern Highlands, Southern zone, Lake zone, Central zone, Eastern zone, Northern zone, Western/West lake

Maize, Sorghum, Cassava/Irish potatoes, Beans, soy bean/pigeon peas

Seed Mineral fertilizer blends Rhizobium inoculants Conservation tillage Seeds and vegetative planting

materials of new and promising varieties

Malawi Machinga, Mzuzu, Karonga, Kasungu, Lilongwe, Blantyre, Shire Valley and Salima agricultural Development Divisions

Cassava, Orange-fleshed sweet potato, Rice, Maize, Pigeon pea, beans, Soybean, groundnuts, cowpeas

Seed Seed certification and Quality

control Fertilizer blends, rhizobium

Inoculants Seeds and multiplication of

vegetative planting materials Crop diversification

Ghana Brong Ahafo, Ashanti, Eastern Volta, Central

Maize, Rice, Cassava, Soybean, Yam, Cowpea

Seeds and vegetative planting materials

Fertilizer Deep Placement Tissue culture for cassava planting

materials Rhizobium inoculum Appropriate mechanization for

planting, harvesting, and processing etc.

Post-harvest handling (PICs bag)Senegal Groundnut Basin,

Casamance, Senegal River Valley, Southern Groundnut

Groundnut, Rice, Pearl Millet, Maize, Sorghum,

Seeds Basic mechanization- rice

planters/direct paddy seeder, fertilizer deep placement

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Basin, Eastern Senegal Groundnut Basin, Sylvo pastoral zone, Eastern Senegal, Northern Groundnut Basin, Pastoral zone

Cowpea applicator Appropriate fertilizer blends and

pellet makers Aflasafe technology (IITA) PICS bag for cowpea storage and

cereal storage technologies.

Ethiopia North Region, Southwest region, Southern region, Middle rift valley areas, Central highlands, East Central highlands, North West area, Central west area, North East area

Maize, Wheat, Teff, Sesame, Chickpea

Seed Bio fertilizers Post-harvest technologies

(transport and storage) Seed processing and testing

facilities Vertisol drainage solutions

(scaling Aybar BBM) Fertilizer blends

2.3 West, Southern & East Africa member countries pesticide sector, risks and areas for improvement

Africa member countries international obligations

Pesticides

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutant (POPs) (most countries signatory since 2001, ratified by 2009)

Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides (most countries signatory by 1998, a few ratified by 2012)

Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (most countries accession by 1993)

Montreal Protocol on Substances Depleting Ozone Layer (most countries ratified by1992)

Stockholm Convention

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are chemicals that are toxic, persistent in the environment, and liable to bioaccumulate. These chemicals are among the most dangerous and highly toxic pollutants released into the environment every year by human activity. Their effects on humans can include cancer, allergies and hypersensitivity, damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, reproductive disorders, and disruption of the immune system. Some POPs are also considered to be endocrine disrupters, which, by altering the hormonal system, can damage the reproductive and immune systems of exposed individuals as well as their offspring; they can also have developmental and carcinogenic effects.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was established to eliminate or restrict the production and use of POPs.  Through the World Bank’s Global Environment Fund (GEF), countries are creating sustainable capacity and ownership so as to meet their obligations under the Stockholm Convention including preparation of POPs National Implementation Plans.

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A National Implementation Plan describes how each country will meet its obligations under the Convention to phase-out POPs sources and remediate POPs contaminated sites.

Rotterdam Convention

The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, more commonly known simply as the Rotterdam Convention, is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals. The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the treaty, and exporting countries are obliged make sure that producers within their jurisdiction comply.

Basel Convention

The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, usually known as the Basel Convention, is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries. It does not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste. The Convention is also intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of generation, and to assist LDCs in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and other wastes they generate.

Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki in May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions. It is believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to recover by 2050. Methyl bromide used for agricultural fumigation is one of the protocol chemicals being phased out worldwide.

Africa member countries Pesticide Sector

According to FAO, for most emerging market countries in West, Southern and East Africa, pesticides have been used for more than four decades. Pesticide application has become one of the most important means available for controlling pests and diseases of either crops and livestock, or any other fields such as household, quarantine, fishery, wood preservative, pre-shipment, stored products and so on. Most row crop pesticide use in West Africa is for the cash crop cotton, which is heavily subsidized and pesticides are paid on credit. For East Africa major pesticide use has been for cash crops coffee, tea and cashew.

When the use of pesticides was introduced for the first time, they were mostly intended to control pests on important crops like cacao, coffee, sugarcane, and export mangoes. Unfortunately, little attention was given to how pesticide use would induce negative impacts to the environment as their use grew substantially. In addition, most farmers have not been well trained yet to handle

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pesticides properly, and consequently occupational death, environmental damage and severe injuries were imminent.

No sufficient regulation existed as the use of pesticides began in the early sixties and there were no technical instruments as well as technical adviser available. Farmers learned how to use these products from their neighborhood and to some extent they asked field workers to make sure of the choice. As most pesticides in Africa were applied for agricultural practices, the governments of African countries assigned their Ministers of Agriculture to manage pesticides through Government regulations in the 1970s.

Across Africa, only two West African countries—Liberia and Sierra Leone—and East African country—Somalia—are without lists of registered pesticides, due to recent conflicts; however these countries have established Ministries of Agriculture and Environmental Protection Agencies that are putting in place frameworks for human and environmental protection. In the meantime there are pesticides being imported from surrounding countries and available in farm input stores in the capital cities of these post-conflict countries.

Each of the remaining African countries has environmental regulations, pesticide registration laws and each officially lists currently registered pesticides that may be imported and used. Further, all CILLS-INSAH countries (of which Senegal is one) have homologized pesticide registrations.

Fertilizer Safety in African Countries

Fertilizer BackgroundLow soil fertility is a problem throughout most of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Moreover, the drastic reduction in fallow periods and the almost continuous cropping without soil fertility restoration has depleted the nutrient base of most soils. By the mid-late 1990s, all SSA countries were demonstrating a negative annual nutrient balance 1. Countries that have the highest nutrient loss rates are the ones where fertilizer use is low and soil erosion is high. These areas include the East African highlands and a number of countries in West Africa.

Low soil fertility is also a driving force behind the conversion of natural areas for agricultural extension. It is generally accepted that agricultural intensification is the only viable means to conserve key natural areas while increasing food security for the continents growing population and generating economic growth through improved agricultural productivity. Land degradation undermines the ability of countries to move in this direction, and the loss of soil nutrients is the most important contributing factor to the land degradation process. The use of inorganic fertilizers is a critical part of the strategy to stop land degradation, restore soil fertility and better manage the soil resources that are fundamental for sustainable agricultural and economic development.

Fertilizers and USAID Environmental Procedures (22 CFR 216)Fertilizers are frequently lumped together with pesticides under the generic heading of “agro- or agrichemicals.” From an environmental compliance perspective (22 CFR 216), as well as from a field-level implementation point of view, this is inappropriate, because it implies that fertilizers require the same level of scrutiny reserved for pesticides. Whereas pesticides are subject to clearly defined environmental review procedures [22 CFR 216.3(b)(1)], and an approval process to promote safer use and integrated pest management, such procedures do not apply to fertilizers (procurement procedures do apply to quantity bulk purchase). As with any technology, however, it is recommended that fertilizers be thoughtfully employed according to best practice, promoting

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integrated soil fertility management, within the context of the prevailing biophysical and socio-economic conditions, as well as the desired outcomes. This fact sheet was developed to assist in that regard. General Soil Fertility Trends in Africa

Farmers who have taken measures to conserve moisture or increase soil organic matter are more likely to use inorganic fertilizer. When farmers in some areas have capital, they often invest first in increasing moisture retention and/or increasing soil organic matter and secondly in inorganic fertilizer.

Farmers increase their use of fertilizer when investing more money in fertilizer is seen to be the best available option. This increase may result from changes in any of the following: fertilizer price, crop price, fertilizer availability, water availability, seed availability, knowledge about fertilizer use, or cropping pattern.

In West Africa, integrated soil fertility management is progressively adopted. It concerns the combined use of soil amendments and inorganic fertilizer, leading in time to improved soil fertility and increased fertilizer use efficiency and profitability. The nutrient losses to the environment are decreasing.

Given past and current use rates, USAID’s fertilizer-related activities in Africa are unlikely to cause environmental problems.

Potential negative environmental effects of fertilizersExcessive application of nutrients over time can cause pollution. Such losses may occur when nutrients run off the land caused by heavy rainfall, are leached through the soil, beyond the root zone, eventually reaching the groundwater, or escape into the atmosphere as volatile gases.

Aspects of environmental impact can be illustrated as follows:

(Taken from Incitec Fertilizers)

Nitrogen fertilizers: Inorganic nitrogen fertilizers are readily converted by soil organisms to nitrate in the soil. The nitrogen in soil organic matter and organic fertilizers becomes available more slowly. Nitrates may be readily leached if not used by crops or other vegetation. Leaching is particularly likely in sandy soils following heavy rainfall. Leached nitrates may contaminate underground water. This is of concern if the water is to be used for human or livestock consumption, as high concentrations of nitrate may affect health.

Nitrogen fertilizers can also accelerate the natural process of soil acidification. Some fertilizers (e.g. anhydrous ammonia and urea) may initially raise the soil pH at the site of application but in the long term acidify the soils. This occurs when ammonium is converted to nitrate. Acid produced in the nitrification process is used if the nitrate is taken up by plants or soil organisms, but if the nitrate is leached beyond the root zone, acidification occurs. Soil acidification reduces the availability of the trace element molybdenum, fosters the development of aluminum, iron and manganese toxicity and increases nodulation failure in legumes. Lime may be required where

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acidity is a problem (obtained from naturally occurring calcium carbonate) or the use of acid tolerant plant species can be considered. An illustrative list of crops with acid tolerant varieties include: rice, cassava, mango, cashew, citrus, pineapple and cowpeas.

Phosphorus fertilizers: Excess amounts of phosphorus have been associated with algal blooms and the eutrophication of lakes and waterways. In most bodies of water, phosphorous is usually present in very low concentrations and thus functions as a growth-limiting factor. Algae only require small amounts of phosphorous to live. Excessive phosphorus over-stimulates the growth of algae, which could deplete the water of the dissolved oxygen that is vital to other aquatic life. Phosphorus is relatively immobile in the soil, so conservation and cultural practices which reduce soil erosion can significantly reduce phosphorus inputs into water bodies and the water table.

Phosphorus fertilizers contain various impurities from the phosphate rock and acid used in manufacturing the fertilizer. Cadmium increases is the greatest concern as its compounds are toxic to human beings. Cadmium increases are most noticeable in certain crops e.g. potatoes and leafy vegetables (lettuce and spinach) and in the organs (kidneys and liver) of animals. Almost all phosphate fertilizers contain traces of cadmium, and the concentration of cadmium varies considerably from source to source. At this time, there are efforts underway in West Africa to develop viable processes to remove cadmium from phosphate rock. Exports of rock phosphate represent a vital source of revenue for a number of developing countries in Africa.

Fertilizer Effects on Soil Biology: Good soil consists of 93% mineral and 7% bio-organic substances. The bio-organic parts are humus (85%), roots (10%) and soil organisms (5%). Most of the soil organisms are decomposers (bacteria and fungi), which are responsible for nutrient retention in soil. In order for nutrients to become available they must be mineralized by the interaction of decomposers and organisms that feed on the decomposers (protozoa, nematodes, micorarthropods and earthworms). Plant growth is dependent on microbial nutrient immobilization. When the number of decomposers declines in soils, more nutrients are lost into the ground and surface water. Heavy treatments of chemical fertilizers can kill decomposers and other soil organisms, which will lead to a reduction in nutrient retention and possible surface and ground water contamination.

Importance of Water Management to Nutrient UptakeProper water management is important for maximizing crop use of nutrients. About 97% of crop nutrient uptake is from soil solution (water-soluble nutrients), which makes water by far the most important nutrient or fertilizer delivery medium. This also means that, for the most part, nutrient mobility is directly linked to water movement. In sandy soils, nutrients move more quickly through the root zone and soil profile than in other soil types, and excessive water application (or heavy rainfall) can lead to nutrient loss through leaching. Run-off is most serious on loamy-sands or sandy loams that often have a strong surface crust formation. In heavier soils (clays), if nutrients are not adequately incorporated into the soil, the chances for surface runoff in the event of heavy rains or over-irrigation are increased. Sound water management is especially important in rain-fed conditions (common throughout SSA). Overall, good water management leads to a more efficient use of fertilizers and increased nutrient uptake and vice versa.

Fertilizer Application guidelines Before applying fertilizers, obtain an assessment of soil conditions (fertility). Indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers should be avoided.

Different kinds of fertilizers are required in order to maintain a given level of soil fertility. This depends on site-specific factors, including the soil type, the nutrient requirement of

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the crop and the various sources of available nutrients. Nitrogen and Phosphorous are the most important nutrients lacking in SSA soils.

Fertilizer application has to be considered in the context of the overall farming system. This includes the use of organic manure and residues, soil cultivation and crop rotation and water harvesting. Collectively, these factors influence the efficiency of nutrient use.

When fertilizers are used, it is very important to apply the correct amount for the given situation. The challenge to the farmer is to match as closely as possible the input of nutrients to the nutrient uptake of the crop, thereby minimizing losses. Over fertilization is both costly (wasteful) and potentially harmful to the environment. To apply the correct amount, the farmer has to define his production goal.

A summary of best management practices for soil fertility and health Practice Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) – the use of both organic and

inorganic sources of nutrients rather than either alone; Use of legume cover crops (plus phosphorous) and green manures by fallow rotation or

intercropping; Promote agroforestry practices – in addition to soil conservation and production benefits,

agroforestry transfers/cycles nutrients from within the soil profile (deeper levels to surface);

Use conservation tillage rather than deep plowing (although conservation tillage can be harmful for production systems in certain regions);

Use farm site manures and household wastes, with or without composting; Choose crops and associated plants that have high nutrient use efficiency.

Seed Treatment: Crop Seeds Treated with Pesticides

Many USAID agriculture projects donate or assist with acquisition of quality hybrid crop seed for farmers they serve. Almost all of this seed, as well as practically all modern vegetable seeds are treated with pesticides (see the photo below of treated vegetable seeds of every color for sale in Hissar, Tajikistan in May 2010).

Most commercial seed treatment is done by the company that produces and packages the seed, not by donors and not by farmers. And almost all treated seed is colored to show that it has been treated—this is so that it is not confused with food grain, cooked and eaten. Many farmers save seed from season to season and treat it themselves.

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Photo: Pesticide-treated vegetable seeds for sale in Hissar, Tajikistan

Advantages for Seed TreatmentsSince they are used at very small amounts of active ingredient per unit of land, and take the chemical directly to the pest, seed treatments with pesticides fit nicely within an IPM program. They exert a much lighter impact on the environment than spraying an entire field. They protect the seed from numerous soil and seed-borne fungal, bacterial and insect pests, so that germination and seedling growth can proceed unimpeded. And, there are some biological seed treatments available and some new ones being developed.

Risks from Treating Seed with Pesticides On-FarmTreating seed involves many of the same risks as for mixing concentrated pesticide products and applying them to field crops. First, it assumes that the farmer knows the principle soil diseases and pests present and what to use against them. And, it also assumes that farmers understand the risks associated with treating, packaging, labeling, storing and planting the seed. Ideally, seed would be treated in a specialized “seed treater” composed of a mixing tank, treater head and coating chamber to apply precisely measured quantities of pesticide. Proper PPE must be used by the farmer applicator and unused pesticide and residues must be properly disposed of (see: http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/entml2/s18.pdf ) .

Next, the treated seed must be properly labeled as “Treated” with the common (Active Ingredient) and trade (Product) names of the pesticide used, health hazards of the pesticide such as skin or eye irritant or if it is a carcinogen. For highly toxic chemicals, the statement “This seed is treated with a poison” and for toxic chemicals, the statement “Do not use for food, feed or oil purposes” should be used.

Seed treated for planting should be stored separately from grain to be used for food, animal feed or oil extraction. Storage should be in a dry, well ventilated space. Farmers should keep treated seed out of reach of small children. More Best Management Practices (BMPs) for seed treatment are found at: http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/entml2/s18.pdf.

Pesticide-Treated Seed and Regulation 216USAID implementing partners are effectively limited to promoting or purchasing and donating only seed treatment pesticides or seed already treated with pesticides registered by EPA for same

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or similar uses. For this reason, this PERSUAP evaluates several of the AIs commonly found in seed treatment pesticides available and registered in SSTP-target countries for EPA registration, human health and environmental risks, among other factors. Note again that the AIs commonly found in concentrated and formulated seed treatment pesticide products will present more application risks than seed already treated.

The SSTP Project would deliver improved seed that has already been treated with pesticides, to displace or replace part of the farmer’s production with saved seed. Therefore risks from on-farm seed treatment associated with farmer treatment of seed would be reduced, thanks to SSTP.

Rhizobium Use as Seed Treatment and Soil Treatment

Bacteria species in the genus Rhizobium are ubiquitous. Many are mutualistic or symbiotic, inducing legume plants to produce root nodules within which the bacteria fix nitrogen that is available to the plant. Significant amounts of this nitrogen can remain in the soil for future non-legume crops10. They also help dissolve and make available to the plant mineral nutrients such as potassium and phosphorous. Farmers can purchase commercially-available seeds treated with Rhizobium inoculant, as well as the inoculant itself, to augment the Rhizobium levels naturally present. None of the commercially-available Rhizobium inoculants are plant pathogenic. All of the target SSTP countries do not classify Rhizobium as a pesticide, and therefore do not register it.

Rhizobia used in agriculture are generally considered to be low hazard microorganisms11 with a well-established history of safe use. They are not known to be pathogenic to plants, animals or humans. Generally, rhizobia do not produce toxins, or by-products that are known to have negative effects on the environment or human health. Given optimum conditions for growth and survival, like most microorganisms, introduced rhizobia may establish themselves, proliferate, and persist in the environment. However, rhizobia are ubiquitous, not known to be invasive, and do not pose a threat to biological diversity.

EPA Registration

Although USEPA websites that show the registration of the use of Rhizobium inoculants were not found during numerous searches, several other websites12 show that they are available and used in the USA, and either must be registered or exempt from registration as naturally-occuring biological soil components. The USEPA does recognize the sale and use of Rhizobium products, because in 1999 on its own initiative it proposed that Rhizobium products be exempt from the requirement of tolerances of residues13. Any current or future genetically-engineered strains of Rhizobium would not be permitted for use on SSTP activities.

Fumigation of Seeds, Grains and Stored Food Products with Phosphine Gas

10 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizobia11 http://www.inspection.gc.ca/plants/fertilizers/trade-memoranda/t-4-109/eng/1307863769159/130786389359312 For examples, see: http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/crops/00305.html; http://extension.psu.edu/agronomy-guide/cm/tables/table-1-10-313 http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-1999-05-19/html/99-12589.htm

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One of the most toxic and dangerous chemicals in the hands of untrained and uncertified smallholder farmers is phosphine gas from aluminum phosphide, sold as tablets in all SSTP countries over the counter in aluminum tubes or canisters, and ocaisionally (and dangerously) sold as individual tablets which farmers will put into their pocket and take home14. In the USA and most highly-developed countries only individuals with highly-specialized training, certification and expensive phosphine meters and PPE can purchase aluminum phosphide and perform fumigation.

Due to these high risks to beneficiary farmers, food storage warehouse operators and fumigators, USAID’s DCHA Bureau FFP Office produced a PEA for fumigation with phosphine gas. Find a copy of this PEA at the following website: http://www.usaidgems.org/fumigationpea.htm, and strictly follow the requirements of this document. Smallholder farmers should not do their own fumigation of stored seed and grains; certified fumigation services must be used.

Aflatoxin Risk and Reduction

Aflatoxins are naturally occurring mycotoxins that are produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins are toxic and among the most carcinogenic substances known. Aflatoxin-producing members of Aspergillus are common and widespread in nature. They can colonize and contaminate grain before harvest or during storage. Host crops, which include maize, sorghum and groundnuts, are particularly susceptible to infection by Aspergillus following prolonged exposure to a high-humidity environment, or damage from stressful conditions such as drought, a condition that lowers the barrier to entry. In 2003, 120 people died in Kenya after eating maize that contained very high aflatoxin levels15.

In response to these risks, USAID formed an initiative in 2011 to address aflatoxin control16. Shortly thereafter USAID funded the production of a PEA to deal with the promotion and use or aflatoxin-reducing products like Aflasafe. If such products are promoted or used, SSTP implementors must follow the PEA as well as local regulations/registrations of such products.

