name all the 4 parts of the fetch execute · instruction format operation code, a.k.a. opcode...
TRANSCRIPT
QUIZ
Name all the 4 parts of the “fetch-execute” cycle.
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Solution
Name all the 4 parts of the “fetch-execute” cycle.
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Name two fundamental differences between magnetic drives and optical drives:
•
•
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QUIZ
Define Embedded Systems
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QUIZ
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QUIZ
What are two ways to create a non-vNarchitecture?
What are the 3 parallel architectures we covered?
What are two ways to create a non-vNarchitecture? A: By using more than one MM, or by using more than one CPU.
What are the 3 parallel architectures we covered?
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Solution
Pipelined CPUs
Synchronous CPUs
Parallel (non-synchronous)
CPUs
QUIZ Pipelining
A computer pipeline has 4 processors, as shown above. Each processor takes 15 ms to execute, and each instruction must go sequentially through all 4 processors.
A program has 10 instructions. Calculate how long it takes to run it:
• without pipelining
• with pipelining
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Extra-credit QUIZ
Low-level software
Components
Circuits
Gates
Transistors
Abstractions and more abstractions …
10You are here
6.1 Computer Operations
Computer = programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data
Von Neumann architecture:
• Data and instructions to manipulate the data are represented in the same way (binary) and are stored in the same place (memory)
• For processing, both data and
instructions have to be brought
into the CPU (fetch-execute cycle)
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6.2 Machine Language
Machine language = The language made up of binary coded instructions built into the hardware of a particular computer and used directly by the computer
Why would anyone use machine language?
(Hint: they had no choice. Why?)
12Image source: http://www.alpcentauri.info/chapter_18.html
Remember: The Fetch-Execute Cycle
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According to the CPU’s
machine language
Characteristics of machine language:
– Every processor type has its own set of specific machine instructions
– The relationship between the processor and the instructions it can carry out is completely integrated
– Each machine-language instruction does only one very low-level task
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Pep/8 Virtual Computer
Virtual computer
A hypothetical machine designed to contain the important features of a real machine
Pep/8
A virtual computer designed by Stanley Warford that has 39 machine-language instructions
(We’re going to cover only a few of them!)
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Extra-credit
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Pep/8 Registers
– The program counter (PC) (contains the address of the next instruction to be executed)
– The instruction register (IR) (contains a copy of the instruction being executed)
– The accumulator (register A)
The memory unit is made up of 65,636 Bytes of storage
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Can you figure out how long the Pep/8 address is?
QUIZ
The previous version of Pep, Pep/7, could use only 12 bits for memory addresses.
How many memory cells could Pep/7 address?
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Explain the
address format!
16 bits
24
bits
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Explain the
address format!
Can you show what
instructions look like
in memory?
Instruction Format
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Instruction Format
Operation code, a.k.a. opcodeSpecifies which instruction is to be carried outRegister specifierSpecifies which register is to be used (only use A in
this chapter)Addressing-mode specifierSays how to interpret the operand part of the
instruction:• Direct• Immediate
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Say that again?!?
Instruction Format
Addressing-mode specifierSays how to interpret the operand part of the
instruction:• Direct• Immediate
2 + 3 ImmediateA + B Direct
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??
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Immediate and direct addressing modes
Immediate and direct addressing modes
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Example:
ADD 42 to accumulator A
What exactly am I to add?
Instruction Format
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Addressing modes:
• immediate
• direct
Is there something we are not telling you
about Pep’s addressing modes?
PEP/8 machine instructions
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What does this instruction mean, what is
its hex code, and what exactly does it do?
EOL 1
QUIZ
• Name all the 4 parts of the “fetch-execute” cycle.
• What do IR, A, and PC stand for in the computer’s architecture?
• Name and explain the 2 addressing modes we’ve covered.
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QUIZ: Immediate vs. direct addressing
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We have this Pep instruction:
SUB 30 from accumulator A
What exactly will Pep subtract?
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Solution
A: It depends on the addressing
mode!
• If immediate (000), then the
integer 30 goes in A.
• If direct (001), then the
content of the memory
address 30 goes in A.
We have this Pep instruction:
SUB 30 from accumulator A
What exactly will Pep subtract?