Table 2: Pesticide System Risks for West, Southern and East Africa Member Countries

The following Table consolidates and prioritizes pesticide system risk in SSTP target countries

Problems, constraints or risks in the SSTP Africa country pesticide cycle of use

Recommendations for government MOAs, MOEs and donors

Banned POPs and PIC chemicals still enter African countries via informal channels

Sensitize government officials about the threats to Africa countries’ trade potential, and do training

Large quantities of obsolete pesticides, including POPs and PIC chemicals, remain

Combine resources from private sector input supply groups and several donors to implement disposal programs

Lower quality, illegal & pirated Chinese and Indian AIs and pesticides present

Do repeated training on pesticide quality choices

Funds for analyzing and monitoring pesticides and Donors and produce exporters and 14 Personal observation by Schroeder on a past trip to central Mozambique15 http://exploreit.icrisat.org/sites/default/files/uploads/1379055131_ESA-Res-2011.pdf16 http://www.usaid.gov/news-information/press-releases/us-announces-support-africa-led-partnership-aflatoxin-control-africa

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Problems, constraints or risks in the SSTP Africa country pesticide cycle of use

Recommendations for government MOAs, MOEs and donors

residues is insufficient authorities combine resourcesLimited resources for pesticide regulations enforcement

Taxes need to be levied from agriculture sector

Limited resources for extension Do demonstration farms and field days

Lack of pesticide toxicity awareness by farmers Do repeated training on pesticide choice and risks

Limited farmer knowledge of pest Identification (ID) & IPM tools

Increase knowledge, do repeated training on IPM

Over- and under-applications of pesticides Do repeated training on calibration & application

Illiterate farmers cannot read pesticide labels Do repeated training on pesticide cautionsWrong pesticide applied for pest Do repeated training on pesticide choice

Proximity to major cotton, tobacco and rice production & chemicals

Diversify production, knowledge & input demand

Pesticide shops with limited safety equipment (PPE) on hand

Train shop-keepers and farmers on proper pesticide safety

Pesticides subdivided into un-labeled containers, like empty water bottles, and sold

Train shop-keepers and farmers on proper pesticide safety

Pesticides stored in the home, often in un-labeled containers

Do repeated training on proper pesticide storage

Pesticide mixing with bare hands and little use of PPE by pesticide appliers

Do training on proper mixing and PPE to use; provide PPE

Pesticides applied at wrong time of day and with winds too high, and rain

Do repeated training on application times risks

Back-pack sprayers leak onto spray personnel Do repeated training on sprayer maintenance

Endosulfan available in bazaars and stores, and used

Do repeated training on pesticide choice & quality

Toxic aluminum phosphide present in input stores Do repeated training on pesticide choice & quality

Proper unused pesticides & empty container disposal lacking

Do repeated training on proper disposal

Target SSTP Countries Pesticides Profile: Factors that reduce risks from pesticides

Reduced risk inherent in the cropping and input systems in West, Southern and East Africa

Many less toxic products are being registered and used by farmers in West, Southern and East Africa countries, than compared with just 8 years ago when some highly toxic chemicals were still being registered and promoted.

Many farm stores in developing countries are beginning to stock ever-increasing quantities of green-label biological pesticides (like neem oil, BT, oils with copper and sulfur, and extracts of garlic and chili pepper) made in India or West and East Africa for both organic and conventional markets.

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Lower costs for biologically derived, highly effective and approved for Organic insecticide products like spinosad, an extract from a soil bacterium are now a reality. Many newer nicotinoid insecticides are also now available, as long as they are not used when crops are in flower.

The fact that African countries will, in many cases, have to follow European standards systems in order to reach European markets. Many farms oriented for export will be ever more organized following S&C systems like GlobalGAP, Organic, Fair Trade and others, which inevitably contain recommended IPM measures that work and reduced-risk pesticide products.

The increasing world-wide availability and use of small, single-use sachets and smaller bottles of pesticides (as opposed to one and five liter bottles) with labels containing important and potentially life-saving information (in local languages) that are marketed by the formal pesticide importer/distributor sector. These small quantities and labels help resolve on-farm pesticide quantity storage, illegal subdividing and use issues.

The likely small scale of most USAID-supported beneficiary farms, combined with lack of financial resources, will limit the quantities of synthetic pesticides used, and will promote the use of other cultural techniques to solve pest issues.

Conclusion: There still remain some issues with pesticides that can increase the risk for errors to occur, and thus the risks that farmers, laborers, farm family members, and even international consumers may be acutely or slowly poisoned and/or their environment may become polluted and damaged. Thus the pesticide risk profile for West Africa countries is higher than might be encountered in some more developed as well as other developing countries, though it is rapidly changing for the better as S&C-GAP systems are being implemented and EU rules for import tolerances are adopted. Extra care will be needed with emphasizing and implementing mitigation measures that work.

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PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT (PER)

This part of the PERSUAP, the PER (Pesticide Evaluation Report), addresses pesticide choices based upon environmental and human health issues, uses, alternate options, IPM, biodiversity, conservation, training, PPE options, monitoring and mitigation recommendations according to the twelve Regulation 216.3(b)(1) Pesticide Procedures Factors, outlined and analyzed below.

Reg. 216.3(b)(1)(i) stipulates: “When a project includes assistance for procurement or use, or both, of pesticides registered for the same or similar uses by USEPA without restriction, the Initial Environmental Examination for the project shall include a separate section evaluating the economic, social and environmental risks and benefits of the planned pesticide use to determine whether the use may result in significant environmental impact. Factors to be considered in such an evaluation shall include, but not be limited to the following:” (see box, right)

In Annex 1, this PERSUAP proposes preventive IPM tools and tactics available to be integrated with the pesticides evaluated by this PER. Annexes 2 and 3 provide guidelines for making PMPs and implementing IPM.

It would be ideal to find pesticides for every need that are EPA Class IV acute toxicity, have no chronic human health issues, no water pollution issues and no ecotoxicity issues. Such pesticides do not exist. Most pesticides, including “natural” pesticides, have toxicity to at least one aquatic organism, or bees, or birds. And, since “the dose makes the poison” as Paracelsus the Renaissance Alchemist and founder of toxicology expressed, even the most benign chemical can be toxic or fatal in a sufficiently high concentration.

3.1 Factor A: USEPA Registration Status of the Proposed Pesticides

USAID project activities are effectively limited to promoting during training, recommending, buying, subsidizing, financing or permitting on demonstration farms, pesticides containing active

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THE 12 PESTICIDE FACTORSFactor A. USEPA Registration Status of the Proposed Pesticides

Factor B. Basis for Selection of Pesticides

Factor C. Extent to which the proposed pesticide use is, or could be, part of an IPM program

Factor D. Proposed method or methods of application, including the availability of application and safety equipment

Factor E. Any acute and long-term toxicological hazards, either human or environmental, associated with the proposed use, and measures available to minimize such hazards

Factor F. Effectiveness of the requested pesticide for the proposed use

Factor G. Compatibility of the proposed pesticide use with target and non-target ecosystems

Factor H. Conditions under which the pesticide is to be used, including climate, geography, hydrology, and soils

Factor I. Availability of other pesticides or non-chemical control methods

Factor J. Host country’s ability to regulate or control the distribution, storage, use, and disposal of the requested pesticide

Factor K. Provision for training of users and applicators.

Factor L. Provision made for monitoring the use and effectiveness of each pesticide

ingredients (AIs) in products registered in the US by the EPA for the same or similar uses, without restriction. Emphasis is placed on “similar uses” because often the crops and their pest species found overseas are not present in the US, and therefore pesticides may not be registered for the exact same use, but often are registered for similar crops, the same Genera of pests, methods of application, and pest situations.

The USEPA classifies pesticides according to actual toxicity of the formulated products, taking formulation types and concentrations into account, thus generally making the formulated product less toxic than the active ingredients alone would be. This method of classifying acute toxicity is accurate and representative of actual risks encountered in the field. By contrast, the WHO acute toxicity classification system is based on the active ingredient only. For a comparison of USEPA and WHO acute toxicity classification systems, see Annex 6.

In the USA, some specific commercial pesticide products are labeled as Restricted Use Pesticides (RUPs) due to inordinate risks, usually under specific circumstances of use, such as formulation or crop. However, for each AI, which may be present in a number of RUP products, there are generally additional or other products, formulations and uses—with the exact same AI—that do not pose the same risks and are thus labeled or determined to be General Use Pesticides (GUP)—that is—not a RUP. Ergo, for each AI, there may be products classified as RUP and non-RUP depending upon risks they do or do not pose.

Pesticide registration is done in all AGRA SSTP countries. Some SSTP countries requested an analysis of particularly desired pesticides, while other chose to rely upon an analysis of the national registered list.

Websites used by this PERSUAP study for researching pesticide Active Ingredients and Commercial Products are: http://www.pesticideinfo.org (linked to USEPA websites on registration, restriction and ecotoxicity); and http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/en/atoz.htm (a website with good ecotoxicological information, among a plethora of other physical and chemical information on each pesticide AI).

Analysis: Annex 7 provides EPA registration status analysis for each AI found in selected pesticides currently desired by SSTP implementer and its subgrantee, imported, available and used in AGRA SSTP countries. Annex 7, column number three, labeled “EPA Registered” has a “yes” if the AI is registered by EPA in pesticides for same or similar uses. If column three has a “no” (or “no hort”) meaning it is not registered by EPA (or not registered for horticultural uses) and is thus one reason for shading the AI line with red—signifying that it is not approved in the PERSUAP Annex 7 analysis. Pesticide AIs that pass this registration factor, and all subsequent factor analyses, are shaded with green. The remaining pesticides shaded in yellow highlight have certain specific conditions (or cautions) for use.

This PERSUAP evaluates all the active ingredients contained in pesticides analyzed by this PERSUAP. The following pesticide AIs, grouped by type, did not pass this Factor A analysis and are listed with the reason they did not pass, and pesticide products containing them should not be supported by the AGRA SSTP countries or subgrantees:

Insecticide AIs in products available in AGRA SSTP countries, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO rejection for use in The SSTP project (with reason for rejection)

alpha-cypermethrin (RUP) aluminum phosphide (RUP) carbofuran (RUP)

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carbosulfan (not EPA registered) chlorpyrifos-ethyl (not registered for horticultural use) cyfluthrin (all horticultural uses are RUP) cypermethrin (RUP for horticultural use) diazinon (all horticulture uses are RUP) dichlorvos/DDVP (not registered for horticultural use) fenitrothion (not registered for horticultural use) fenvalerate (not EPA registered) fipronil (not EPA registered for horticultural use) methomyl (all horticulture uses are RUP) triazophos (not EPA registered)

Fungicide AIs in products available in AGRA SSTP countries, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO rejection for use in The SSTP project (with reason for rejection)

benomyl (not EPA registered) carbendazim (not EPA registered for horticultural use) epoxiconazole (not EPA registered)

Herbicide AIs in products available in AGRA SSTP countries, and recommended by this PERSUAP for BEO rejection for use in The SSTP project (with reason for rejection)

acetochlor (RUP) atrazine (RUP) paraquat (RUP)

Pesticide AIs that passed this Factor A analysis and are thus recommended to the BEO for acceptance for use on the AGRA SSTP countries activities are listed in Annex 7 and shaded green if they have no special conditions (other than for users to read and follow label instructions) and shaded in yellow if there are specific conditions for use. Such conditions for chemicals shaded yellow are highlighted above in the Executive Summary.

Compliance Requirements If SSTP’s beneficiaries use pesticides on project-related activities, they must contain only

pesticide AIs evaluated and approved (and listed in the Executive Summary) by this PERSUAP.

If there is a choice, use products with lower human toxicity.

3.2 Factor B: Basis for Selection of Pesticides

Field visits by SSTP IPs found that farmers in AGRA SSTP countries choose pesticides based primarily upon the price, efficacy and availability of products in quantities they desire and can afford. They also use advice of agrodealers, extension agents and neighbors. Rarely do they choose pesticides based upon safety or environmental concerns.

Recommendations:

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The inputs markets in AGRA SSTP countries require expanding so more quality name brand options are made available to farmers.

Farmers require training on how to choose the correct pesticide based on the crop-pest combinations present, and training on the need to rotate pesticides from different classes to reduce the development of pest resistance.

3.3 Factor C: Extent to Which the Proposed Pesticide Use Is, Or Could Be, Part of an IPM Program

Some farmers use the following GAP and preventive IPM tools like: Pest resistant/tolerant seed (if they can get it from some source); Seed treatment with pesticides; Use of organic fertilizers (they use animal manure for vegetables); Use of purchased mineral fertilizers (mainly urea); Crop rotation (they rotate cereals with legumes); Mostly hand hoeing is used for weed control. Raised bed production is used for root crops and many legumes, which helps manage soil moisture and thus reduces root and shoot diseases.

Recommendations:

Preventive IPM tools and tactics for each crop-pest combination should be used before and combined with the use of synthetic pesticides.

AGRA SSTP countries need national Pest Management Plan (PMP) with preventive tools and tactics to help reduce pests of major crops.

World Bank assists many countries to produce these PMPs, and could be requested, if desired. Annex 1 of this PERSUAP provides IPM information for most crop-pest/disease combinations. Annexes 2 and 3 provide guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM. Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and natural pesticides that may be made artisanally and used in place of synthetic pesticides, if requested by SSTP for PERSUAP analysis by 22CFR216.

3.4 Factor D: Proposed Method or Methods of Application, Including the Availability of Application and Safety Equipment

Most African farmers use treated seed, hand-pumped knapsack sprayers and hand-placed granular formulations for horticulture. Most farmers do not use PPE to apply pesticides and do not calibrate their sprayers properly, leading to over- and under-dosing.

Recommendations:

Train farmers on proper use of PPE as well as sprayer calibration, use, maintenance and empty container disposal by rinsing, puncturing and burial.

Promote the concept of spray service providers.

3.5 Factor E: Any Acute and Long-Term Toxicological Hazards, either Human or Environmental, Associated With the Proposed Use, And Measures Available To Minimize Such Hazards

There are some recent instances of farmer poisonings from pesticides. Most farmers do not fully understand acute and chronic health issues associated with pesticide use.

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Recommendations:

Train farmers on how to read and understand pictograms on safety precautions and first aid measures on pesticide labels, and encourage them to use PPE.

3.6 Factor F: Effectiveness of the Requested Pesticide for the Proposed Use

The majority of the pesticides sold in AGRA SSTP countries are from Chinese companies and contain generic versions of off-patent pesticide AIs, some of which may be of untested quality and come without proper agrodealer technical support.

Pests and diseases known to have developed significant resistance to pesticides (especially to older-generation organophosphate, carbamate and synthetic pyrethroid insecticides, strobin fungicides and azine herbicides globally; see Annex 7 for classes in which each pesticide is categorized):

Whiteflies Aphids Spider mites Thrips Mealybugs Scales Psyllids Colorado potato beetle Corn earworm Powdery mildew Downy mildew Pigweed Striga

Pesticides with known global resistance by certain pests or diseases (use with care—do careful calculations of dose—and rotate with other classes or families of pesticides—see Annex 7 for classes of each pestide AI evaluated herein):

Most of the synthetic pyrethroid insecticides and miticides Strobin fungicides Glyphosate herbicide Azine herbicides

Issue: Lack of knowledge and information on reduced pesticide effectiveness and resistance. At some point, project field staff and farmers may begin to note that some products no longer work well to control pests in their field, and will likely begin to blame pesticide manufacturers for a weaker product. This could be due to the use of cheap generic products, improper dosing, or the development of resistance. Farmers should be trained to understand the development of resistance, and project implementers should be on the lookout for it during their field visits.

A resistance management strategy should also consider cross-resistance between pesticides with different modes/target sites of action. Pests may develop cross-resistance to pesticides based on mode/target site of action. The website http://www.pesticideresistance.com/ can be used to search

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for known resistance issues in countries with certain pest or disease resistance to specific pesticide AIs.

If pesticide use is warranted and a risk of pesticide resistance development is identified, a Resistance Risk Management approach should be followed. The following section details points of concern for both application equipment and pesticide applications.

Ways to address and manage or mitigate pest resistance:

Use IPM to minimize pesticide use: Minimizing pesticide use is fundamental to pesticide resistance management. IPM programs incorporating pest monitoring in USA states of California, New York, and Maryland, and in Canada have demonstrated 25 to 50% reduction in pesticide use with an increase in crop quality. IPM programs will help determine the best application timing for pesticides (when they will do the most good), thus helping to reduce the number of applications.

The use of nonchemical strategies, such as pest exclusion (e.g., screening, microtunnels, greenhouses), host-free periods, crop rotation, biological control, and weed control may reduce the need to use chemicals and consequently slow the development of pesticide resistance.

Avoid Knapsack Mixes: Never combine two pesticides with the same mode of action in a tank mix (e.g., two organophophate insecticides or two azine herbicides). Such a 'super dose' often increases the chances of selection for resistant individuals. In some cases, mixing pesticides from two different classes provides superior control. However, long-term use of these two-class pesticide mixes can also give rise to pesticide resistance, if resistance mechanisms to both pesticides arise together in some individuals. Continued use of the mixture will select for these multiple-pesticide-resistant pests.

Avoid Persistent Chemicals: Insects with resistant genes will be genetically selected over susceptible ones whenever insecticide concentrations kill only the susceptible pests. An ideal pesticide quickly disappears from the environment so that persistence of a 'selecting dose' does not occur. When persistent chemicals must be used, consider where they can be used in a rotation scheme to provide the control needed and with a minimum length of exposure.

Use Long-term Pesticide Rotations: Resistance management strategies for insects, weeds, and fungal pathogens all include rotating classes of pesticides. Pesticides with the same modes of action have been assigned group numbers by their respective pesticide resistance action committees, Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC)17, Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC)18, and Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC)19. These group numbers have been included in the treatment tables of these committee’s guidelines (see foot-noted websites, below) to help clarify which pesticides can be rotated.

However, the strategies used in rotations differ. For example, with fungicides, classes should be rotated every application. With insecticides, a single chemical class should be used for a single generation of the target pest followed by a rotation to a new class of insecticide that will affect the next generation and any survivors from the first generation. Longer use of a

17 http://www.irac-online.org/18 http://www.frac.info/19 http://www.hracglobal.com/

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single chemical class will enhance the chance of resistance since the survivors of the first generation and the next will most likely be tolerant to that class. Rotating through many chemical classes in successive generations will help maintain efficacy.

Recommendations:

Train and encourage farmers to value and buy higher quality products from name brand companies, and that come with technical support.

Train and encourage farmers to rotate pesticides from different classes (modes of action) to reduce or slow resistance development.

3.7 Factor G: Compatibility of the Proposed Pesticide Use with Target and Non-Target Ecosystems

Non-target species of concern include wildlife, fish, honeybees, birds, earthworms, aquatic organisms and beneficial insects.

Biodiversity, protected areas and pesticides in AGRA SSTP countries

Annex 7 compiles the known risks to the different types of terrestrial and aquatic organisms referred to above for each pesticide active ingredient found in pesticide products available or requested for use in AGRA SSTP countries, and covered by this PERSUAP, so that informed product choices can be made if a pesticide is to be used in or near sensitive areas or resources.

AGRA SSTP Countries’s Protected Areas and Natural Resources

USAID biodiversity and forestry studies have been done for each of the six target countries. Each of them finds the unwise use of pesticides as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity in general as well as in AGRA SSTP countries. Each report shows all protected areas as well endangered and protected species. Each AGRA sub-grantee and partner should find those reports at http://www.encapafrica.org/bioformatrix.htm and they should overlay maps of project sites on maps of protected areas and natural resources.

The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) has classified animals in all countries by its “Red List” criteria for endangered species. Endangered plants, aquatic organisms, fish and birds of African in general and AGRA SSTP countries in particular are found at the following website: http://earthsendangered.com/search-regions3.asp?search=1&sgroup=allgroups&ID=307. IUCN endangered species for all countries are provided on http://www.iucnredlist.org. Please see these websites for endangered species in each of the 6 SSTP target countries.

Recommendations

Train farmers about ecotoxicity and on how to read ecotoxicity precautions on pesticide labels and encourage farmers to use PPE.

Train farmers on applying pesticides the proper distance (30 meters) from open bodies of fresh water, and not to wash their sprayers out in ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, or wetlands, or where rinse water may run off into these aquatic resources.

Minimize chemical spray drift by using low-pressure sprays and nozzles that produce large droplets, properly calibrating and maintaining spray equipment, and use of a drift-control agent.

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Warn beekeepers of upcoming spray events so that they may move or protect their hives. Train farmers not to spray when honeybees are active and foraging.

3.8 Factor H: Conditions under Which the Pesticide Is To Be Used, Including Climate, Geography and Hydrology

In general, in addition to covering biodiversity and protected areas under Factor G above, this requirement attempts to protect natural resources from the dangers of pesticide misuse and contamination, especially of scarce groundwater resources in AGRA SSTP countries.

AGRA SSTP countries Climate, Geography, Land Use and Hydrology

AGRA SSTP countries’s geography, land use, surface hydrology and climate are described in the background section (Section 2) to this report, with maps of country relief, agriculture land use, surface hydrology and rainfall; refer to them for background on these factors.

Issue: Pesticides can adsorb (stick to) to soil, leach and contaminate groundwater resources. Each pesticide has physical and chemical characteristics, such as solubility in water, ability to bind to soil particles and be held there (adsorbed) and their natural breakdown rate in nature. If they are strongly held by soil they do not enter the soil water layers and the ground water table as easily. A listing of these properties for at least some of the pesticides in use in AGRA SSTP countries can be found by checking at this website: http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/en/atoz.htm.

In general, pesticides with water solubility greater than 3 mg/liter have the potential to contaminate groundwater; and pesticides with a soil adsorption coefficient of less than 1,900 have the potential to contaminate groundwater. In addition, pesticides with an aerobic soil half-life greater than 690 days or an anaerobic soil half-life greater than 9 days have the potential to contaminate groundwater. Moreover, pesticides with a hydrolysis half-life greater than 14 days have potential to contaminate groundwater.

The potential for pesticides to enter groundwater resources depends, as indicated above, on the electrical charge contained on a pesticide molecule and its ability and propensity to adhere to soil particles, but this also depends on the nature and charge of the soil particles dominant in the agriculture production area. Sand, clay and organic matter, and different combinations of all of these, have different charges and adhesion potential for organic and inorganic molecules. Sandy soil often has less charge capacity than clay or organic matter, and will thus not interact significantly with and hold charged pesticide molecules. So, in areas with sandy soil, the leaching potential for pesticides is increased, as is the velocity with which water and the pesticide migrate.

A pesticide’s ability to enter groundwater resources also depends on how quickly and by what means it is broken down and the distance (and thus time) it has to travel to reach the groundwater. If the groundwater table is high, the risk that the pesticide will reach it before being broken down is increased. Thus, a sandy soil with a high water table is the most risky situation for groundwater contamination by pesticides. Groundwater pollution (contamination) potential for each pesticide active ingredient available in AGRA SSTP countries is provided in Annex 7.

Since the risks for contamination of scarce water resources is high in much of AGRA SSTP countries, SSTP and its sub-grantees should investigate these factors of soil adsorption and solubility before choosing pesticides to promote or support for their beneficiaries.

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Recommendations

Hydrology: Do not spray or rinse pesticide equipment in or within 30 meters of rivers, ponds, irrigation and drainage ditches, and other surface waters, including wetlands.

Hydrology: Do not spray pesticides with high toxicities to aquatic organisms before an impending rainstorm, as they can be washed into waterways before breaking down.

Soils: Do not use or recommend for use herbicides or other pesticides with high leaching and groundwater pollution potential (see Annex 7) near drinking water sources, on highly sandy soils or soils with water tables close (2-3 meters) to the surface.

Soils: Since transport of soil particles with pesticides adsorbed to them is a likely transportation route to waterways, employ techniques to reduce farm soil erosion whenever erosion is likely. Such techniques include vegetated buffer strips, green manure, mulching, terracing, employing wind breaks, employing ground covers between rows, planting rows perpendicular to the slope, and using drip irrigation.

3.9 Factor I: Availability of Other Pesticides or Non-Chemical Control Methods

This section identifies less toxic synthetic, as well as non-synthetic or ‘natural’ (extracts of naturally-occurring plants, spices, oils, fatty acids, induced resistance elicitors, minerals, microbes or microbial extracts) pesticide options for control of pests, and their relative advantages and disadvantages. Many of these ‘natural’ pesticides can be toxic to humans, and several are even classified as RUPs due to environmental risks; thus safe pesticide use practices extend to these natural as well as synthetic (produced in laboratories or factories) pesticides.

Annex 1—the heart of this PERSUAP—contains numerous non-chemical control methods for major pests of crops grown in AGRA SSTP countries. It is the intent of this PERSUAP that the SSTP project will use this valuable resource, which compiles all known preventive IPM tools and tactics for each pest and disease of each crop. It can be considered as a pullout, stand-alone section that can be reproduced as necessary, and should be considered for translation into local languages, lamination, and distribution to farm input supply companies to help advise farmers at point-of-purchase. Annexes 2 and 3 provide guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM. Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and natural pesticides that may be made artisanally and used in place of synthetic pesticides, if requested for use and PERSUAP analysis.

Natural pest controls availability

Some farmers produce their own artisanal or homemade pesticides, especially extracts of herbs, neem seed, chilies, garlic and minerals. With sufficient information, like that contained in Annexes 4 and 5 of this PERSUAP, some plant extracts, especially essential oils, could be promoted and used in place of synthetic pesticide alternatives. (For purposes of USAID’s Pesticide Procedures, these natural pesticides also must be approved in a PERSUAP prior to recommending or using the pesticide.)

In general, most synthetic nematicides and soil pesticides/fumigants are very highly toxic. However, there are some companies producing next-generation natural chemicals in the USA: Bio Huma Netics, http://www.bhn.name for natural nematicides and Agra Quest, http://www.agraquest.com for bioactive essential oils.

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Recommendation

Preventive and natural IPM tools and tactics for each crop-pest combination (Annex 1) should be used before the choice is made to purchase and use synthetic pesticides. Annexes 2 and 3 provide guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM. Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and natural pesticides that may be made artisanally and used in place of synthetic pesticides.

3.10 Factor J: Host Country’s Ability to Regulate or Control the Distribution, Storage, Use, and Disposal of the Requested Pesticide

Infrastructure and Human Resources

AGRA SSTP countries’ MOAs (and for the Sahel, INSAH) test and register pesticides; even as there are limited resources for agriculture extension and pesticide enforcement work in each country.

Disposal of obsolete pesticides

The FAO has a program for dealing with and disposing of obsolete stocks of pesticides in Africa. Please refer to this program and its websites to understand issues in SSTP countries. Their websites are as follow: http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/obsolete-pesticides/prevention-and-disposal-of-obsolete-pesticides/en/; http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/obsolete-pesticides/resources0/en/; http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/obsolete-pesticides/fao-program/en/. The World Bank also has resources to contribute to the pesticide disposal issue20.

Disposal of pesticide containers

Information collected about the AGRA SSTP countries pesticide systems (from questionnaires) indicates that most farmers do not understand the importance of safely disposing of empty pesticide containers. Many farmers simply throw the empty containers in the field, or reuse them to store water.

The best method for container disposal in AGRA SSTP countries is to triple-rinse the containers, puncture them to discourage re-use, and bury them or dispose of them in municipal waste. Burning plastic bottles and single-use pesticide sachets can lead to the formation of toxic fumes containing furans and dioxins, and is not recommended.

Recommendations

Absolutely no POP or PIC chemicals will be used or supported on the SSTP project. Where alternatives (Classes III and IV/U) exist, do not recommend or use EPA and WHO

Acute Toxicity Class II pesticide products on the SSTP project, unless the USAID project can verify that producers and laborers (pesticide applicators) properly and consistently utilize PPE as recommended by the pesticide label and MSDS.

If a regional pesticide container recycling facilities are ever begun in the future, USAID should encourage their use.

20 http://www-esd.worldbank.org/popstoolkit/POPsToolkit/POPSTOOLKIT_COM/FAO_PSMS.HTM.

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Train farmers to purchase inputs from suppliers that provide quality technical backup support, and to purchase and use PPE, or contract private pesticide spray services.

3.11 Factor K: Provision for Training of Users and Applicators

USAID recognizes that, in addition to the use of PPE, safety training is an essential component in programs involving the use of pesticides. The need for thorough training is particularly critical in developing countries, where the level of education of applicators may typically be lower than in developed countries.

If pesticide use is supported by SSTP and sub-grantees, training in Safe Pesticide Use and target crops GAP/IPM tools and tactics are important for project beneficiary farmers using pesticides. Refresher trainings are superb for changing beneficiary farmer behaviors, especially as they expand their agricultural opportunities.

Recommendation

Farmers require training and refresher training on how to choose the correct pesticide, do knapsack sprayer calibration and record keeping, as well as proper pest identification and IPM.

Annex 8 on Training Topics provides significant discussion of safe pesticide use training elements.

3.12 Factor L: Provision Made For Monitoring the Use and Effectiveness of Each Pesticide

Evaluating the risks, impacts and benefits of pesticide use should be an ongoing, dynamic process. Proper pesticide use and pest resistance are two of the risks that this factor is intended to address, as well as human health and safety and environmental effects.

Record keeping should track quantities and types of pesticides used, where they were used and what they were used for with notes on efficacy. Notes on effectiveness of individual pesticides and pest numbers will help develop a more sustainable pesticide use plan for SSTP project beneficiary farmers. Farmers will need to keep records of any reductions in pesticide efficacy experienced, which is the first indication that resistance may be developing, and then a strategy needs to be in place to determine a shift to a different pesticide class, and rotation among classes, to overcome resistance development.

The following aspects should be included in the SSTP and sub-grantees-funded project record keeping system:

Annex 9 provides formats and ideas for collecting farm-monitoring information. Local regulatory compliance, if it becomes available during LOP: A list of country laws

related to the use of agrochemicals for plant protection, short notes on the relevance of the law, dates the laws come into or exit force and MRLs for each crop-pesticide combination.

A pesticide checklist: This list allows project agronomists to ensure that EPA registers the pesticides they are using. It should also provide notes on special safety requirements.

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GAPs/IPM measures tried/used (see Annex 1): USAID-funded project agronomists should try to incorporate a minimum of at least ten new IPM measures per annum and document their success or failure.

PPE: Lists of the types of equipment made available to applicators, number of pieces, prices and contact details of suppliers, dates when equipment needs to be washed, maintained or replaced. PPE should be numbered or personally assigned to applicators to ensure that it is not taken into the home where (as a contaminated material) it could pose a risk to family members.

Monitoring/recording pests: Agronomists should incorporate into their records regular field pest monitoring and identification. This could be done by SSTP and sub-grantees project agronomists themselves, or if properly trained, by farmers.

Environmental conditions: Field conditions should be incorporated into the record keeping system (for example; precipitation, soil analyses and moisture, soil pH, temperatures and so on).

Information should be transmitted at least annually and projects should report to USAID on this progress in pesticide safety and GAP/IPM use in annual reports.

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PESTICIDE SAFE USE ACTION PLAN (SUAP)

4.1 Introduction to SUAPThis Safe Use Action Plan, is the definitive statement of SSTP project pesticide compliance requirements and is synthesized from the PER analysis:

Section 4.2, immediately below, directs readers to allowed (and rejected) pesticides.

Section 4.3 summarizes the recommended best practices and safe use conditions to be used/supported with these pesticides.

The SSTP project will be required to insert into an EMMP each foreseeable risk, mitigation measure, indicator of mitigation success, monitoring timetable and responsible people/groups for implementation of these requirements, and for tracking compliance.

4.2 AGRA SSTP Project Pesticides Analysis

SSTP requested an analysis of agricultural pesticides available in program countries. The active ingredients in each of those pesticides are analyzed in the PER analysis and are compiled in Annex 7. Tables in the Executive Summary summarize pesticide recommendations and findings of the PER analyses. Rejected pesticides are found under the PER Factor A analysis.

4.3 Compliance Requirements (Safe Use Measures)The above-listed allowed pesticide AIs can only be used in compliance with the safe use measures and restrictions specified in the PER. These can be summarized as follows:

A. Only pesticides approved by this PERSUAP may be supported with SSTP project funds. Pesticide “support” = any of the following: use of USAID funds to: purchase pesticides; directly fund the application of pesticides; recommend pesticides for use; facilitate or enable the application or purchase of pesticides via provision of application equipment, credit support, or other means by the PI (Project Implementor), their sub-grantees and any other partners.

B. If pesticide use is supported, appropriate project staff, sub-grantees & beneficiaries must be trained in IPM (Annex 1), safe pesticide use & pesticide first aid;

C. To the greatest degree practicable, if pesticide use is supported by the SSTP project or their sub-grantees they must require use & assure maintenance of appropriate PPE—as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices.

Compiliation of Compliance Requirements from PER analysis, by Factors A-L

Factor A SSTP and sub-grantees will not promote, finance and use on demonstration farms,

pesticides not registered by EPA for same or similar use, those classified by EPA as RUP

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products, or those deemed too toxic for smallholder farmers to use (all listed in PER, under Factor A).

If SSTP wishes to request the support of any non-EPA registered or RUP product by their project, including use on any demonstration farm, then a full EA must be done and approved by the BEO.

SSTP and sub-grantees/partners shall obtain and retain copies of the MSDS for each pesticide that their beneficiary farmers use frequently.

Factor B Farmers require training from SSTP and sub-grantees on how to choose the correct

pesticide, instead of relying solely upon the advice of agrodealers and neighbors. Use training to encourage farmers to use products with lower human and ecological

toxicities (see Annex 7) if there is a choice.Factor C

Preventive IPM tools and tactics for each crop-pest combination should be used before and combined with the use of synthetic pesticides.

AGRA SSTP countries need a national Pest PMP with preventive tools and tactics to help reduce pests of major crops. World Bank assists many countries to produce these PMPs, and could be requested, if desired. Annex 1 of this PERSUAP provides IPM information for most crop-pest combinations. Annexes 2 and 3 provide guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM.

The SSTP project and sub-grantees are responsible for developing these IPM and PMP plans.

Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and natural pesticides that may be made artisanally and used in place of synthetic pesticides.

Factor D Train farmers on proper use of PPE as well as sprayer calibration, use, maintenance and

empty container disposal by rinsing, puncturing and burial. Promote the concept of spray service providers.

Factor E Train farmers on how to read safety precautions and first aid measures on pesticide labels

and encourage them to use PPE. The pesticide safe use training required by this PERSUAP should include basic first aid

for pesticide overexposure, availability and use of antidotes, and training on following recommendations found on pesticide labels and MSDSs for commonly used pesticides.

Factor F Train and encourage farmers to value and buy higher quality products from name brand

companies and that come with technical support. Train farmers on the ways to reduce the development of resistance, as follow:

o Use IPM to minimize pesticide useo Avoid Knapsack Mixeso Avoid Persistent Chemicalso Use Long-term Pesticide Rotations

Factor G Train farmers about ecotoxicity and on how to read ecotoxicity precautions on pesticide

labels and encourage farmers to use PPE.

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Train farmers on applying pesticides the proper distance (30 meters) from open bodies of fresh water, and not to wash their sprayers out in ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, or wetlands, or where rinse water may run off into these aquatic resources.

Minimize chemical spray drift by using low-pressure sprays and nozzles that produce large droplets, properly calibrating and maintaining spray equipment, and use of a drift-control agent.

Warn beekeepers of upcoming spray events so that they may move or protect their hives. Train farmers not to spray when honeybees are active and foraging.

Factor H Hydrology: Do not spray or rinse pesticide equipment in or within 30 meters of rivers,

ponds, irrigation and drainage ditches, and other surface waters, including wetlands. Hydrology: Do not spray pesticides with high toxicities to aquatic organisms before an

impending rainstorm, as they can be washed into waterways before breaking down. Soils: Do not use or recommend for use herbicides or other pesticides with high leaching

and groundwater pollution potential (see Annex 7) near drinking water sources, on highly sandy soils or soils with water tables close (2-3 meters) to the surface.

Soils: Since transport of soil particles with pesticides adsorbed to them is a likely transportation route to waterways, employ techniques to reduce farm soil erosion whenever erosion is likely. Such techniques include vegetated buffer strips, green manure, mulching, terracing, employing wind breaks, employing ground covers between rows, planting rows perpendicular to the slope, and using drip irrigation.

Factor I Preventive and natural IPM tools and tactics for each crop-pest combination (Annex 1)

should be used before the choice is made to purchase and use synthetic pesticides. Annexes 2 and 3 provide guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM. Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and natural pesticides that may be made artisanally and used in place of synthetic pesticides.

Factor J Absolutely no POP or PIC chemicals will be used or supported on The SSTP project. Where alternatives (Classes III and IV/U) exist, do not recommend or use EPA and WHO

Acute Toxicity Class II pesticide products on The SSTP project, unless the USAID project can verify that producers and laborers (pesticide applicators) properly and consistently utilize PPE as recommended by the pesticide label and MSDS.

If a regional pesticide container recycling facility is ever begun in the future, USAID should encourage its use.

Train farmers to purchase inputs from suppliers that provide quality technical backup support, and to purchase and use PPE, or contract private pesticide spray services.

Factor K Farmers require training and refresher training on how to choose the correct pesticide, do

knapsack sprayer calibration and record keeping, as well as proper pest identification and IPM.

Annex 8 on Training Topics provides significant discussion of safe pesticide use training elements.

Factor L Annex 9 provides formats and ideas for collecting farm-monitoring information.

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Local regulatory compliance, if it becomes available: A list of country laws related to the use of agrochemicals for plant protection, short notes on the relevance of the law, dates the laws come into or exit force and MRLs for each crop-pesticide combination.

A pesticide checklist: This list allows project agronomists to ensure that EPA registers the pesticides they are using. It should also provide notes on special safety requirements.

GAPs/IPM measures tried/used (see Annex 1): USAID-funded project agronomists should try to incorporate a minimum of at least ten new IPM measures per annum and document their success or failure.

PPE: Lists of the types of equipment made available to applicators, number of pieces, prices and contact details of suppliers, dates when equipment needs to be washed, maintained or replaced. PPE should be numbered or personally assigned to applicators to ensure that it is not taken into the home where (as a contaminated material) it could pose a risk to family members.

Monitoring/recording pests: Agronomists should incorporate into their records regular field pest monitoring and identification. This could be done by the AGRA SSTP countries’ project agronomists themselves, or if properly trained, by farmers.

Environmental conditions: Field conditions should be incorporated into the record keeping system (for example; precipitation, soil analyses and moisture, soil pH, temperatures and so on).

Information should be transmitted at least annually and projects should report to USAID on this progress in pesticide safety and GAP/IPM use in annual reports.

The PER and the annexes provide substantial resources to support compliance with these requirements, as detailed in the table below.

IPM/Safe Use Requirement Key Resources Provided

Pesticide recommendations and use must be governed by a set of crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans.

(The SSTP project and sub-grantees are responsible for developing these plans.)

Annex 1 sets out in table format crop-by-crop, pest-by-pest chemical and non-chemical management methods recommended by this PERSUAP. This is intended to serve as the basis for a crop-specific pest management plan.Annexes 2 and 3 provide guidelines for making PMPs and using IPM.Annexes 4 and 5 provide lists of botanical and natural pesticides that may be made artisanally and used in place of synthetic pesticides.Annex 7 provides toxicology information for each approved active ingredient, including human acute toxicities and chronic health issues, water pollution potential, as well as potential ecotoxicities to important non-target organisms like fish, honeybee pollinators, birds and several aquatic organisms.

If pesticide use is supported, appropriate SSTP project staff/sub-grantees & beneficiaries must be trained in safe pesticide use & pesticide first aid

Annex 8 Training Topics provides significant discussion of safe use training elements.

If pesticide use is supported, farm compliance monitoring

Annex 9 provides ideas for farm monitoring information to collect, and a format to collect it

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forms should be used

If pesticide use is supported, SSTP project and sub-grantees must be systematic in their pesticide-related record-keeping and monitoring

Annexes 10 provides record-keeping templates/aids

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Annex 1: Matrix of SSTP Crops with Primary Production Constraints, Pest Prevention GAP/IPM Tools & Tactics and Curative Pesticides

Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

Maize, Sorghum, Millets Stalk borers African Maize

Stalkborer, Busseola fusca

Pink Stalkborer, Sesamia calamistis

Spotted Stalkborer, Chilo partelus

Improve & manage soil fertility. Use resistant varieties (TMV-1, Staha, and others). Use seed treated with insecticide. Intercrop with beans and sunflower. Intercrop with borer-repellent Desmodium plant (see ICIPE Push-Pull

Strategy at http://www.push-pull.net/3.shtml). Use crop rotation with legumes. Control weeds on field margins. Sanitation: Collect or destroy (by feeding to livestock, disking or plowing

under) crop stalk residues at end of season.

Apply artisanal neem powder and/or extract to the whorl when first larval damage appears.

A preventive seed treatment with imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

At least 45 days post-emergence from treated seed, broadcast a spray with imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

Maize Aphids (Rhopalosiphum maidis, Myzus persicae)

Natural enemies include Braconid parasitoids, ground beetles, spiders, rove beetles, ladybird beetles, lacewings, damsel bugs, aphid midges and hoverfly larvae.

To monitor aphid populations, examine the undersides of the leaves and the bud areas for groups or colonies of aphids. Prompt control is necessary as aphids can multiply rapidly.

Grow different crops or grow crops in rotation every cropping season. This practice provides food, shelter, and it increases the number of natural enemies that prey on aphids. At the same time, it disrupts the aphids' lifecycle and maintains its population below the economic threshold level.