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We have this Pep instruction:
LOAD 20 (decimal) into
accumulator A
What exactly will Pep load?
QUIZ: Immediate vs. direct addressing
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What does this instruction mean, what is
its hex code, and what exactly does it do?
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What does this instruction mean, what is
its hex code, and what exactly does it do?
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What do these instructions mean, what are
their hex codes, and what exactly do they do?
Wait a second ...
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ConclusionsIt is useless to write operands into IR.
IR is written only in the FETCH stage of the Fetch-Execute cycle, when the 3 bytes of the instruction are brought from memory.
Operands can be written only to:
• Accumulator
• Memory
Some instructions cannot have the immediate addressing mode
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What do these instructions mean, what are
their hex codes, and what exactly do they do?
Why is there only one on this page?
What does this instruction mean, what is
its hex code, and what exactly does it do?
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What do these instructions mean, what are
their hex codes, and what exactly do they do?
Problem 17 / 190
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The PEP/8 memory has the following contents:
0001 A2
0002 11
0003 00
0004 FF
What are the contents of reg. A after this instruction
is executed:
C1 00 02
The first step is …
Problem 17 / 190
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The PEP/8 memory has the following contents:
0001 A2
0002 11
0003 00
0004 FF
What are the contents of reg. A after this instruction
is executed:
C1 00 02
1100 0001 0000 0000 0000 0010
Problem 16 / 189
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The PEP/8 memory has the following contents:
0001 A2
0002 11
0003 00
0004 FF
What are the contents of reg. A after this instruction
is executed:
C1 00 01
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0001 A2
0002 11
0003 00
0004 FF
Instruction
executed:
C1 00 01
6.3 Program to write "Hello"
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Every program ends with this!
Your turn!
What does this program do?
1111
0000
1111
1 0000
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Steps for executing a machine-language
program
Loader
Program
in
memoryExecute
Machine
code
program
in a file
on disk
SKIP Pep/8 Simulator
48EOL 2
Problem 33 / 191
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The PEP/8 memory has the following program in
memory (in hex):
0001 49
0002 00
0003 08
0004 51
0005 00
0006 08
0007 00
Convert the program to binary and
explain in your own words what it does.
Fact: Writing programs in machine language sucks!
(i.e. it is time-consuming, boring, error-prone, unintuitive, etc.)
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… that’s why we invented
assembly language
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6.4 Assembly Language
Assembly language
A language that uses mnemonic codes to represent machine-language instructions
AssemblerA program that reads each of the instructions in mnemonic form and translates it into the machine-language equivalent
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Steps for executing anassembly-language program
Loader
Program
in
memoryExecute
Pep/8 Assembly Language
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Opcodeis 31
Opcodeis 38
Opcodeis 39
Opcodeis 04
“Hello” program in assembly
CHARO 0x0048, i ;Outputs character 'H'
CHARO 0x0065, i
CHARO 0x006C, i
CHARO 0x006C, i
CHARO 0x006F, i
STOP
.END
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mnemonic operand addressing
modecomments
What in the
world is this?!
A New Program
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Problem: Read and sum three
values and print the sum
How would you do it by hand?
Declaring variables in assembly:We simply reserve space in memory for them!
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Labels – they are just
placeholders for
memory addresses
Assembler directives, a.k.a. pseudo-ops
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What is the difference between
operations and pseudo operations?
Completed Program
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sum: .WORD 0x0000
num1: .BLOCK 2
num2: .BLOCK 2
num3: .BLOCK 2
main: LDA sum,d
DECI num1,d
ADDA num1,d
DECI num2,d
ADDA num2,d
DECI num3,d
ADDA num3,d
STA sum,d
DECO sum,d
STOP
.END
Completed Program
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sum: .WORD 0x0000
num1: .BLOCK 2
num2: .BLOCK 2
Num3: .BLOCK 2
main: LDA sum,d
DECI num1,d
ADDA num1,d
DECI num2,d
ADDA num2,d
DECI num3,d
ADDA num3,d
STA sum,d
DECO sum,d
STOP
.END
Houston, we have a problem!
How does the CPU know that the program starts here?