Plant trap crops such as lupine, nasturtiums, and timothy grass near the crop to be protected (plow under or spray). Anise, chives, garlic, onions, and radish are good companion crops.

Control ants that protect aphids. Avoid using heavy doses of highly soluble nitrogen fertilizers. Instead apply

fertilizer into 3 phases: during seeding, vegetative, and reproductive stages of plant growth.

Use yellow sticky board traps placed in field (spread used motor oil on yellow

Use botanical and homemade water extracts of chili, neem or narrow range oil (caution: may injure foliage).

If available, can apply synthetic pesticides containing carbaryl.

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

painted plastic, thick cardboard or wood).

Corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea (and synonymHeliothis zea), H. armigera)

Choose corn varieties with tight husks to prevent larva from entering. These varieties show some characteristics and tolerance to the feeding habits of the corn earworm. Ask assistance from the local agriculturist office for these varieties are available in the markets.

Begin monitoring and sampling soon after corn emergence but pay particular attention to corn that is silking in late summer/early fall. The presence of large numbers of eggs on fresh corn silks indicates the potential for damaging populations. Eggs hatch in 5 to 7 days following oviposition. Once larvae enter the corn ears, control with insecticides is difficult.

Practice crop rotation. Avoid planting crops successively that are hosts to corn earworm like corn, cotton, sorghum, tobacco, soybean, and tomato.

Two weeks before planting, remove weeds and grasses to destroy earworm larvae and adults harboring in those weeds and grasses.

Plow and harrow fields at least 2 times before sowing seeds. This will expose pupae of corn earworm to birds, ants and other predators. Corn earworm pupates in the soil. After harvest, remove corn stubble by feeding to cows.

Make and use pheromone or light traps: To make trap, use 1-liter containers. Cut 3 large holes into the sides of the container for the insects to enter. Fill the bottom half with soapy water. Suspend the pheromone capsule from the lid using string or wire then snap the trap closed. Attach the trap to a bamboo pole or stake.

Erect bamboo/wooden poles as bird perches, or put bat houses near the cornfield.

Botanical and homemade water extracts of neem seed may be used.

Insecticidal control of corn earworm is difficult and depends on proper timing and thorough coverage. Direct insecticidal control towards young larvae that are feeding on the exposed ear tips. Treatments are usually not needed on field or silage corn. In sweet corn, where tolerance for worm damage is low, timing of insecticide treatments is critical: begin treatments during silking stage, at the start of egg hatch. Apply additional treatments if they are necessary.

Sprays of pesticides containing systemic imidacloprid may be used during ear maturation since maize is wind-pollinated, not honeybee pollinated.

Termites

Macrotermes species Microtermes species

and Odontotermes species

Destroy termite mounds in and near fields. Excavation of mound tops and burning of straw to suffocate and kill the

colony. Dig out and remove the queen (the one with really fat abdomen). Use baits: wood stakes treated with borates. Seed treated with systemic insecticide. Use composted instead of fresh mulch.

Use a preventive seed treatment with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

At least 45 days post-emergence from treated seed, broadcast a spray with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when neededin vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or permethrin.

If available, registered, insecticides containing the microbe Metarhizium anisopliae or synthetic chemicals called Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) could be used.

Maize Leafhopper, Cicadulina mbila

Transmits Maize Streak Virus (MSV)

Use resistant varieties like TMV-1, Staha-ST, Kilima-ST, Kito-ST. Control weeds, especially grasses, on field margins. Plant maize well away from previously irrigated cereals or grassland

maximizes the distance the leafhopper needs to travel from another host. Create a barrier of 10 m of bare ground between maize fields and previously

infested crops which can reduce leafhopper movement and hence MSV incidence.

Removal of MSV-infected maize plants (rogueing) at an early stage. Planting a large area of maize all at once is likely to make the crop less

vulnerable to maize leafhopper infestation than planting in a staggered sequence. 

Remove residues of maize and other cereal crops since they serve as infection sources.

Do intercropping and crop rotation.

A preventive seed treatment with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

At least 45 days post-emergence from treated seed, rotate among broadcast sprays with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder), deltamethrin, spinosad or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

Downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola, Sclerophthora

Use improved and resistant varieties. Rogue or remove heavily diseased plants.

If heavy attack is experienced in unfavorable (continuously damp) weather, use seed treatment fungicides containing chlorothalonil.

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

species, Peronosclerospora sorghi)

Corn leaf blight (Helminthosporium maydis)

Use of disease-resistant hybrids of maize. Use of certified disease-free seed. Use crop rotation with non-grass crops. Sanitation: removal and destruction of infected maize residues.

Treatment of grain and sowings with fungicides containing chlorothalonil.

Maize Rusts (Puccinia sorghi, Puccinia polysora)

Use rust resistant or tolerant varieties or hybrids. Maintain soil and plant health (test these with lab tests). Destroy infected residue. Rotate maize with other crops.

Generally, fungicides are not economical.

Ear and Kernel Rots & production of aflatoxins

Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus (yellow-green colored mold)

Fusarium moniliforme (white-salmon colored mold)

Fusarium graminearum (Gibberella zeae) (pink-red colored mold)

Use certified clean seed. Use hybrid varieties with resistance to Aspergillus. Plant early and avoid drought stress, if possible. Control insects that damage the husk, ear and kernals. Control fertilizer applications carefully and according to extension timing

recommendations so as to not over-apply or apply at the inopportune time. Harvest early and on time (the longer maize is left in the field, the higher the

aflatoxin content). Avoid or reduce kernel damage during harvest. Dry and store maize at less than 13% moisture. Keep storage facilities clean and cool, with proper ventilation. Screen incoming corn for infection (see mold colors), remove and destroy

(burry or burn) diseased ears.

Commercial biological treatments are available in the USA, called Afla-Guard and AF36. If desired, try to get these registered and try them.

Few synthetic fungicides provide economically efficient control of aflatoxin molds.

Gray Leaf Spot, Cerospora zaea-maydis

Use resistant varieties, such as H6302, UH6010, or TMV-2 or early maturing variety Kilima.

Observe locally recommended time of planting. Use crop rotation. Sanitation: remove and destroy crop debris soon after harvest.

Fungicide sprays are not economical.

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

Annual & Perennial Grass WeedsBroad Leaf Weeds

Use an integrated weed management scheme:

Perform thorough land preparation (soil tillage, fertilizer, and water management).

Narrow row spacing makes the crop more competitive than the weeds, use intercropping.

Place the fertilizer in such a way that the crop has access to it but the weeds do not. This allows the crop to be more competitive with weeds.

Keep the surroundings of farm free of weeds, unless they are maintained and intended as habitats for natural enemies of crop pests.

Regularly clean farm tools. Use green manure, which chokes out weeds. Use intercropping. Hand weeding, hoeing and composting (do not compost weeds that have

flowered and set).

Before planting, use non-selective herbicides containing glyphosate.

At planting, use synthetic herbicides containing glyphosate or pendimethalin.

After planting, use synthetic herbicides containing pendimethalin, glyphosate or halosulfuron-methyl.

Rice June and May beetles

and white soil-inhabiting larvae called white “C-shaped” grubs

Phyllophaga and other species

Use seed treated with systemic insecticide. Soil solarization and tillage. Light trapping of adults. Ensure good soil drainage. Inter-planting with alliums (onions, garlic). Do crop rotation with a pulse, mustard or chiocory. Sanitation: Remove crop residues after harvest.

Can use natural soil insecticides containing Beauveria bassiana.

A preventive seed treatment with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

At least 45 days post-emergence from treated seed, broadcast a spray with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse

70

Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when neededdisorder).

Termites

Macrotermes species Microtermes species

and Odontotermes species

Destroy termite mounds in and near fields. Excavation of mound tops and burning of straw to suffocate and kill the

colony. Dig out and remove the queen (the one with really fat abdomen). Use baits: wood stakes treated with borates. Seed treated with systemic insecticide. Use composted instead of fresh mulch.

A preventive seed treatment with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

At least 45 days post-emergence from treated seed, rotate sprays with synthetic insecticides containing thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder), permethrin or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

If available, registered and desired, insecticides containing the microbe Metarhizium anisopliae or synthetic chemicals called Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) could be used.

Rice thrips

Stenchaetothrips biformis

Predatory thrips, Coccinellid beetles, Anthocorid bugs, and Staphylinid beetles are biological control agents that feed on both the larvae and adults.

Use resistant cultivars. Flooding to submerge the infested field for 2 days as a cultural control

practice is very effective against the rice thrips.

Use a preventive seed treatment with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

At least 45 days post-emergence from

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when neededtreated seed, rotate among insecticides containing thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder), spinosad, permethrin or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

Rice blast

Pyricularia oryzae

Use of resistant cultivars. Destruction of infested residue. Use of certified clean or non-infested seed. Water seeding (not drill seeding). Continuous flooding. Avoid using excess nitrogen. Do not plant too early or too late. Avoid close planting in nurseries.

Use application of synthetic fungicides containing metalaxyl.

Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV)

Transmitted by Flea Beetles (Chaetocnema varicornis) and other beetles

Use resistant cultivars as they are developed, such as SSD-1, SSD-3, SSD-5, SSD-7, SSD-35.

Use certified disease-free treated (for diseases and flea beetles) seed. Many predators control the flea beetle vectors of RYMV, so avoid over-

spraying for insect vectors Manage the vectors of RYMV by using synthetic pyrethroid pesticides (get

RUP training and avoid getting pyrethroids into the water)

Control the flea beetles that transmit the virus.

A preventive seed treatment with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

At least 45 days post-emergence from treated seed, broadcast a spray with thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder), spinosad, imidacloprid (but only when plants are in

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when neededvegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or deltamethrin.

Rice weeds Use an integrated weed management scheme:

Perform thorough land preparation (soil tillage, fertilizer, and water management).

Narrow row spacing makes the crop more competitive than the weeds, use intercropping.

Place the fertilizer in such a way that the crop has access to it but the weeds do not. This allows the crop to be more competitive with weeds.

Keep the surroundings of farm free of weeds, unless they are maintained and intended as habitats for natural enemies of crop pests.

Regularly clean farm tools. Use green manure, which chokes out weeds. Use intercropping. Hand weeding, hoeing and composting (do not compost weeds that have

flowered and set).

Minimizing weed competition during the early stages of the crop, before it has formed a closed leaf canopy, is particularly important. In upland rice this critical period is approximately 15-40 days after seeding, while in transplanted rice, the crop can form a canopy more rapidly. Where a crop is exposed to prolonged weed competition during this critical period it is not usually able to recover sufficiently to give a good yield.

Pre-emergence: use an herbicide containing pendimethalin plus hand weeding/hoeing.

Post-emergence: use an herbicide containing bentazone or trichlopyr selectively control broadleaves and sedges.

Wheat, Teff Aphids (Aphis

species) transmit BYDV (Barley Yellow Dwarf and other Viruses)

A number of coccinellid and syrphid predators, parasites and fungal diseases usually keep aphid populations below damaging levels.

Maintain adequate soil moisture and fertilization (Plants stressed for water or nutrients are more susceptible to and suffer greater damage from aphids).

Use regular monitoring, yellow sticky traps. Use resistant varieties. Sanitation: Field disking and destruction of crop residues are important for

control of aphid pests of leafy vegetables to reduce their migration into nearby crops.

Avoid early planting. Avoid excessively high soil nitrogen levels. Use wheat varieties that are resistant to BYDV.

Treatments with natural chemicals, if needed, can include narrow range oils, pyrethrin and rotenone.

For high levels of BYDV, use systemic synthetic insecticide seed treatments containing thiamethoxam (Cruiser) or imidacloprid (Gaucho).

No synthetic pesticides are recommended for spraying.

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

Wheat thrips (Haplothrips tritici)

Predatory thrips, Aelothrips species, as well as other predators such as bugs, ladybirds, lacewing larvae, ground beetles, Staphilinid beetles and robber flies are capable lowering thrip numbers.

Use early wheat sowing and early two-phase harvesting. Early deep plowing. Use crop rotation. Growing of early-ripening wheat cultivars.

Synthetic pesticides are not recommended to control wheat thrips.

Cereal Leaf Beetle (CLB) (Oulema melanopus)

Natural controls include lady beetles and larvae, some wasp larvae parasites of CLB eggs (Anaphes flavipes) and larvae (Tatrastichus julis, Diaparrsis carinifer) and Lemophagus curtus) and a Tachinid fly larvae (Hyalomyodes triangulifer) that attacks CLB larvae.

Assure a thick, well tillered, healthy crop (planting on time, good seed bed preparation, using high quality seed, correct drill calibration, and being sure to get good soil-seed contact at the proper seeding depth).

In spring, before the boot stage and before the flag leaf emerges, monitor for eggs and larvae on 10 plants in 5 field locations, and spray if 3 or more eggs/larvae are found per plant; after flag leaf emergence, spray after 1 or more larvae are discovered per plant.

Use, at early head-fill stage, synthetic insecticides containing spinosad (Tracer Natrualyte), malathion, or carbaryl (Sevin, wheat only), beta-cyfluthrin or lambda-cyhalothrin (but do not use near open water).

Leafhoppers (Psammotettix alienus) transmit WDV (Wheat Dwarf Virus)

Use yellow sticky traps for monitoring and control. Might use synthetic pesticides containing lambda-cyhalothrin (but do not use near open water).

Hessian Cereal Fly (Mayetiola destructor)

Use resistant or tolerant varieties. Use crop rotation away from wheat. Disk wheat stubble after harvest. Delay winter wheat planting until after first freeze.

Use systemic synthetic insecticide seed treatments containing thiamethoxam (Cruiser) or imidacloprid (Gaucho).

Sunn Pest (Eurygaster species)

Use resistant varieties. Rotate crops. Monitor for presence of natural enemies. Destroy alternate host plants near fields.

Might use synthetic pesticides containing pyrethroids lambda-cyhalothrin or deltamethrin (but do not use either near open water).

Smuts: Wheat Use certified smut-free seed. For seed treatment, use synthetic 74

Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

covered smut and loose smutTilletia caries,Tilletia foetida,Ustilago hordeiUstilago tritici

Hot water treatment can eliminate smut fungi from contaminated seed, but it must be used carefully to avoid reducing seed vitality.

For covered smut, which is on the outside of the seed, treatment of seed with contact-type fungicides will control covered smut.

For loose smut, which resides inside the seed, seed treatment with systemic fungicides is necessary.

pesticides containing carboxin + thiram (Vitavaks 200 FF) or tebuconazole (Raxil, Raks).

Root rots (Fusarium species)

Use certified disease-free resistant hybrid seed. Plant late in the fall to avoid excessively warm soil conditions. Provide adequate nitrogen but avoid excessive fertilization. Irrigate to avoid moisture stress. Rotate out of grain, or use oats, which is not affected.

For seed treatment, use synthetic pesticides containing carboxin + thiram (Vitavaks 200 FF) or tebuconazole (Raxil, Raks).

Powdery Mildews: Blumeria graminis (Erysiphe graminis f. sp. tritici)

Use certified disease-free resistant hybrid seed. Resistant cultivars of barley and wheat are available.

Crop rotation. Elimination of crop residue. Control of volunteer grains and weed hosts reduce inoculum survival from

one season to the next.

Although normally not economical, foliar fungicides containing propiconazole (Tilt) can be used to control disease outbreaks and provide partial disease control. To protect the flag leaf, applications should be made between tillering and heading.

Rusts (Yellow and Brown): Puccinia recondita

Use certified disease-free resistant hybrid seed. Resistant cultivars of barley and wheat are available.

If new races of the fungus render current sources of resistance obsolete, fungicides such as propiconazole (Tilt) can be applied at 4 oz per acre to control disease outbreaks. To protect the flag leaf, applications should be made between tillering and heading.

Septoria spot (Septoria tritici, Mycosphaerella graminicola)

Use certified disease-free resistant hybrid seed. Crop rotation will not work. The presence of the airborne ascospores that can

spread long distances very quickly in the wheat growing regions, means that crop rotation will not allow wheat to escape from the source of inoculum.

Later plantings of wheat (Nov. to Dec.) are less likely to be severely affected. The impact of the disease is most severe in early planted wheat (October) because the plants are exposed to the pathogen over a longer period of time during a period when weather conditions are frequently favorable to disease

Although normally not economical, foliar fungicides can be used to control disease outbreaks and provide partial disease control.

Depending on the weather conditions from tillering to early dough stage, one or more applications of synthetic fungicides may be needed, like those

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

development. Consequently, containing mancozeb or propiconazole. Applications should be made between tillering and heading to protect the flag leaf.

Snow molds (Microdochium/Fusarium nivale; Typhula idahoensis)

Use resistant and tolerant varieties like Sprague, Luke and John. Crop rotation to legumes or spring grains is effective in reducing the number

of Typhula sclerotia in the soil. Early-seeded (August) plants, because they are robust, may recover to

produce an acceptable crop. Do not over-fertilize. Sanitation—clean up and destroy crop residues.

Synthetic fungicides are not recommended for snow mold control.

Net blotch Stagonospora nodorum

Use clean seed and resistant cultivars. Crop rotation (to any crop other than barley). Sanitation--removal/disposal of barley residue from the surface of the soil,

and destruction of volunteer barley and grass hosts. Avoid early plantings (Oct. to Nov.) because when conditions favor disease

development late plantings (Dec. to Jan.) are less damaged.

No synthetic pesticides are recommended.

Weeds: Deploy integrated weed management. Adequate drainage is necessary for fields planted to small grains. Excessive

moisture in low areas creates and aggravates problems such as stand loss, loss of soil nutrients, reduced oxygen supply, and root diseases. Chiseling the soil before seedbed preparation increases drainage and root development.

Use pre-irrigation or first rain to germinate weed seeds and remove them by tilling before planting or by applying postemergent herbicides, land preparation.

Under dryland conditions, after the first autumn rainfall, primary fall tillage with a disk, chisel plow, or moldboard plow usually follows to eliminate germinating winter weed seedlings.

For fallow period, use synthetic herbicides containing glyphosate (Roundup), pyraflufen-ethyl (ET).

Preplant, use synthetic herbicides containing glyphosate (Roundup).

Post-plant, wheat, before weeds emerge, use synthetic herbicides containing pendimethalin (Prowl H2O).

Post-plant, wheat, after weeds emerge, use synthetic herbicides containing, if available and registered, tralkoxydim (Achieve), bromoxynil (Buctril), fenoxaprop (Puma), mesosulfuron-methyl (Osprey), carfentrazone (Shark), clopyralid (Stinger), chlorosulfuron (Glean), pyraflufen-ethyl (ET).

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

Legumes (Cowpea, Pigeon Pea, Soybean, Bean, Chickpea, Groundnut) Legume pod borer

(Mauruca vitrata) Use pod borer resistant cultivars of cowpea. Parasitoids of Maruca pod borers include wasps in the Braconid family and

tiny egg parasitic Trichogramma wasps. Predators include spiders and praying mantis.

Use trap crops of Crotalaria juncea (Sunn hemp, Indian hemp, Madras hemp).

Spray with neem extracts from flowering stage. Practice crop rotation. Planting non-leguminous crops every cropping season

breaks the life cycle of bean pod borers. Intercropping sorghum with cowpea reduces the incidence of pod borer. Eradicate the weed host wild pea (Sesbania spp.) from cropping areas.

Pesticides are most effective if applied before larvae enter pods.

Use botanical and homemade water extracts of neem.

Aphids (several species)

Many predators and parasites attack aphids, especially in fields that are not sprayed or sprayed with less toxic materials. Common predators of aphids in beans include lady beetles, syrphid flies, and green lacewings. These and parasitoids generally keep aphid populations under control.

Monitor the crop regularly. Use regular monitoring with yellow sticky traps. Use resistant varieties. Use sanitation. Remove infested culls and weedy species around fields that may harbor the

aphid between crops.

Aphid controls in beans are seldom necessary, but if it is desired use spot treatments of natural insecticides containing neem oil or synthetic insecticides containing malathion or carbaryl.

Use products with imidacloprid or acetamiprid.

Stem weevilsStriped bean weevil, Alcidodes species)

Natural predators include Tachinid fly lavae and ants. Keeping late-season plantings away from the sites of earlier plantings. Sanitation: Remove and destroy damaged plants and grubs in stem. Intercrop beans with other crops. Use crop rotation.

Can use synthetic insecticides containing dimethoate.

Bean leaf beetles (Diabrotica undecimpunctata; Acalymma trivittatum)

Do not plant beans near Cucurbits. Practice post harvest tillage to expose the grubs in the soil to the sun heat and

to predators. Rotate beans with non-host plants such as maize or sunflower to break the

development cycle of the pest. Delay sowing, where practicable, to allow the crop to escape from high

Can spray with natural insecticide containing neem oil/azadirachtin.

Can use synthetic insecticides containing malathion.

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

populations.

Cutworms (Agrotis species)

Monitor damage by counting damaged and freshly cut young plants. Monitor cutworm at dawn on field margins.

Sanitation: Destroy weeds in and around field. Remove and destroy cutworms. Prepare field and remove weeds well ahead (10-14 days) of planting the crop

in the field. Plowing exposes caterpillars to predators and to desiccation by the sun. If the field is planted soon after land preparation some cutworms may be alive and attack the new crop.

Can use synthetic insecticides containing carbaryl, but spray cutworm hotspots (areas with many cutworms), not the entire field.

Bean root rot (Fusarium solani subspecies)

Use tolerant varieties (no resistant varieties exist) Use long-term (3 years) rotation out of beans. Provide optimal growing conditions, avoiding stress caused by excess water,

prolonged drought and soil compaction Avoid over-fertilizing with nitrogen. Sanitation: Clean out and destroy all infested plants.

Use of synthetic fungicides is not generally recommended.

Bacterial stem wilt (Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens pv. flaccumfaciens)

Use resistant varieties and certified disease-free seed that is treated with a bactericide.

Inoculate soil with Rhizobium leguminosarum. Avoid over-head sprinkler irrigation. Use crop rotation. Destroy volunteer bean plants growing in other crop fields. Sanitation: Destroy crop residue after harvest.

Can use synthetic fungicides containing iprodione, vinclozolin, thiophannate-methyl or procymidone.

Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea)

Do regular monitoring for gray mold. Use sanitation: Clean up and destroy crop residues. Avoid over-head sprinkler irrigation.

Can use natural fungicides containing neem oil, Bacillus subitlis, or potassium bicarbonate.

Can use synthetic fungicides containing chlorothalonil.

Weeds Monitor and identify what principal weeds are present. Use pre-irrigation to germinate and destroy weeds.

Pre-plant, before weeds emerge, use synthetic herbicides containing metolachlor, pendimethalin, EPTC, ethalfluralin, trifluralin.

Pre-plant, after weeds emerge, use synthetic herbicides containing

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when neededglyphosate (Roundup).

Post-plant, after weeds emerge, use synthetic herbicides containing bentazon, sethoxydim, clethodim.

Pre-harvest, use synthetic herbicides containing carfentrazone.

Grains and Legumes Storage Granary Weevils

(Sitophilus species) Do routine monitoring. Ensure good pest identification; understand pest

biology, ecology, and behavior. Use good sanitation and good grain storage practices, as follows: All grain stored off the floor on palates, with space between palates, well

ventilated/aerated and lighted, dispose of old containers. In empty shipping containers, thoroughly sweep or brush down walls,

ceilings, ledges, braces, and handling equipment, and remove all spilled debris.

Brush, sweep out and/or vacuum the truck beds, augers, and loading buckets to remove insect-infested grain and debris.

Remove all debris from fans, exhausts, and aeration ducts (also from beneath slotted floors, when possible).

Remove all debris and vegetation growing within ten feet of the warehouses (preferably the whole storage area).

Examine area to determine if rodent bait stations are required, and use if needed. Be sure to follow all label directions.

Spray cleaned area around bins with a residual herbicide to remove all undesirable weedy plants.

Remove all debris from the storage site and dispose of it properly. Frequent rotation of the stocks, "FIFO" (First In - First Out) rule applies. Use sticky traps to monitor for presence and quantity.

If needed, can use powdered insecticides containing pirimiphos-methyl and permethrin (like Actellic), if they become available.

Lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica)

Use good sanitation and good grain storage practices (see above). If needed, can use synthetic pyrethroid insecticides containing lambda cyhalothrin (Demand CS) and pyrethrin (Prelude) (but do not use either near open water).

Grain moth larvae: Use good sanitation and good grain storage practices (see above). Use natural pesticide containing BT 79

Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

Indianmeal moth (Plodia interpunctella), Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella)

Temperature extremes will kill moths. Use pheromone traps for monitoring.

(Dipel, Javelin) or diatomaceous earth (Insecto).

Secondary pests (feed on grain dust, not whole grains): Saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis)

Use good sanitation and good grain storage practices (see above). If needed, can use powdered insecticides containing pirimiphos-methyl and permethrin (like Actellic), if they become available.

Rodents: Rats, Mice Use good sanitation and good grain storage practices (see above). Use sticky traps for capture and disposal by burying.

Use bait boxes with approved rodenticide cubes inside.

Aflatoxin contamination (Aspergillus species)

Use certified clean seed. Use hybrid varieties with resistance to Aspergillus. Plant early and avoid drought stress, if possible. Control insects that damage the husk, ear and kernals. Control fertilizer applications carefully and according to extension timing

recommendations so as to not over-apply or apply at the inopportune time. Harvest early and on time (the longer maize is left in the field, the higher the

aflatoxin content). Avoid or reduce kernel damage during harvest. Dry and store maize at less than 13% moisture. Keep storage facilities clean and cool, with proper ventilation. Screen incoming corn for infection (see mold colors), remove and destroy

(burry or burn) diseased ears.

Commercial biological treatments are available in Kenya, called Afla-Guard and AF36. If desired, try to get these available and try them.

Few synthetic fungicides provide economically efficient control of aflatoxin molds.

Root Crops (Cassava, Potato, Sweet Potato) Mealy bug

(Phenacoccus herreni, Phenacoccus manihoti)

Introduced wasps and predatory mites generally control most outbreaks of mealy bug.

May use synthetic insecitcides containing thiamethoxam (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) or

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when neededimidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder).

White flies (Bemisia tabaci, Trialeurodes vaporariorum)

Controlled in nature by hymenopteran parasitoids (Encarsia species), lady beetles and minute pirate bugs.

Yellow sticky traps may be used to reduce populations but cannot prevent the spread, once established.

Frequent crop monitoring.

Spray natural solution of local soap (2%) or horticultural oil if infestation is heavy.

At crop initiation, seed or soil application of a synthetic systemic nicotinoid insecticide (imidacloprid, acetamiprid).

Selective synthetic chemicals as: Azadirachtin (neem oil), Insect Growth Regulator Pyriproxyfen, abamectin, Beauveria bassiana.

Green Spider mite Do weekly monitoring and sampling. Several cultural methods, such as adjusting planting time for the crop to

escape severe damage at young age, mixing varieties to avoid genetic uniformity, and removing infested tips.

Use of predatory mites, if available.

Use of entomopatogenic fungi, insecticidal soap or horticultural oils can be used for management. Oils and soaps must contact mites to kill them so excellent coverage, especially on the undersides of leaves, is essential and repeat applications may be required.

Can use synthetic insecticides and miticides dontaining dimethoate, acetamiprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder), lambda cyhalothrin or deltamethrin.

Grasshopper (Zonocerus variegatus)

Naturally controlled by entomopathic nematodes. Have children handpick early in the morning when hoppers are less active, fry

with chili and garlic, and consume as a convenient and tasty protein source.

Scout for breeding sites to detect outbreaks

If it becomes available, spray with natural microbial insecticide Metharrizium when nymphs are seen on weeds or the crop.

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

Long horn beetle (Lagocheirus araneiformis)

Use of healthy uninfested planting material. Monitor the edges of fields weekly. Remove and burn affected plants.

No insecticides are economical or useful.

Thrips (Frankliniella williamsi, Corynotrips stenopterus)

Use tolerant or resistant varieties. Do regular monitoring with blue and yellow sticky traps. Use crop rotation. Keep production areas free of weeds, which can serve as hosts for thrips

populations.

Most insecticides must be applied at least two times, 5 to 7 days apart, for efficacy against flower thrips.

Rotate amoung the following insecticides: neem seed extract, acetamiprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder), imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder), insecticidal soap and spinosad.

Aphids (various species)

Many types of natural enemies and pathogens may control these aphids under low insecticide input situations. However, these aphids reproduce quickly and move into protected areas of the plants, thereby greatly reducing the potential impact of their predators and parasitoids in older stage plants.

Use resistant varieties. Use regular monitoring with yellow sticky traps. Field disking and destruction of crop residues are important for control of

aphid pests of leafy vegetables to reduce their migration into nearby crops.

If control is needed, treat when aphids are found to be reproducing, particularly when second and later generation wingless females have started reproduction. Aphid populations are easier to control before the plants begin to cup.

Insecticides containing systemic synthetic insecticides imidacloprid, acetamiprid or pymetrozine can be used.

Sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius)

Use short-cycle varieties and planting material from healthy plantations. Follow proper harvesting time. Sanitation: Remove and destroy all crop residues. Cultivating the field after harvest will kill weevils. Plant attractive barrier varieties as trap crops; once infested, plow under trap

crops. Do 2 rigdings per cycle, with the first after the first weed cleaning and second

75 days later.

Use of biological control Beauveria bassiana.

Rotate among synthetic insecticides containing acephate, dimethoate, imidacloprid (but only when plants are in vegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder), deltamethrin, acetamiprid (but only when plants are in

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when neededvegetative state, not when flowering due to risk to pollinators and honeybee colony collapse disorder) lambda cyhalothrin and permethrin.

Armyworm (Spodoptera eridania)

Do weed control around and in field. Sanitation: Remove and destroy all crop residues.

Use of a bait composed of bran, molasses and a synthetic insecide containing carbaryl.

Rotate among synthetic insecticides containing deltametrin, lambda-cyhalothrin or permethrin.

White rust (Albugo ipomoea)

Good soil preparation Select fields with heavier soils that are not especially subject to drought. Early

season irrigation may prevent infection of the fibrous roots, reduce disease incidence, and increase yields.

Prevent spread of the pathogen into new fields by using only certified disease-free storage roots to produce disease-free plants.

Do crop rotation.

Rotate among synthetic fungicides containing acibenzolar-s-methyl, fosetyl-aluminum, metalaxyl-M, tebuconazole, iprodione or propiconazole.

Potato early blight or Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria solani, Macrosporiumm solani)

Scouting and spot treatment. Blights can be minimized by maintaining optimum growing conditions,

including proper fertilization, irrigation, and management of other pests. Grow later maturing, longer season varieties. Maintain optimum growing conditions, including proper fertilization,

irrigation, and management of other pests.

Fungicide application is justified only when the disease is initiated early enough to cause economic loss.

When justified, apply fungicides as soon as symptoms appear; continued protection requires application at 7- to 10-day intervals.

Use synthetic fungicides containing azoxystrobin (Quadris), boscalid (Endura), chlorothalonil, famoxidone (Tanos), fenamidone (Reason), irpodione (Rovral), mancozeb, maneb, or pyraclostrobin (Headline).

Late blight or Downy mildew (Phytophthora infestans)

Use tolerant varieties and raised-bed production Drain the growing field adequately before planting Follow proper planting date; do not plant late Farmers use sticks and lines to raise tomato plants and fruit into the air to

Use synthetic fungicides containing azoxystrobin (Quadris), cymoxanil (Curzate), copper sulfate, famoxidone (Tanos), mancozeb, maneb,

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

aerate the plant and raise the leaves and fruit away from the soil chlorothalonil, dimethomorph (Acrobat), pyraclostrobin (Headline) and fenamidone (Reason).

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium species)

Use of certified disease-free propagation material. Use resistant cultivars against race 1. Need positive identification of Verticillium (to avoid confusion with Fusarium

wilt) Sanitation—clean equipment to prevent transfer of vectors and inoculum. Rotate to small grains and maize. Use green manure plants. Inoculate soil with Trichoderma species.

No synthetic fungicides are recommended (Many farmers tolerate some damage by Verticillium wilt).

Bacterial rots and blights (Xanthomonas campestris p.v. manihotis)

Pruning and cleaning Use of healthy material Good soil preparation Disinfect the cutting tools used to make propagation materials. Usage of resistant material Use of healthy plant material Rotation

For control, use copper hydroxide.

Weeds Hand or hoe weeding. Pre-emergence: use herbicide products containing pendimethalin.

Oil Crop (Sesame) Aphids (several

species) Many natural enemies and parasites control aphids. Eliminate ant colonies near field. Do not over-apply nitrogen fertilizers. Aluminum foil or gray mulches deter aphids.

Natural insecticides containing insecticidal soap, neem oil, and narrow-range oil (e.g., supreme or superior parafinic-type oil) provide temporary control.

Use synthetic insecticides containing malathion, permethrin.

Leaf-eating caterpillars/moth larvae (several species)

Eliminate nearby weeds. Use natural insecticide sprays containing BT, spinosad or neem oil.

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Primary Pests PERSUAP Recommended Preventive GAP/IPM tools/tactics to integrate PERSUAP Recommended Chemical Controls, when needed

Thrips (several species)

Use resistant cultivars. Use reflective mulches. Maintain good plant vigor with irrigation and fertilization. Floating row covers can exclude thrips and other pests. Sanitation: Remove and dispose of old, spent flowers.

No pesticide provides complete control of thrips.

Use natural narrow-range oil (Sunspray, Volck), azadirachtin/neem oil, pyrethrins, Beauveria bassiana and insecticidal soaps.

Downy mildew (Peronospora species)

Use resistant varieties. Provide good air circulation. Do crop rotation. Control weed hosts near field. Avoid wetting foliage, use drip irrigation if possible.

Use a seed treatment with azoxystrobin (Protégé).

Foliar fungicides are not economical and not generally used.

Powdery mildew (several species)

Use resistant varieties. Provide good air circulation.

Use natural controls containing oils, neem oil, Bacillus subtilis (Serenade), potassium bicarbonate (Kaligreen) and sulfur.

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Annex 2: Guidelines for PMPs for AGRA SSTP countries Crops and Beneficiaries

What is a PMP21?

Pest Management Plans or Guides provide field crop, livestock production or project decision-makers – farmers and farm managers – with best production practices recommendations, usually adapted by region, crop phenology and seasons. The aims of PMPs are to reduce the risks to production from pests by using a combination of best practices, including IPM, Integrated Vector Management (IVM) and Integrated Weed Management (IWM), that maximize crop or livestock health, and thus resilience to or tolerance of pests, and without an over-reliance on pesticides needed when best practices are not followed. Thus, prevention of pests plays a strongly pivotal role in the PMP, followed closely by management of pests when prevention alone is not adequate for the level of control needed or desired.

Who are the PMP’s intended audiences and users?

Farm land preparation and crop production decision-makers Farmers Farm managers

Why is a PMP being done?

PMP Objectives:

Prevent or reduce pest damage risk to agricultural production or health Protect the health of farmers, farm family members, laborers and community members from

pesticide risks Maintain economically sound practices Reduce environmental pollution and degradation risks Enhance the overall quality and quantity of biodiversity on the sustainable farm work

environment Respond to foreign market demand for the use of agriculture sector best management practice

standards, also called Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) which include IPM measures, to achieve farm and produce certification

Comply with local, regional, donor and international laws, conventions, and regulations

Organization of the PMP

The following pieces of crop- or livestock-specific background information are used to build a PMP base

General information on the crop/livestock/sector Crop/livestock common/species names: Crop/livestock developmental stages: Production regions and how they differ by soil type, pH, fertility, etc

21 PMPs or Year-Round (seasonal) IPM Programs are state of the art in many developed countries, and they help institutionalize IPM in planning and practice. PMPs provide agriculture managers and farmers with a tool to predict and prevent many crop pests of each crop throughout a season. See examples of PMPs at http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html, upper left corner under “Year-Round IPM Programs”.

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Overall concerns and priorities for crop/livestock production Crop/livestock cultural best practices Crop/livestock Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) including some IPM (see PERSUAP section

on GAPS and IPM) recommendations

Individual Pest Prevention and Management Sections for each of the following pest types:

Invertebrate (Insects, Mites, Slugs/Snails, Nematodes) Diseases (Fungi, Bacteria, Viruses, Other) Weeds (annual grasses, broadleaves, perennial grasses, broadleaves, sedges, others) Vertebrates (birds, rodents, other)

For each pest type, first, identify overall priorities for pest prevention and management in the target crop or livestock.

Next, identify individual pest species noting the type of damage incurred; part of plant damaged: roots/rhizomes/tubers, stems/stalks, leaves, florescence, or seeds (field or stored); or if livestock, part of animal affected.

To best understand how to manage a pest, one needs to understand how, where, when and on what parts of the plant or animal the pest feeds. For field pests and stored grain/food pests, many PMPs are designed and outlined as follows, for each major species of pest (insects, mites, slugs/snails, nematodes):

Photographs of each pest, life stages Photographs of plant or livestock damage Description of the pest, life cycle and survival strategies22: Description of damage symptoms Best Prevention Practices

o Use any and all of the above GAPs including IPM o Country or region-specific information

Best Management Practiceso Focus on prevention (above) o Country or region-specific information

Information on PMP-recommended pesticides:

Information needed for each pesticide referenced in the above PMP, by pest (so the farmer/farm manager has the information at their fingertips and do not need to refer to other documents and tables to find it):

Pesticide essential information needed

Active Ingredient (AI) name Product Trade names (with EPA and WHO Acute Toxicity Classifications in parenthesis) Amounts to use per hectare Price Pre-Harvest Interval (PHI)

22 Survival strategies: All pests have survival strategies that allow them to live and breed in each crop’s farming systems. Knowing the survival strategies, including overwintering habit and alternate host plants, that are employed by the pest can help with decision making at the farming systems-level (e.g. choice of rotation crops) and also can help to anticipate pest outbreaks.

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Special comments on best application methods and frequency Any resistance management strategies needed Pesticide application record sheet Guidelines for reducing spray drift Re-entry interval (REI): field safe re-entry period after spraying Maximum residue levels (MRL) permitted by markets Pesticide precautions with use including Reading the label Legal responsibilities and permitted registration uses Permit requirements for possession and use Recommended and obligated use of PPE and best practices First aid and antidotes Transportation best practices Storage best practices Safe use best practices Container disposal best practices Leftover pesticide disposal best practices Protection of non-pest animals, plants, endangered species and water body quality Protect natural enemies & honeybees: http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r584310111.html Posting signage in treated fields Some chemicals not permitted on processed crops Potential for phytotoxicity (crop injury) on some crops Documentation and record-keeping on farms

Information needed on Natural Enemies of Pests:

Common Names of Predators and Parasitoids effective against above pests: For a list of common natural enemies of crop pests, see http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/NE/index.html. Genera will likely be the same around the world, with different species in different continents, filling similar niches.

Additional Information Needed:

Will there be an IPM Coordinator, an IPM Advisory Committee, Education and Licensing for Applicators, Currency and Approval of the PMP?

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Annex 3: Elements of IPM Program

Although farmers are likely using numerous IPM23 tactics, without really calling them that, IPM philosophy or planning is not generally an active part of crop production in most emerging market countries; thus, a basic understanding of the steps or elements needed in an IPM program are addressed below.

Step 1: Learn and value farmers’ indigenous IPM tactics.Most farmers are already using their own forms of GAPs and IPM, many of which are novel, self-created, adapted for local conditions, and many of which work well. These local tools and tactics need to be well understood and taken into account when making PMPs. Accurate assessments of these farmers’ GAP and IPM technologies, as well as an understanding of actual losses due to different constraints in farmers’ fields are required before designing a crop production and pest management program. Standards and Certification (S&C) farmers will have records of historical pesticide use and trends, as well as information on current use of artisanal or local IPM tactics.

Step 2: Identify key pests for each target crop. Although perhaps up to ten species of pests may impact a crop and yields at different plant growth stages, generally only two or three are considered serious enough to spend money controlling. Farmers should be encouraged to monitor their population size, their life cycle, the kind of damage they cause and actual losses. Note that crop loss figures based on farmers’ perceptions of damage and loss are often overestimated.

Step 3: Evaluate all management options. Use of best management practices, preventive measures, and “organic” options to control pest impacts may eliminate the need for synthetic pesticides.

Step 4: Choose IPM methods; identify Needs, and Establish Priorities.Continue dialog with project field staff, ministry extension staff and farmers when choosing methods to be used. Consider the feasibility of attractive methods, including the availability of resources needed, farmers’ perceptions of pest problems, their abilities to identify pests, their predators, diseases and parasitoids, and to act upon their observations.

Step 5: Do effective activities and training to promote IPM.Next, identify strategies and mechanisms for fostering the transfer of the needed IPM technology under various project and institutional arrangements, mechanisms, and funding levels. Define what is available for immediate transfer and what may require more adaptation and validation research. Set up an initial planning workshop (with a COP-supported and signed Action Plan) to help define and orient implementation activities, and begin to assign individual responsibilities.

Learning-by-doing/discovery training programs

The adoption of new techniques by small-, medium- and large-holder farmers occurs most readily when program participants acquire knowledge and skills through personal experience, observation, analysis, experimentation, decision-making and practice. At first, frequent (usually weekly) sessions are conducted for 10–20 farmers during the cropping season in farmers’ fields by trained instructors or extension agents.