Solution: “Branch” instruction
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BR main
sum: .WORD 0x0000
num1: .BLOCK 2
num2: .BLOCK 2
num3: .BLOCK 2
main: LDA sum,d
DECI num1,d
ADDA num1,d
DECI num2,d
ADDA num2,d
DECI num3,d
ADDA num3,d
STA sum,d
DECO sum,d
STOP
.END
See comments on next slide
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Completed ProgramUnconditional
branch!
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Your turn! Change the program so it adds only two numbers: always 7 + 42
EOL 3
We have covered the beginning of section 6.4. We stopped before the sub-section A Program with Branching.
• Read the text carefully and make sure you can explain in your own words what each instruction accomplishes.
• Individual work (do in notebook for next time):
16, 17, 19, 21-26
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EOL 3
Decision-making instructions
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BR Set PC to operand unconditionally
BRLTi Set PC to operand if A < 0
BREQi Set PC to operand if A = 0
Decision making problem: Same as previous “sum” program, but print the sum only if positive or zero; if negative, print an error message
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negMsg: CHARO 0x0045,i
BR finish
main: LDA sum,d
…
BRLT negMsg
STA sum,d
DECO sum,d
finish: STOP
What ASCII code is this?
Decision making problem: Same as before, but print the sum only if positive or zero; if negative, print ‘E’ (Error)
negMsg: CHARO 0x0045,i
BR finish
main: LDA sum,d
…
BRLT negMsg
STA sum,d
DECO sum,d
finish: STOP
How many ways are there to reach finish?
ASCII code for 'E'
QUIZ: Would the decision program from the first example still work if the negMsg block were placed after the main program instead of before?
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main: LDA sum,d
…
BRLT negMsg
STA sum,d
DECO sum,d
finish: STOP
negMsg: CHARO 0x0045,i
BR finish
QUIZ: What does this program do?
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BR main
a: .BLOCK 2
main: DECI a, d
LDA a, d
SUBA 0x002A, i
STA a, d
DECO a, d
STOP
.END
A: It subtracts 42 from the number entered, and displays the result.
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BR main
a: .BLOCK 2
main: DECI a, d
LDA a, d
SUBA 0x002A, i
STA a, d
DECO a, d
STOP
.END
Solution
QUIZ: What does this program do?
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BR main
a: .BLOCK 2
main: DECI a, d
LDA a, d
SUBA 0x002A, i
STA a, d
BREQ yes
DECO a, d
fin: STOP
yes: CHARO 0x0046, i
BR fin
.END
ASCII code for 'F'
QUIZ: Write an assembly program to subtract 2010 from 4210 and put the result in memory
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BR main
sum: .WORD 0x0000
num1: .BLOCK 2
num2: .BLOCK 2
num3: .BLOCK 2
main: LDA sum,d
DECI num1,d
ADDA num1,d
DECI num2,d
ADDA num2,d
DECI num3,d
ADDA num3,d
STA sum,d
DECO sum,d
STOP
.END
Take inspiration from the
program we studied last time:
Three quizzes for individual work
Write a program that adds the number 3 to a number entered by the user, and prints :
• the result if equal to zero, otherwise it prints nothing.
• the result if less than zero, otherwise it prints nothing.
• the result if greater than zero, otherwise it prints nothing.
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What does this program do? (p.173)
CPA must
always be
followed by a
conditional
branch!
High-level software (Ch.9)
Algorithms (and data structures)
Low-level software
Components
Circuits
Gates
Transistors
6.5 Algorithms and Pseudocode
Algorithm = A sequence of steps for solving a problem
Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (780-850A.D.)
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Remember: Decision-making instructions
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BR Set PC to operand unconditionally
BRLTi Set PC to operand if A < 0
BREQi Set PC to operand if A = 0
How to describe an algorithm in an intuitive way?
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Flowcharts!
Not in text
We use decision-making instructions to build:
• branches
• loops
Problems with flowcharts:• They’re hard to follow when they get complex
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Not in text
Problems with flowcharts:• They’re hard to follow when they get complex
• They’re hard to draw in electronic documents
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Not in text
Problems with flowcharts:• They’re hard to follow when they get complex
• They’re hard to draw in electronic documents
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Not in text
Our text uses only pseudocode
6.5 Algorithms and Pseudocode
Pseudocode = A mixture of English and formatting to make the steps in an algorithm explicit
There are no syntax rules in pseudocode!