23http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad487e/ad487e00.htm ; http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad487e/ad487e02.htm; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmer_Field_School; http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html

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Smallholder support and discussion groups

Weekly meetings of smallholders, held during the cropping season, to discuss pest and related problems can be useful for sharing the success of various control methods. However, maintaining attendance is difficult except when there is a clear financial incentive (e.g., credit, advance knowledge of nearby infestations for early action leading to yield improvement).

Educational material

In many countries, basic written and photographic guides to pest identification and crop-specific management techniques are unavailable or out of date. Videos featuring graphic pictures of the effects of acute and chronic pesticide exposure, and interviews with poisoning victims can be particularly effective.

Youth education

Promoting and improving the quality of programs on IPM and the risks of synthetic pesticides has been effective at technical schools for rural youth. In addition to becoming future farmers, these students can bring informed views back to their communities.

Food market incentives (especially important in the last decade)

Promoting Organic, GlobalGAP, BRC, Fair Trade or other certification for access to the lucrative and rapidly growing S&C systems-driven international and regional food markets can be, and is, a strong incentive to adopt IPM.

Step 6: Partner successfully with other IPM implementers.The following design steps are considered essential.

Articulate the partnership’s vision of IPM

Organizations may forge partnerships based on a common commitment to “IPM” – only to discover too late that that their visions of IPM differ considerably. It is therefore highly important that partners articulate a common, detailed vision of IPM, centered on the crops and conditions the project will encounter.

Confirm partner institutions’ commitment

The extent of commitment to IPM integration into project, design, and thus implementation depends strongly upon the following key variables:

IPM program integration into larger project. The IPM program is likely to be part of a larger “sustainable agriculture” project. The IPM program must fit into a partner’s overall goals. The extent of this integration should be clearly expressed in the proposed annual work plan.

Cost sharing. The extent of funds (or in-kind resources) is a good measure of a genuine partner commitment.

Participation of key IPM personnel. Organizations should have staff with expertise in IPM. In strong partnerships, these staff members are actively involved in the partnership.

Step 7: Monitor the fields regularly.

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At minimum twice a week, farmers should monitor their fields for pests, as some pest populations increase rapidly and unexpectedly; this increase is usually related closely to the stage of crop growth and weather conditions, but it is difficult to predict the severity of pest problems in advance.

Step 8: Select an appropriate blend of IPM tools.A good IPM program draws from and integrates a variety of pest management techniques, like those presented in the above list. Flexibility to fit local needs is a key variable. Pesticides should be used only if no practical, effective, and economic non-chemical control methods are available. Once the pesticide has been carefully chosen for the pest, crop, and environment, it should be applied only to keep the pest population low, not necessarily eliminate it.

Step 9: Develop education, training, and demonstration programs for extension workers.Implementation of IPM depends heavily on education, training, and demonstration to help farmers and extension workers develop and evaluate the IPM methods. Hands-on training conducted in farmers’ fields (as opposed to a classroom) is a must. Special training for extension workers and educational programs for government officials and the public are also important.

Step 10: Monitoring, Record-Keeping and Evaluation (M&E).Develop data collection forms and checklists, collect baseline GAP/IPM data at the beginning of the project, and set targets.

For the use and maintenance of Good Agriculture Practices (that include safe pesticide storage, use and disposal), maintain farm or project files of: farmer and farm employee training records certification; farm soil, water, biodiversity, cropping and pesticide use maps; pesticide purchase and stock records; price increases or decreases, chemical application instructions including target pest, type of chemical applied, dosage, time of spray, rates at which pesticides were applied, harvest interval days, application machinery, PPE required and used, and any special instructions on mixing, exposure to children or dangers.

Further, for project staff, beneficiaries, produce processing facilities, food warehouses, seed multipliers, or farmers that store seed or food and deal with stored seed and food pests, there are warehouse BMPs and monitoring reports that incorporate some IPM tactics. These monitoring forms track, by location or warehouse, use of pallets, stacking, general hygiene and sanitation, damaged packages, actual infestations or signs of rodents, molds, insects, drainage, locks and security measures, use of IPM tactics including least toxic chemicals and strict BMPs, including restricted access, for use of common but hazardous fumigants like aluminum phosphide.

91

Annex 4: Botanical Active Ingredients in Pesticides, Repellents, and Baits Regulated by USEPA

This table, as well as the table in Annex 5, identifies many botanical pesticides that are useful for repelling or killing pests. These natural products are presented to emphasize the range of products possible for artisanal (homemade) use, and small-scale production, should the AGRA SSTP countries MOAs be encouraged to support and/or register their production and use for small-scale farmers. These are not presently requested for approval by this PERSUAP (and therefore are not approved for use in The SSTP project).

Name Other Names Use Toxicity EPA Tracking NumberAllium sativum Garlic Repels insects Low 128827Allyl isothiocyanate Oil of Mustard Kills & repels insects Questionable 004901Anise Oil Repels vertebrates Low 0043014-allyl anisole Estragole Kills beetles Low 062150Azadirachtin Azadirachta indica Neem tree

extractKills & repels insects Low, IV 121701

Bergamot Repels vertebrates 129029Canola Oil Brassica Napus B. Campestris Kills many insects Low 011332Capsaicin Capsicum frutescans Repels vertebrates Low, III 070701Castor Oil Repels vertebrates Low 031608Cedarwood Oil Repels moth larvae Low 040505Cinnamaldehyde Ceylon and Chinese cinnamon oils Kills insects, fungi & repels vertebrates* Low 040506Citronella Oil Repels insects & vertebrates Low 021901Cloves, Crushed Low 128895Dihydroazadirachtin Neem tree extract Azadirachta

indicaKills & repels insects III-IV 121702

Eucalyptus Oil Repels insects, mites fleas & mosquitoes Low 040503Eugenol Oil of cloves Kills insects** Low 102701Geraniol Oil of rose isomeric w/ linalool Repels vertebrates** Low 597501Geranium Oil Low 597500Indole from all plants Trap bait: corn rootworm beetles Low 25000-Jasmine Oil Low 040501Jojoba Oil Kills & repels whitefly kills powdery mildew Low 067200Lavandin Oil Repels clothes moth Low 040500Lemongrass Repels vertebrates Low 040502Linalool Oil of Ceylon isomeric w/geraniol Repels insects, ticks, mites & spiders Low 128838Maple lactone Roach trap bait Low 004049

92

Name Other Names Use Toxicity EPA Tracking NumberMethyl salicylate Oil of wintergreen Repels moths, beetle & vertebrates May be Toxic in

large quantity76601-

Mint Herb Kills aphids Low 128892Mint Oil Kills aphids Low 128800Mustard Oil Repels insects, spiders & vertebrates Low 004901Neem Oil Kills whitefly, aphids Low 0250061-Octen-3-ol From clover, alfalfa Trap bait: mosquitoes Low 69037-Orange Repels vertebrates Low 040517p-Methane-3,8 diol Eucalyptus sp. Repels biting flies, mosquitoes Low2-Phenylethyl-propionate

From peanuts Kills insects, ticks, mites & spiders Low 102601

Pyrethrum Chrysanthemum sp. Stored products use IIIRed pepper Chilli Repels insects Low 070703Rosemary Herb Low 128893Rotenone Derris sp., Tephrosia Controls ticks IIIRyania Ryania speciosa Kills thrips, codling moth, corn borersSabadilla Schoenocaulon sp. IIISesame Oil Sesamum indicum Pyrethroid synergist LowSoybean Oil Soja Kills insects, mites Low 031605Thyme Herb Controls aphids Low 1288941,2,4 Trimethoxy-benzene

From squash Trap bait: corn rootworm, cucumber beetles Low 40515-

Verbenone From pine trees Repels bark beetles Low 128986

* attracts corn rootworm beetles, ** attracts Japanese beetles. Not all plant extracts are listed. More detailed information available for most oils: http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm. Natural Source: Only one or a few sources are listed. Most of these chemicals are found in many different plants.

Since the time in the late 1990s when EPA did register biological ingredients listed above, it has since developed a list of botanical extracts (mostly essential oils) under “Minimum Risk Pesticides Exempted under FIFRA Section 25(b)24”. Some of the very same ingredients are in both lists. However, most US states and USAID consider botanical extracts and essential oils used to kill, destroy, mitigate, or repel pests to be analyzed and treated as pesticides. So, only those included in this PERSUAP would be available for use by SSTP.

24 http://www.epa.gov/oppbppd1/biopesticides/regtools/25b_list.htm 93

Annex 5: Natural Pesticides That Have Been Commercialized

Both the introductory and final notes above to Annex 4 also apply to this annex.

Insecticidesazadirachtin—component in neem oil botanical extractBacillus thuringiensis-BT microbialBeauveria basiana microbialcartap hydrochloride marine worm (Lumbriconereis heterodopa) extractchili pepper extract botanical (spice)emamectin benzoate botanical extractgarlic extract/allicin botanical extract (spice)harpin protein plant induced resistance elicitorkaolin clay inorganic minerald-limonene citrus extract (spice)Metarhizium anisopliae microbialnarrow range dormant oil paraffin oilneem oil botanical extractnuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) microbialPaecilomyces lilacinus microbialPaecilomyces fumosoroseus microbialpyrethrin botanical extract pyriproxyfen IGR (Juvenile Hormone mimic)ryania botanical extractsoap (insecticidal) fatty acidsspinosad microbial extractbuprofezin IGR (Chitin Synthesis inhibitor)

FungicidesBacillus subtilis microbialBordeaux mix inorganic (Bordeaux ingredients EPA registered)copper inorganiccopper hydroxide inorganiccopper oxychloride inorganiccopper sulfate inorganicharpin protein plant induced resistance elicitorsulfur inorganicTrichoderma species microbial

Nematocides Myrothecium verrucaria microbial tomatillo oil + thyme oil extracts (Promax25) botanical + spice extracts—soil biopesticide Molluscicideiron phosphate inorganic

25 http://www.bhn.name/humagro/biopesticides.html

94

Annex 6: Acute Toxicity of Pesticides: EPA and WHO Classifications

General Toxicity

Pesticides, by necessity, are poisons, but the toxicity and hazards of different compounds vary greatly. Toxicity refers to the inherent intoxicating ability of a compound whereas hazard refers to the risk or danger of poisoning when the pesticide is used or applied. Pesticide hazard depends not only on toxicity but also on the chance of exposure to toxic amounts of the pesticide. Pesticides can enter the body through oral ingestion, through the skin or through inhalation. Once inside the body, they may produce poisoning symptoms, which are either acute (from a single exposure) or chronic (from repeated exposures or absorption of smaller amounts of toxicant).

EPA and WHO Toxicity Classifications

Basically, there are two systems of pesticide toxicity classification. These are the USEPA and the WHO systems of classification. It is important to note that the WHO classification is based on the active ingredient only, whereas USEPA uses product formulations to determine the toxicity class of pesticides. So, WHO classification shows relative toxicities of all pesticide active (or technical) ingredients, whereas EPA classification shows actual toxicity of the formulated products, which can be more or less toxic than the active ingredient alone and are more representative of actual dangers encountered in the field. The tables below show classification of pesticides according to the two systems.

a) USEPA classification (based on formulated product = active ingredient plus inert and other ingredients)

Class Descriptive term

Mammalian LD50

Mammalian

Inhalation

LC50

Irritation Aquatic invert/fish (LC50

or EC50)2

Honey bee acute oral (LD50)

Oral Dermal

Eye1 Skin

I Extremely toxic

50 200 0.2 Corrosive

Corrosive

< 0.1

II Highly toxic

50-500

200-2000

0.2-2.0 Severe Severe 0.11-1.0

< 2 µg/bee

III Moderately toxic

500-5000

2000-20000

2.0-20 No corneal opacity

Moderate

1.1-10.0

2.1-11 µg/bee

IV Slightly toxic

5000

20000

20 None Moderate or slight

10.1-100

95

Relatively non-toxic

101-1000

Practically non-toxic

1001-10,000

> 11 µg/bee

Non-toxic > 10,000

1 Corneal opacity not reversible within 7 days for Class I pesticides; corneal opacity reversible within 7 days but irritation persists during that period for Class II pesticides; no corneal opacity and irritation is reversible within 7 days for Class III pesticides; and Class IV pesticides cause no irritation2 Expressed in ppm or mg/l of water

b) WHO classification (based only on active or ‘technical’ ingredient)

Class Descriptive term

Oral LD50 for the rat (mg/kg body wt)

Dermal LD50 for the rat (mg/kg body wt)

Solids Liquids Solids Liquids

Ia Extremely hazardous 5 20 10 40

Ib Highly hazardous 5-50 20-200 10-100 40-400

II Moderately hazardous 50-500 20-2000 100-1000 400-4000

III Slightly hazardous 501 2001 1001 4001

U Unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use 2000 3000 - -

96

Annex 7: PERSUAP Analyses of Active Ingredients in Pesticides Available in AGRA SSTP countries

Introduction to Annex 7

Annex 7 below compiles all of the AIs in pesticides for which BEO approval is being requested and available for use in AGRA SSTP countries and proposed for imminent registration. Project decision-makers—especially those who interface at the field level with beneficiary farmers—are encouraged to look at the label of potential pesticide choices to determine the AIs contained in them and then use this Annex as a quick reference guide to attributes and issues with each chemical.

The pesticide attributes include pesticide class (to manage resistance by rotating chemicals from different classes), EPA registration and Restricted Use Pesticide (RUP) status (to comply with Regulation 216) and acute toxicity (judged by this document to be safe, or not, for smallholder farmers—most Class I chemicals are not considered safe for smallholder farmers to use). Annex 7 also presents chronic health issues, water pollution potential, and potential toxicities to important non-target organisms like fish, honeybee pollinators, birds and several aquatic organisms.

Further, Annex 7 contains basic pieces of human safety and environmental data needed for the various analyses required throughout the PER; ergo it is referred to throughout this document. Thus, this PERSUAP provides useful tools for evaluating and choosing among IPM options, including natural and synthetic pesticides, while adhering to 22 CFR 216.

See Annex 7 Matrix, below.

Key to matrix:

Red shading: Do not promote products containing AIs shaded in red strikethrough color on USAID-supported farms or wood processing

Green shading: Can be promoted on USAID-supported farms

Yellow shading color: Some products accepted; some products rejected

RUP: Few = one or two products; Some = a third of products; Most/All = most or all products

WHO Acute Toxicity Classes: O = Obsolete; Ia = Extremely Hazardous; Ib = Highly Hazardous; II = Moderately Hazardous; III = Slightly Hazardous; U = Unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use

EPA Acute Toxicity Classes: I = Extremely Toxic; II = Highly Toxic; III = Moderately Toxic; IV = Slightly Toxic

Chronic Human Toxicity: KC = Known Carcinogen; PC = Possible Carcinogen; LC = Likely Carcinogen; ED = Potential Endocrine Disruptor; RD = Potential Reproductive & Development Toxin; P = Risk of Parkinson’s

Ecotoxicity: NAT = Not Acutely Toxic; PNT = Practically Not Toxic; ST = Slightly Toxic; MT = Moderately Toxic; HT = Highly Toxic; VHT = Very Highly Toxic

References used to find pieces of data contained in Annex 7: See references at the end of the report.

97

2014 INSAH Homologized InsecticidesEcotoxicity

Active Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

abamectin/avermectin microbial extract yes some NL II, III ED, RD no data ST HT PNT MT HT VHT VHT

acetamiprid neonicotinoid yes no NL III NL potential NAT MT HT NAT

allethrin synthetic pyrethroid no no III III ED no data VHT MT ST HT VHT HT

alpha-cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes all II II, III PC no data HT HT PNT MT VHT VHT VHT

aluminum phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MTazadirachtin/neem seed extract botanical yes no NL III ED no data ST NAT NAT MT MT

Bacillus sphaericus microbial yes no U III NL no data

Bacillus thuringiensis/BT microbial yes no III III NL no data MT PNT NAT NAT ST ST

bendiocarb/benthiocarb carbamate no some II II, III RD no data MT HT HT MT HT VHT

bifenthrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III PC, ED, RD no data VHT HT MT HT

cartap hydrochloride nereistoxin no no II II NL no data MT MTchlorpyrifos (ethyl) organophosphate no some II II, III ED no data HT HT HT MT PNT MT VHT HT MT

cyantraniliprole anthranilic diamide no U IV NL no data MT MT NAT MT HT

cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid no some NL II, III PC, ED, RD no data HT HT PNT MT VHT VHT VHT

deltamethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes cotton II I, II, III ED no data HT MT VHT NAT VHT VHT

diflubenzuron insect growth regulator yes some U III ED no data ST NAT PNT NAT NAT NAT ST MT

emamectin benzoate botanical no some NL I, II, III NL potential HT MT HT HT HTfenitrothion organophosphate no no II II, III ED no data MT HT MT MT MT MT VHT HT MT

fenothrin/phenothrin synthetic pyrethroid yes no U III ED no data VHT ST HT VHT VHT

flubendiamide benzen dicarboxamide yes no NL III NL no data HT NAT MT MT HT

fludioxonil/fludioxonyl phenylpyrrole yes no U III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

imidacloprid neonicotinoid yes no II II, III NL potential NAT MT VHT

Indoxacarb, S-isomer oxadiazine yes no O III NL no data MT HT HT NAT MT

lambda cyhalothrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III ED no data VHT HT PNT VHT VHT VHT VHT

lufenuron benzoyl urea yes no NL III NL no data MT ST MT MT HT ST

98

malathion organophosphate yes no III II PC, ED potential MT HT MT HT ST VHT MT VHT HTMetarhizium flavoviride anisoplae microbial yes no NL III NL no data NAT NAT NAT

novaluron insect growth regulator yes no NL II, III NL no data MT MT MT MT HTpermethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes no II III PC, ED no data VHT VHT PNT ST ST ST VHT MT MT

pyrimiphos methyl organophosphate yes no II, III I, II, III NL no data MT HT MT MT VHT VHT

profenofos organophosphate yes all II III NL potential HT VHT VHT VHT

spinetoram unclassified yes no NL III NL no data MT NAT MT MT

spinosad microbial yes no U III NL no data MT HT PNT ST HT MT

spirotetramat keto-enol yes no NL II, III NL no data MT MT MT MT

Tagetes oil botanical yes no NL no datateflubenzuron insect growth regulator no no U IV NL no data ST MT ST ST HT HT HT HT HT

tetramethrin pyrethroid yes no U III PC, ED no data VHT HT NAT HT MT

thiamethoxam neonicotinoid yes few NL III PC no data PNT HT PNT PNT PNT PNT PNT

thyme oil botanical yes no III NL no data ST

zeta cypermethrin pyrethroid yes some Ib II, III PC, ED no data VHT VHT NAT NAT VHT VHT VHT

2014 INSAH Homologized Rodenticide

brodifacoum (brodifacouma) coumarin yes no Ia III none no data MT MT

2014 INSAH Homologized FungicidesEcotoxicity

Active Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

azoxystrobin strobin yes no U III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT VHT

copper sulfate (pentahydrate) inorganic yes no II I, II, III

iprodione dicarboximide yes no U III LC, ED potential MT NAT ST HT

mancozeb dithiocarbamate yes no U III PC, ED, RD no data MT MT ST HT NAT

metalaxyl-M (mefenoxam) phenylamide yes no II II, III NL potential MT NAT MT MT MT

myclobutanil azole yes no III III ED, RD no data MT ST MT MT MT HT

99

pencycuron urea no no U IV NL no data HT MT MT MT MT

thiram/TMTD (diothio) carbamate yes no III III ED, RD no data HT NATPNT VHT HT

NAT HT HT

2014 INSAH Homologized HerbicidesEcotoxicity

Active Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

2 4 D chlorophenoxy acid yes no II III PC, ED potential ST HT MT ST NAT NAT NAT ST ST