Pseudocode is not case sensitive!
Example: Repeated-division algorithm (convert base-10 number to other bases):
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While ( the quotient is not zero )
Divide the decimal number by the new base
Make the remainder the next digit to the left in the answer
Replace the original decimal number with the quotient
Algorithms can also be described in natural language!
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… but pseudocode is more precise
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IF concerned about cholesterol
Put butter substitute in a pot
ELSE
Put butter in a pot
Turn on burner
Put pot on the burner
WHILE (NOT bubbling)
Leave pot on the burner
Put other ingredients in the blender
Turn on blender
WHILE (more in pot)
Pour contents into lender in slow steam
Turn off blender
Draw the flowchart for this pseudocode
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IF concerned about cholesterol
Put butter substitute in a pot
ELSE
Put butter in a pot
Turn on burner
Put pot on the burner
WHILE (NOT bubbling)
Leave pot on the burner
Put other ingredients in the blender
Turn on blender
WHILE (more in pot)
Pour contents into lender in slow steam
Turn off blender
Pseudocode functionality
Pseudocode has all of the concepts encountered in any high-level programming language, only the syntax is informal:
– Variables
– Assignment
– I/O
– Selection / decision
– Repetition / loop
– Boolean expressions
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Reading assignment:
Pages 175-179 of the text
Refer to your Python programming experience!
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We can test a pseudocode algorithm w/pencil & paper, a.k.a. “desk checking”
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What is 93 in base 8?
93/8 gives 11 remainder 5
11/8 gives 1 remainder 3
1/ 8 gives 0 remainder 1
answer 1 3 5
While ( the quotient is not zero )
Divide the decimal number by the new base
Make the remainder the next digit to the left in the answer
Replace the original decimal number with
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Organizing the solution in a computer-like way gives us
better idea of what is required for the computer to
execute it, e.g. two numbers need to be entered, etc.
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QUIZ: Desk-check the repeated division algorithm
with decimalNumber = 242, and newBase = 8
Answer: 362
SKIP 6.6 Testing
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Read and take notes in notebook:
Software Piracy and Copyrighting
Have you every "borrowed" software
from a friend?
Have you ever "lent" software to a
friend?
Did you know that about 100,000 jobs are
lost in the US every year due to such
"borrowing" and "lending?"
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Chapter Review Questions
• List the operations that a computer can perform
• Describe the important features of the Pep/8 virtual machine
• Distinguish between immediate addressingmode and direct addressing mode
• Write a simple machine-language program
• Distinguish between machine language and assembly language
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Chapter Review Questions
• Describe the steps in creating and running an assembly-language program
• Write a simple program in assembly program
• Distinguish between instructions to the assembler (a.k.a. directives) and instructions to be translated into machine code (a.k.a. executable instructions)
• Distinguish between following an algorithm and developing one
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Chapter Review Questions
• Describe the pseudocode constructs used in expressing an algorithm
• Use pseudocode to express and algorithm
• Distinguish between black-box and clear-box testing
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HomeworkDue Wednesday, Oct.26
End of chapter exercises:
• 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20,– Correction in 20: use E1 instead of E0
• 27, 34,– Hint for 34: machine code 31 means decimal input
• 36, 41,– Hint for 41: How are integers represented in Pep/8?
• 44, 45
All PEP instructions, with machine codes00 Stop STOP
04 Branch unconditional BR
08 Branch if Less Than BRLT
0A Branch if equal BREQ
31 Decimal Input Direct DECI
38 Decimal Output Immediate DECO
39 Decimal Output Direct DECO
49 Char. Input Direct CHARI
50 Char. Output Immediate CHARO
51 Char. Output Direct CHARO
70 Add to A Immediate ADDA
71 Add to A Direct ADDA
80 Subtract from A Immediate SUBA
81 Subtract from A Direct SUBA
C0 Load into A Immediate LDA
C1 Load into A Direct LDA
E1 Store A Direct STA 97