2 4 D amine chlorophenoxy acid yes no NL NL PC no data

acetochlor chloroacetanilide yes all III II, IIII PC, ED potential MT MT ST MT MT

aclonifen diphenyl ether no no U NL NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

bensulfuron sulfonyl urea yes no U II, III NL no data NAT MT ST MT ST NAT

bensulfuron methyl sulfonyl urea yes no U II, III NL potential NAT MT ST MT ST NAT

clethodim cyclohexenone yes no NL II, III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

clomazone isoxazolidinone yes no II II, III NL potential MT MT NAT MT MT HT

cycloxydim cyclohexanone no no U NL NL no data NAT MT MT MT MT

diuron urea yes no U III LC, ED, RD known ST ST ST ST MT ST

fluazifop-P-butyl propionic acid yes no III III NL no data MT ST PNT ST

fluometuron urea yes no U III PC potential ST ST MT

glyphosate phosphonoglycine yes no U I, II, III NL potential ST ST NAT PNT MT ST

haloxyfop-R-methyl a propionic acid no no NL NL LC no data HT MT MT MT

100

hexazinone triazinone yes no III I, III NL known NAT MT NAT NAT ST ST

isoxaflutole isoxazole yes most NL III LC no data ST MT ST MT MT MT

mesotrione unclassified yes no NL II, IIII NL no data NAT MT MT MT NAT

metolachlor chloroacetamide yes no III III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

nicosulfuron sulfonylurea yes no U II, III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

orthosulfamuron pyrimadinylsulfonylurea yes no NL III PC potential NAT NAT MT MT

oxadiargyl unclassified no no NL NL NL no data MT NAT MT MT NAT

oxadiazon oxidiazole yes no U II, III PC, RD no data MT MT ST MT MT ST HT

pendimethalin dinitroanaline yes no III III PC, ED no data MT NAT ST MT MT

penoxysulam/penoxsulam triazolopyrimidine yes no U III PC potential MT MT MT NAT NAT

pretilachlor chloroacetanilide no no U NL NL no data MT MT ST MT

prometryn triazine yes no U III ED, RD potential MT NAT PNT ST NAT NAT ST ST

propanil anilide yes no III II, III PC potential MT NAT MT ST NAT ST ST ST

propaquizafop a propionic acid no no U NL NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

pyribenzoxim(e) unclassified no no NL NL NL no data MT MT

s-metolachlor chloroacetanilide no no NL III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

terbuthylazine triazine yes no U III NL no data MT MT MT MT MT HT

terbutryn(e) triazine no no U II, III PC potential MT NAT NAT MT MT

thiobencarb(e)/benthiocarb thiocarbamate yes no II III NL potential MT ST NAT MT MT MT MT HT

triclopyr chloropyridinyl yes no III I, II, III NL no data MT NAT ST

trifloxysulfuron sodium sulfonylurea yes no NL III NL potential NAT MT MT MT NAT

2014 Ghana Registered Insecticides

EcotoxicityActive Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

abamectin/avermectin microbial extract yes some NL II, III ED, RD no data ST HT PNT MT HT VHT VHT

acephate organophosphate yes no III II, III PC, ED potential MT HT MT ST ST ST

acetamiprid neonicotinoid yes no NL III NL potential NAT MT HT NAT

allethrin/bio-allethrin synthetic pyrethroid no no III III ED no data VHT MT ST HT VHT HT 101

alpha-cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes all II II, III PC no data HT HT PNT MT VHT VHT VHT

aluminum phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MT

Bacillus sphaericus microbial yes no U III NL no data

Bacillus thuringiensis/BT microbial yes no III III NL no data MT PNT NAT NAT ST ST

bifenthrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III PC, ED, RD no data VHT HT MT HT

cadusafos organophosphate no no Ib NL NL no data HT HT HT HT HT HT

carbofuran carbamate yes most Ib I, II ED potential MT HT HT ST MT MT HT HT VHT

carbosulfan carbamate no no II II NL no data HT HT HT HT HT

chlorpyrifos (ethyl) organophosphate no some II II, III ED no data HT HT HT MT PNT MT VHT HT MT

cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid no some NL II, III PC, ED, RD no data HT HT PNT MT VHT VHT VHT

diazinon organophosphate yes some II II, III ED, RD potential MT HT VHT MT MT MT HT HT HT

dimethoate organophosphate yes no II II PC, ED, RD potential ST VHT VHT HT MT VHT HT VHT MT

emamectin benzoate botanical no some NL I, II, III NL potential HT MT HT HT HT

fenitrothion organophosphate no no II II, III ED no data MT HT MT MT MT MT VHT HT MT

fenvalerate synthetic pyrethroid no no II III ED no data VHT HT ST HT VHT HT HT HT VHT

fipronil pyrazole yes some II II, III PC, ED potential HT HT HT HT HT

imidacloprid neonicotinoid yes no II II, III NL potential NAT MT VHT

lambda cyhalothrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III ED no data VHT HT PNT VHT VHT VHT VHT

magnesium phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data MT HT MT

malathion organophosphate yes no III II PC, ED potential MT HT MT HT ST VHT MT VHT HT

Metarhizium anisopliae microbial yes no NL III NL no data NAT NAT NAT

novaluron insect growth regulator yes no NL II, III NL no data MT MT MT MT HT

oxamyl carbamate yes some Ib I NL no data ST HT VHT HT ST MT

permethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes no II III PC, ED no data VHT VHT PNT ST ST ST VHT MT MT

pyrimiphos methyl organophosphate yes no II, III I, II, III NL no data MT HT MT MT VHT VHT

profenofos organophosphate yes all II III NL potential HT VHT VHT VHT

pyrethrum botanical yes no II III PC no data HT HT ST MT HT

sulfur/sulphur Inorganic yes no U III NL no data NAT NAT NAT NAT NAT

temephos organophosphate yes no U II, III NL no data ST MT MT NAT HT VHT HT

tetramethrin pyrethroid yes no U III PC, ED no data VHT HT NAT HT MT

thiamethoxam neonicotinoid yes few NL III PC no data PNT HT PNT PNT PNT PNT PNT

thiocyclam hydrogen oxalate nereistoxin no no II NL NL no data HT MT HT HT HT

2014 Ghana Registered Fungicides 102

EcotoxicityActive Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

azoxystrobin strobin yes no U III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT VHT

captan thiopthalamide yes no NL I, II, III KC (hi dose) no data HTNAT

PNT MT MT

NAT MT MT

carbendazim benzimidazole yes no U III PC, ED no data MTNAT ST ST ST HT

copper-fixed or tribasic inorganic yes no NL I, II, III NL no data MT HTPNT HT HT VHT ST ST

copper (cupric) oxide (CuO) inorganic yes no NL I, II, III NL no dataNAT ST ST

copper (cupric) hydroxide inorganic yes no II I, II, III NL no data HT MT MT MT HTNAT HT HT

cuprous oxide (Cu2O) inorganic yes no II II, III NL no data HT HT HT VHT

dichlofluanid sulphamide no no U NL NL no data HT MTNAT MT MT MT VHT

difenoconazole azole yes no III III PC, ED no data MT MT ST MT MT HT

fenpropimorph morpholine no III I NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

folpet thiophthalimide yes no U II, III LC no data HTPNT ST HT MT ST HT MT

fosetyl aluminum unclassified yes no NL II, III NL potentialNAT ST ST MT

NAT MT

mancozeb dithiocarbamate yes no U III PC, ED, RD no data MT MT ST HT NAT

maneb carbamate yes no U III PC, ED, RD no data MTNAT

PNT ST ST HT

metalaxyl benzanoid yes no III II, III NLpotential ST

PNT

PNT ST

propiconazole azole yes no II II, III PC, RD potential MT MT ST MT MT

sulfur (sulphur, hydrogen sulfide) inorganic yes no U III NL no dataNAT

NAT

NAT NAT NAT

thiophanate methyl benzamidazole yes no U III PC, RD potential MTPNT NAT ST

triadimenol triazole yes no III II, III PC, ED no data MT ST MT MT

Trichoderma asperellum microbial yes no NL III NL no data

103

2014 Ghana Registered Herbicides & PGRsEcotoxicity

Active Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

2 4 D amine chlorophenoxy acid yes no NL NL PC no data

2 4 D amine salt chlorophenoxy acid yes no NL NL PC no data

2 4 D isobutylate chlorophenoxy acid no no NL IV NL potential MT VHT HT ST ST

bensulfuron methyl sulfonyl urea yes no U II, III NL potentialNAT MT ST MT ST NAT

bentazon benzothiazinone yes no III III NL no dataNAT MT MT MT ST MT

bispyribac-sodium unclassified yes no U III NL potential MT ST NAT MT MT

bromacil uracil yes no U II, III, IV PC, ED knownNAT MT NAT ST ST

butachlor chloroacetanilid no no U III PC no data HT MT NAT MT MT MT HT MT

cycloxydim cyclohexanone no no U NL NL no dataNAT MT MT MT MT

diuron urea yes no U III LC, ED, RD known ST ST ST ST MT ST

ethephon organophosphate PGR yes no U I, III NL no dataNAT ST MT NAT NAT NAT

fluazifop-P-butyl propionic acid yes no III III NL no data MT ST PNT ST

gibberellic acid botanical PGR yes no U II, III NL no dataNAT

glyphosate phosphonoglycine yes no U I, II, III NL potential ST ST NAT PNT MT ST

haloxyfop a propionic acid no no II NL NL no data ST ST MT

imazapyr/imazapir imidazolinone yes no U III NL no data ST MT ST MT NAT

mesotrione unclassified yes no NL II, IIII NL no dataNAT MT MT MT NAT

metolachlor chloroacetamide yes no III III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

nicosulfuron sulfonylurea yes no U II, III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

oxyfluorfen diphenyl ether yes no U II, III PC no data HT PNT PNT HT HT HT

paraquat (dichloride) bipyridylium yes most II I P potential ST NAT MT ST ST ST NAT ST

pendimethalin dinitroanaline yes no III III PC, ED no data MT NAT ST MT MT

propanil analide yes no III II, III PC potential MT NAT MT ST NAT ST ST ST

104

propaquizafop a propionic acid no no U NL NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

terbuthylazine triazine yes no U III NL no data MT MT MT MT MT HT

triclopyr chloropyridinyl yes no III I, II, III NL no data MT NAT ST

105

2014 AGRA Ethiopia Insecticides, Fumigant, Seed DressingEcotoxicity

Active Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

aluminum phosphide inorganic fumigant yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MT

carbofuran (seed dressing) carbamate yes all Ib I, II EDpotential MT HT HT ST MT MT HT HT VHT

imidacloprid neonicotinoid yes no II II, III NLpotential NAT MT VHT

lambda cyhalothrin synthetic pyrethroid yessome II II, III ED no data VHT HT PNT VHT VHT VHT VHT

pyrimiphos methyl organophosphate yes no II, III I, II, III NL no data MT HT MT MT VHT VHT

2014 AGRA Ethiopia Fungicides and Seed DressingsEcotoxicity

Active Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

difenoconazole azole yes no III III PC, ED no data MT MT ST MT MT HT

epoxiconazole triazole no no NL NL PC, ED no data MT MT MT MT

metalaxyl-M (seed dressing) phenylamide yes no II II, III NLpotential MT

NAT MT MT MT

propiconazole azole yes no II II, III PC, RDpotential MT MT ST MT MT

tebuconazole azole yes no III II, III PC, EDpotential MT MT MT MT MT MT HT

thiophanate methyl benzamidazole yes no U III PC, RDpotential MT

PNT NAT ST

thiram (seed dressing) (diothio) carbamate yes no III III ED, RD no data HTNAT

PNT VHT HT

NAT HT HT

106

107

2014 AGRA Ethiopia SSTP HerbicidesEcotoxicity

Active Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

2 4 D chlorophenoxy acid yes no II III PC, EDpotential ST HT MT ST NAT NAT

NAT ST ST

atrazine triazine yesmost U III PC, ED known ST

NAT

PNT ST ST ST ST ST ST

clodinafop-propargyl a propionic acid yes no III II, III NL no data HT MT MT

florasulam triazolopyrimidine yes no U NL NL no data MT MT MT NATNAT

flumetralin 2,6-dinotroaniline (PGR) yes no U II, III NL no dataVHT MT MT HT

VHT

glyphosate phosphonoglycine yes no U I, II, III NLpotential ST ST

NAT PNT MT ST

pendimethalin dinitroanaline yes no III III PC, ED no data MTNAT ST MT MT

pyroxsulam triazolopyrimidine yes few NL II, III NL no data MT MT MT NAT MT

s-metolachlor chloroacetanilide yes no NL III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

108

2014 Tanzania SSTP Requested Pesticide AIsEcotoxicity

Active Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

Fumigant

aluminum phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MT MT

Tanzania SSTP Insecticides

abamectin microbial extract yes some NL II, III ED, RD no data ST HTPNT MT HT

VHT

VHT

alpha cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes all II II, III PC no data HT HTPNT MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

aluminum phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MT MT

bifenthrin synthetic pyrethroid yes half II II, III PC, ED, RD no dataVHT HT MT HT

carbosulfan carbamate no no II II NL no data HT HT HT HT HT

chlorpyrifos organophosphateno agr all II II, III ED no data HT HT HT MT

PNT MT

VHT HT MT

cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroidno agr all NL II, III PC, ED, RD no data HT HT

PNT MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

deltamethrin synthetic pyrethroid yescotton II I, II, III ED no data MT HT ST HT MT

NAT

VHT

VHT

VHT

endosulfan organochlorine no most II I, II ED no dataVHT MT MT MT MT MT HT HT HT

fenitrothion organophosphate yes no II II, III ED no data MT HT HT MT MT MTVHT HT MT

imidacloprid neonicotinoid yes no II II, III NL potentialNAT HT MT

NAT HT MT

VHT ST

lambda cyhalothrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III ED no dataVHT HT ST MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

permethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes no II III PC, ED no data MT MTPNT MT ST ST

VHT HT MT

prothiofos organothiophosphate no no II III NL no data MT MT ST HT HT

pyrimiphos methyl organophosphate yes no II, III I, III NL no data MT HT MT MT MT HTVHT

VHT

spinosad microbial extracts yes no U III NL no data ST HT MT MT MT HT MT

thiamethoxam neonicotinoid yes no NL III PC potentialPNT HT MT MT

Tanzania SSTP Miticides/Acaricides 109

alpha cypermethin synthetic pyrethroid yes all II II, III PC no data HT HTPNT MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

abamectin microbial extract yes some NL II, III ED, RD no data ST HTPNT MT HT

VHT

VHT

chlorpyrifos organophosphateno agr half II II, III ED no data HT HT HT MT

PNT MT

VHT HT MT

cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroidno agr most NL II, III PC, ED, RD no data HT HT

PNT MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

fenpyroximate pyrazole yes no NL II NL no data HT MT MT MT HT

110

EcotoxicityActive Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

Tanzania SSTP Rodenticides

aluminum phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MT MT

brodifacoum coumarin yes no Ia III NL no data MT HT MT MT

bromadiolone coumarin yes no Ia III NL no data MT MT HT MT

coumatetralyl coumarin no Ib NL NL no data MT MT

diphacinone indandione yes no Ia II, III NL no dataNAT ST ST

flocoumafen coumarin no Ia NL NL no data HT MT MT

zinc phosphide inorganic yes few Ib I, II, III RD no data MT HT MT ST

Tanzania SSTP Fungicides

azoxystrobin strobin yes no U III NL potential MT MT MT MT MTVHT

carbendazim benzimidazoleno agr no U III PC, ED no data MT ST ST ST HT ST MT

chlorothalonil chloronitrile yes no U I, II, III KC potentialVHT

NAT MT HT MT ST

VHT MT

VHT

copper/cupric hydroxide inorganic yes no III I, II, III NL no data HT MT MT MT HTNAT HT

copper (cuprous) oxide inorganic yes no II I, II, III NL no data HT HT HTVHT

copper oxychloride inorganic yes no NL I, II, III NL no data MT MT MT MTVHT

copper sulfate pentahydrate inorganic yes no II I, II, III NL no data MT HT MT MT

cymoxanil unclassified yes no III II, III NL no data MT MT ST MT MT MT ST

difenoconazole azole yes no III III PC, ED no data ST MT ST MT MT MT HT

epoxiconazole triazole no no NL NL PC, ED no data MT MT MT MT

hexaconazole azole no no U IV PC no data MT HTNAT MT MT

NAT

mancozeb dithiocarbamate yes no U III PC, ED, RD no data MT MT ST HTNAT

metalaxyl benzanoid yes no III II, III NL potential ST ST MT MT MT STprocymidone unclassified no no U NL PC, ED no data MT NA NA MT MT ST MT

111

T T

propineb dithiocarbamate Zn no no U NL RD no data MTPNT

PNT MT MT MT MT

pyrimethanil anilinopyrimidine yes no U II, III PC, ED no data MTPNT MT MT MT MT

sulfur inorganic yes no U III NL no dataNAT

NAT

NAT

NAT

NAT

tebuconazole azole yes no III II, III PC, ED potential MT MT MT MT MT MT HT

thiophanate-methyl benzamidazole yes no U II, III PC, RD potential ST ST MTNAT

NAT MT ST

triadimefon triazole yes no III II, III PC, ED, RD potential MT MTPNT MT

NAT

triadimenol triazole yes no III II, III PC, ED no data MT ST MT MT

trifloxystrobin strobin yes no NL III NL no data ST ST MT MT

112

EcotoxicityActive Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

Tanzania SSTP Herbicides2 4 D amine chlorophenoxy acid yes no NL NL PC no data ST HT MT ST NAT NAT NAT ST ST

2,4-D dimethyl amine chlorophenoxy acid yes no II I, II PC potential MT MT MT MT MT

acetochlor chloroacetanilide yes all III II, IIII PC, ED potential MT MT ST MT MT

alachlor chloroacetanilide yes all III I, II, III KC, ED, RD known MT MT MT MT MT ST STatrazine triazine yes most U III KC, ED known ST MT NAT ST ST ST ST ST ST

bentazone, sodium salt benzothiazinone yes no III III NL known NAT ST MT MT ST MT ST NAT

bromoxynil octa/heptanoate hydroxybenzonitrile yes no II II, III PC, RD no data ST MT MT MT MT VHT

butralin dinitroaniline yes no III I, III NL no data HT MT NAT MT MT VHT

clomazone isoxazolidinone yes no II II, III NL potential MT MT NAT MT MT HT

cyhalofop-butyl phenoxypropionate yes no U II, III NL no data MT MT NAT MT MT

ethoxysulfuron sulfonylurea no no NL NL NL no data MT ST MT MT

fenoxaprop-ethyl pheonoxypropionate no no O III RD no data MT NAT NAT MT MT HT

flumetralin 2,6-dinotroaniline yes no U II, III NL no data VHT MT MT HT VHT

foramsulfuron sulfonylurea yes no NL III NL potential MT ST MT MT MT

glyphosate phosphonoglycine yes no U I, II, III NL potential ST ST NAT PNT MT SThalosulfuron methyl pyrazole yes no U II, III NL potential ST MT NAT MT NAT MT NAT

haloxyfop-R-methyl a propionic acid no no NL NL KC no data HT MT MT MT

imazapyr imidazolinone yes no U III NL no data ST MT ST MT NATmaleic hydrazide pyridazine (PGR) yes no U II, IIII NL no data NAT ST NAT MT NATMCPA chlorophenoxy acid yes no III II, IIII PC no data ST ST NAT ST MT ST NAT NAT ST

mesotrione unclassified yes no NL II, IIII NL no data NAT MT MT MT NAT

metolachlor chloroacetamide yes no III III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

metribuzin triazinone yes no II II, III ED, RD potential MT NAT MT MT ST ST

nicosulfuron sulfonylurea yes no U II, III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

oxadiazon oxidiazole yes no U II, III KC, RD no data MT MT NAT MT MT ST HT

113

oxyfluorfen diphehyl ether yes no U II, III PC no data HT PNT PNT HT HT HTparaquat bipyridylium yes most II I ED, P potential ST NAT HT ST MT ST ST ST ST

pendimethalin dinitroanaline yes no III III PC, ED no data MT NAT MT MT MT MT MT

penoxsulam triazolopyrimidine yes no U II, III PC potential MT ST NAT MT MT NAT NAT

propanil analide yes no III II, III PC potential MT NAT MT ST NAT ST ST ST

pyrazosulfuron-ethyl sulfonylurea no no U NL NL no data NAT MT NAT NAT

s-metolachlor chloroacetanilide yes no III III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

terbuthylazine triazine yes no U III NL no data MT MT MT MT MT HT

thiobencarb thiocarbamate yes no II III NL potential MT ST NAT MT MT MT MT HT

triclopyr chloropyridinyl yes no III I, III NL no data ST MT MT NAT MT NAT ST NATMalawi Registered Pesticides AI Analysis

EcotoxicityActive Ingredients Class

EPA

Registered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity C

lass

EPA A

cute Toxicity C

lasses

Chronic

Toxicity

Groundw

ater contam

inant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

Malawi Insecticides

abamectin/avermectin microbial extract yes some NL II, III RD no data ST HTPNT HT

VHT

VHT

acephate organophosphate yes no III III PC potential MT HT MT ST ST ST

acetamiprid neonicotinoid yes no NL III NL no dataNAT MT HT

NAT

aldicarb carbamate yes all Ia I ED known MT HT HT MT MT

alpha-cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid no no II II, III PC no dataVHT HT

PNT MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

aluminum phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MT

beta cyfluthrin synthetic pyrethroid yes few II II, III ED no dataVHT HT

PNT ST

VHT

VHT

carbaryl carbamate yes no II III PC, ED potential MT HTPNT MT

VHT ST HT HT MT

carbosulfan carbamate no no II II NL no data HT HT HT HT HT

chlorpyrifos organophosphate yes all hort II II, III ED no data HT HT HT MTPNT MT

VHT HT MT

cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes all hort NL II, III PC, ED, RD no data HT HTPNT MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

dazomet unclassified yes no III III NL potential STPNT ST MT HT HT

deltamethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes cotton II II, III NL no data HT MTVHT

NAT

VHT

VHT

dichlorvos/DDVP organophosphate no hort no Ib I, II, III PC, ED no data MT HT HT HT

diethyl phenyl acetamide/DEPA organic amide no no NL NL NL no datadimethoate organophosphate yes no II II PC, ED, RD potential ST VH VH HT MT VH HT VH MT

114

T T T T

disulfoton organophosphate yes no Ia I, II NL potential MT MT HT MT HT

endosulfan organochlorine yes some II I, II ED no dataVHT MT MT MT MT MT HT HT MT

ethylene dibromide halogenated organic no no NL I, II, III KC, ED, RD known ST

fenamiphos organophosphate no some Ib I NL potential HT HT HT MTVHT MT

fenitrothion organophosphate no hort no II II, III ED no data MT HT MT MT MT MTVHT HT MT

fenthion organophosphate no no II II NL potential MT MTVHT

VHT HT HT

VHT

VHT

fenvalerate synthetic pyrethroid no no II III ED no dataVHT HT ST HT

VHT HT HT HT

VHT

fipronil pyrazole no hort some II II, III PC, ED potential HT HT HT HT HT

imidacloprid neonicotinoid yes no II II, III NL potentialNAT MT

VHT

indoxacarb oxadiazine yes no O III NL no data MT HT HTNAT MT

lambda cyhalothrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III ED no dataVHT HT

PNT

VHT

VHT

VHT

VHT

magnesium phosphide inorganic yes most NL I NL no data MT HT MT

malathion organophosphate yes no III II, III PC, ED potential MT HT MT HT STVHT MT

VHT HT

methamidophos organophosphate no few Ib I NL potential ST STVHT MT

methiocarb carbamate yes most Ib I, III NL potential HT HT MT MT MT MT MT HT HT

methomyl carbamate yes all hort Ib I, III ED potential MT HT HT ST HT ST HTVHT HT

monocrotophos organophosphate no no Ib I NL no data ST HT HT MT MT MT HT

permethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes no II III PC, ED no dataVHT

VHT

PNT ST ST ST

VHT MT MT

pyrimiphos methyl organophosphate yes no II, III I, II, III NL no data MT HT MT MTVHT

VHT

prallethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes no II III ED no dataVHT

VHT

profenofos organophosphate yes all II II, III NL potential HTVHT

VHT

VHT

pyrethrins (Marigold extract) botanical yes no II III PC no data HT HT ST MT HT

spinosad microbial yes no U III NL no data MT HTPNT ST HT MT

EcotoxicityActive Ingredients Class

EPA

Registered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity C

lass

EPA A

cute Toxicity C

lasses

Chronic

Toxicity

Groundw

ater contam

inant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

Malawi Insecticides

115

terbufos organophosphate yes most Ia I NL no dataVHT MT MT HT

VHT

VHT

thiacloprid neonicotinoid yes no II II PC no data MT ST MTVHT ST

thiamethoxam neonicotinoid yes no NL III PC no dataPNT HT

PNT

PNT

PNT

PNT

PNT

tetramethrin pyrethroid yes no U III PC, ED no dataVHT HT

NAT HT MT

Malawi Acaricides/Miticides

alpha-cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes all II II, III PC no dataVHT HT

PNT MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

chlorfenvinphos organophosphate no no Ib I, II, III NL no data HT HT HT MT MT HT

cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid yes all hort NL II, III PC, ED, RD no data HT HTPNT MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

dichlorvos/DDVP organophosphate no hort no Ib I, II, III PC, ED no data MT HT HT HT

Malawi Rodenticide

zinc phosphide inorganic yes no Ib III RD no data HTVHT HT MT

Malawi Fungicidesacibenzolar-s-methyl benzothiadiazole yes no III III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

azoxystrobin strobin yes no U III NL potential MT MT MT MT MTVHT

benomyl benzimidazole no no U III PC, ED no data HTPNT MT ST HT

NAT ST

carbendazim benzimidazole no hort no U III PC, ED no data MTNAT ST ST ST HT

carboxin oxathiim yes no U III RD no data MT MTNAT MT

NAT

chlorothalonil chloronitrile yes no NL I, II, III PC potentialVHT HT ST

VHT MT MT

copper ammonium acetate inorganic yes no NL III NL no data

copper hydroxide inorganic yes no II I, II, III NL no data HT MT MT MT HTNAT HT HT

copper oxychloride inorganic yes no NL I, II, III NL no data MT MT MT MTVHT

cyproconazole azole yes no III III PC no data MT MT MT MT MT

difenoconazole azole yes no III III PC no data MT MT ST MT MT HT

dodemorph morpholine no no U NL NL no data MT MT

ethylene dibromide halogenated organic no no NL I, II, III KC, ED, RD known ST

flusilazole azole no no III III NL no data MT MT MT MT MT

fosetyl aluminum unclassified yes no NL III NL potentialNAT ST ST MT

NAT MT

iprodione dicarboximide yes no U III PC, ED potential MTNAT ST HT

iprovalicarb unclassified no no U NL PC no data MT ST MT MT

116

mancozeb dithiocarbamate yes no U III PC, ED, RD no data MT MT ST HTNAT

metalaxyl benzanoid yes no III II, III NL potential STPNT

PNT ST

metalaxyl-M phenylamide yes no II II, III NL no data MTNAT MT MT MT

pencycuron urea no no U IV NL no data HT MT MT MT MT

propamocarb hydrochloride carbamate yes no NL III NL potential MT MT MT MT MT

propiconazole azole yes no II II, III PC, RD potential MT MT ST MT MT

propineb dithiocarbamate Zn no no U NL RD no data MTPNT

PNT MT MT MT MT

sulfur inorganic yes no U III NL no dataNAT

NAT

NAT

NAT

NAT

117

EcotoxicityActive Ingredients Class

EPA

Registered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity C

lass

EPA A

cute Toxicity C

lasses

Chronic

Toxicity

Groundw

ater contam

inant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

Malawi Fungicides

sulfur inorganic yes no U III NL no dataNAT

NAT

NAT

NAT

NAT

tebuconazole azole yes no III II, III PC potential MT MT MT MT MT MT HT

thiram/TMTD (diothio) carbamate yes no III III ED, RD no data HTNAT

PNT

VHT HT

NAT HT HT

triadimenol triazole yes no III II, III PC no data MT ST MT MT

Malawi Herbicides & Plant Growth Regulatorsacetochlor chloroacetanilide yes all III II, IIII PC, ED potential MT MT ST MT MT

alachlor chloroacetanilide yes all III II, III KC, ED, RD known MTNAT

NAT MT MT ST ST

ametryne triazine yes no III III RD potential ST MTNAT MT MT ST

atrazine triazine yes no U III PC, ED known STNAT

PNT ST ST ST ST ST ST

bentazon benzothiazinone yes no III III NL no dataNAT MT MT MT ST MT

butralin dinitroaniline PGR yes no III III NL no data HT MTNAT MT MT

VHT

chlorimuron (ethyl) sulfonyl urea no no U III NL no dataNAT ST

NAT MT

NAT MT

dicamba a benzoic acid yes no III II, III RD potential STNAT

NAT ST

diuron urea yes no U III LC known ST ST ST ST MT ST

fluazifop-p-butyl propionic acid yes no III II, III NL no data MT STPNT ST

flufenacet oxyacetamide yes some III III NL no data MTNAT MT MT MT MT

flumetralin unclassified PGR yes no U II, III NL no dataVHT MT MT HT

VHT

flumetsulam triazolepyrimidine yes some U III NL no dataNAT MT ST ST

NAT

glyphosate phosphonoglycine yes no U II, III NL potential ST STNAT

PNT MT ST

glufosinate ammonium unclassified yes no NL II, III NL no dataNAT

NAT MT MT

NAT ST

halosulfuron methyl pyrazole yes no U III NL potential ST MT ST ST STNAT

hexazinone triazinone yes no III III NL knownNAT MT

NAT

NAT ST ST

isoxaflutole isoxazole yes most NL III LC no data ST MT ST MT MT MTMCPA chlorophenoxy acid yes no II II, IIII PC no data ST PN NA ST ST NA NA ST

118

T T T T

metolachlor chloroacetamide yes some III III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

metribuzin triazinone yes no II II, III ED potential MTNAT MT MT ST ST

N-decanol/decyl alcohol alcohol PGR yes no NL II, III NL no data MT MT

oxadiazon oxidiazole yes no U II, III LC, RD no data MT MT ST MT MT ST HT

paraquat (dichloride) bipyridylium yes most II I P potential STNAT MT ST ST ST

NAT ST

pendimethalin dinitroanaline yes no III III PC, ED no data MTNAT ST MT MT

prometryn triazine yes no U III RD potential MTNAT

PNT ST

NAT

NAT ST ST

s-metolachlor chloroacetanilide yes no NL III PC, ED known MT ST MT MT MT

sulcotrione unclassified no no NL NL NL no data

tebuthiuron urea yes no II II, III RD potentialNAT MT

NAT

NAT

terbuthylazine triazine yes no U III NL no data MT MT MT MT MT HT

triclopyr chloropyridinyl yes no III I, II, III NL no data MTNAT ST

trifluralin dinitroanaline yes no U II, III PC, ED no data HTPNT

PNT MT HT ST ST ST MT

119

2014 Mozambique SSTP Requested Pesticide AIsEcotoxicity

Active Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

Mozambique SSTP Fumigant

aluminum phosphide inorganic yes all NL I NL no data HT HT HT MT MT

Mozambique SSTP Insecticides

cypermethrin synthetic pyrethroid no agr all NL II, III PC, ED, RD no data HT HTPNT MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

imidacloprid neonicotinoid yes no II II, III NL potentialNAT HT MT

NAT HT MT

VHT ST

lambda cyhalothrin synthetic pyrethroid yes some II II, III ED no dataVHT HT ST MT

VHT

VHT

VHT

thiamethoxam neonicotinoid yes no NL III PC potentialPNT HT MT MT

EcotoxicityActive Ingredients Class

EPA R

egistered

Restricted U

se Pesticide

WH

O A

cute Toxicity Class

EPA A

cute Toxicity Classes

Chronic Toxicity

Groundw

ater contaminant

fish

bees

birds

amphibians

worm

s

Mollusks

Crustaceans

Aquatic Insects

Plankton

Mozambique SSTP Fungicides

benomyl (benlate) benzimidazole no no U III PC, ED, RD no data HTPNT MT ST HT

NAT ST

difenoconazole azole yes no III III PC, ED no data ST MT ST MT MT MT HT

mancozeb dithiocarbamate yes no U III PC, ED, RD no data MT MT ST HTNAT

metalaxyl benzanoid yes no III II, III NL potential ST ST MT MT MT ST

Mozambique SSTP Herbicides

120

glyphosate phosphonoglycine yes no U I, II, III NL potential ST STNAT

PNT MT ST

121

Annex 8: Training Topics and Safe Pesticide Use Web Resources

GAP/IPM

Pest identification: How to recognize common important pests and diseases Monitoring: The importance of frequent crop monitoring for pests, diseases and weeds GAP and IPM concepts, tactics and tools found in Annex 1 that can reduce pesticide use and associated

risks on specific pests of project target crops PMPs—Pest Management Plans: Creating and using these farm crop-management tools

Pesticides

Understanding pesticides: Quality, types, classes and acute toxicities of common pesticides Regulations: US, EU and AGRA SSTP countries laws that guide pesticide registration and use Natural pesticides: Raise awareness of and promote the use of natural pesticides found in Annexes 1, 4, 5

and 7 as well as green-label synthetic pesticides with relatively low risks Spot Treatments: The importance of spot treatments if needed (instead of crop-wide treatments) MSDS: How to use MSDSs for pesticide-specific information on risks and risk reduction measures REI—Re-Entry Intervals: Pesticide-specific risks associated with entering a sprayed field too soon after

the spray operation PHI—Pre-Harvest Interval: Pesticide-specific risks associated with harvesting a crop before pesticides

have had a chance to break down MRL—Maximum Residue Level: Risks associated with pesticide residues on human food Vulnerable individuals: The importance of keeping children, pregnant women, elderly and infirm away

from the field while spraying and kept out after spraying Human and environmental risks: Risks associated with more commonly-used pesticides (use information

from MSDSs and Annex 7) When to spray: Early in the morning, late in the afternoon, or night without wind or rain Use of recommended PPE: Why it is used (see product MSDSs, product labels and web reference below) Proper use and maintenance of sprayers, including proper sprayer calibration and spray nozzle choice Proper clean-up & post spray hygiene Safe Use: How to purchase, transport, store and use pesticides safely (“safe purchase” requires quality,

brand-name products) Maintenance: of PPE and sprayers Monitoring for the development of pesticide resistance Proper collection and disposal of pesticide rinseate and packaging (see disposal web reference below and

MSDSs) The use of pesticide spray buffer zones near schools, water resources, organic crop production, apiaries,

bird sanctuaries, biodiversity enclaves, national parks or other sensitive areas. How to reduce and mitigate risks to critical environmental resources and biodiversity (found in PER

Factors E and G) Honeybees: Ensuring pesticide applicators notify beekeepers about spray activities, and spray early

morning or late afternoon when no heavy winds or rain are present Water Pollution: Raise awareness of pesticides (especially some herbicides) with high ground water

contamination potential where water tables are high or easy to reach (use Annex 7 and MSDSs) Exposure routes: Ways pesticides enter the body and ways to mitigate entry

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Basic first aid: Understanding how to treat pesticide poisonings (see first aid web reference and MSDSs) Record-keeping: Pesticide used, when used, which crop, how applied, who applied

Web Safe Pesticide Use Training Resources

General Mitigation of Potential Pesticide Dangers General Measures to Ensure Safe Use: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK154.pdf, Chapter 13

EPA Recommended Worker Protection Standards: http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/workers/equip.htm (all types of PPE)http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d001701-d001800/d001797/d001797.html (respiratory PPE)

Routes of Pesticide Exposure and Mitigation of Risks:http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK154.pdf, Chapter 13

Basic First Aid for Pesticide Overexposure: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADK154.pdf, Chapter 13

International PIC & POPs Lists:PIC Pesticides and Industrial Chemicals (http://www.pic.int)POPs Pesticides and Chemicals (http://www.pops.int)

Pesticide Disposal Options:http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/labeling/lrm/chap-13.htm

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Annex 9: Field Monitoring Form for Farmer Best Practices including GAP and IPM options

Name of USAID Staff Responsible for Monitoring Demonstration Farms:

Name of Demonstration Farmer: Crop: Date:

What are the major pests encountered by the farmer?:

Which of the attached Preventive and Curative GAP and IPM tools and tactics are used by farmer?

Are pesticides used by demo farmer? Yes__ No__

How are pesticides applied? backpack sprayer__ other__

What are the names of the pesticides used?:

Which PPE does farmer have and use? gloves___ overalls___ boots___

respirator___ goggles___

Has the farmer had IPM and Safe Pesticide Use training? Yes__ No__

Are there any empty pesticide containers scattered in the field? Yes__ No__

Are there signs that the backpack sprayer has leaks? Yes__ No__

Does the farmer understand the pesticide label information? Yes__ No__

Is the pesticide stored safely out of the house or away from kids? Yes__ No__

Does the farmer use gloves for mixing the pesticide with water? Yes__ No__

What times of the day are the pesticides applied? ________

Are pesticides applied during rain or windy conditions? Yes__ No__

Are women or children permitted to apply pesticides? Yes__ No__

Are empty pesticide containers are used to store water? Yes__ No__

Does the farmer rinse equipment away from streams and open water? Yes__ No__

Does the farmer wash clothes after applying pesticides? Yes__ No__

How does the farmer dispose of empty pesticide containers? puncture/bury__ burn__

Is there any evidence that pesticides are becoming less effective? Yes__ No__

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Preventive and Curative GAP and IPM options:

Preventive Preventive CurativeSoil nutrient, texture and pH testing Farmer ability to correctly identify

pest predators, parasitoids and diseases

Mechanical insect control by hand picking

Pest resistant/tolerant seed/plant variety

Weekly field scouting to assess pest levels/damage

Farmers make & apply local artisanal plant extracts (neem, pyrethroid, garlic, chili, other)

Early/late plantings or harvestings to avoid pests

Use of trap crops to trap and destroy pests

Weed control by machine cultivation, hoe or hand

Seed treatment with pesticides Removal/pruning of diseased or heavily infested plants/tree branches

Purchase and release of predators or parasitoids to control major pests

Soil moisture testing Planting parasite-attracting plants on field margins

Use of pheromone traps to reduce overall pest levels

Raised-bed production or mounding Put baits and use other practices to encourage predator/parasite build-up

Use of pheromone inundation to confuse pest mating

Irrigation and drip irrigation Use of pheromone traps to monitor pest levels

Spot treatment of pest hotspots with insecticides, miticides or fungicides

Use of natural fertilizers (manure, compost)

Inter-planting crops with aromatic herbs (celery, cilantro, parsley, dill or local plants) that repel pests

Area spraying (complete field coverage) using synthetic and natural insecticides, miticides or nematocides

Use of purchased mineral fertilizers Mulching with organic materials or plastic to control weeds

Use of synthetic and natural fungicides or bactericides

Combinations of organic and mineral fertilizers

Plant living barriers or bamboo/tree barriers on windward edge of field

Use of herbicides for weed control

Crop rotation Exclude insect pests by using vegetable tunnels and micro-tunnels

Farm use of a locked storage building for pesticides

Use of green manure crops Use of biodiversity or energy conservation practices

Farmer use of pesticide in-ground compost trap for depositing and capturing spilled or leftover pesticides

Farmer ability to correctly identify pests and their damage

Crop stalks, residue and dropped fruit destruction/composting season end

Farmer use of receptacle for empty pesticide bottle disposal

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Annex 10: Farm and Project Record Keeping Associated with Pesticide Use

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1.- Control Card for Pesticides Use.- This card will stay with farmer, to keep a record on the use of pesticide by crop.

GENERAL DATA

FARMERS NAME

Community: Municipality: Province: Altitude:

USE OF PESTICIDES - 1st TREATMENT

CROP: SURFACE:

Pest to be treated Name of material Date and time of application Quantity used

Environmental conditions:

Justification for use

Other recommended control measures

Result of application

NAME AND SIGNATURE OF IG AND NRM SUPERVISOR:

USE OF PESTICIDES - 2nd TREATMENT

CROP: SURFACE:

Pest to be treated Name of material Date and time of application Quantity used

Environmental conditions:

Justification for use

Other recommended control measures

Result of application

NAME AND SIGNATURE OF IG AND NRM SUPERVISOR:

CONTROL FORM FOR THE USE OF PERTICIDES

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Annex 11: PERSUAP References

Baker EL, Zack M, Miles JW, Alderman L, Warren M, Dobbins RD, Miller S, Teeters WR (1978) Epidemic malathion poisoning in Pakistan malaria workers. The Lancet, January: 31–33.

Websites: Website references used to develop the PERSUAP International Treaties and Conventions:POPs website: http://www.pops.intPIC Website: http://www.pic.int

Basel Convention: http://www.basel.int/Montreal Protocol: http://www.unep.org/OZONE/pdfs/Montreal-Protocol2000.pdf

Pakistan malaria poisonings: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACQ047.pdf.

Pesticide poisonings: http://www.panna.org/resources/panups/panup_20080403 http://magazine.panna.org/spring2006/inDepthGlobalPoisoning.html

IPM and PMP websites:http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/ http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pg058

http://www.ipmcenters.org/pmsp/index.cfm http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/154769/Cotton-pest-management-guide-1.pdf

Pesticide Research Websites:http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ghindex.html (Extoxnet Oregon State database with ecotox)http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/pesticides/f_2.htm (all types of application equipment)

http://www.greenbook.net/Search/AdvancedSearch (pesticide Material Safety Data Sheets)http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm (EPA Registration Eligibility Decisions)

Ecotoxicity : http://www.ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2161.html (pesticide toxicity to honeybees)http://wihort.uwex.edu/turf/Earthworms.htm (pesticide toxicity to earthworms)

Safety : http://www.epa.gov/oppbppd1/biopesticides/ingredients/index.htm (EPA regulated biopesticides)http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/index.html (IPM, PMPs and pesticide recommendations)

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/PI/PI07300.pdf (Restricted Use Pesticides)http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/ (EPA Health & Safety)

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http://www.epa.gov/opppmsd1/PPISdata/index.html (EPA pesticide product information)

PPE:http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/workers/equip.htm (all types of PPE)http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d001701-d001800/d001797/d001797.html (respiratory PPE)

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