Methods in Biogeochemistry of Wetlands

R.D. DeLaune, K.R. Reddy, C.J. Richardson, and J.P. Megonigal, editors

Book and Multimedia Publishing CommitteeApril Ulery, ChairWarren Dick, ASA Editor-in-ChiefE. Charles Brummer, CSSA Editor-in-ChiefAndrew Sharpley, SSSA Editor-in-ChiefLajpat Ahuja Michael Casler David Clay Kimberly Cook David Fang Girisha GanjegunteRobert Graham Zhongqi He Srirama Krishna Reddy Shuyu Liu Sally Logsdon Thomas Mueller Mary Savin Nooreldeen Shawqi Ali Gurpal Toor Director of Publications: Mark MandelbaumManaging Editor: Lisa Al-AmoodiBooks Acquisitions Editor: Nicole Sandler

Number 10 in the Soil Science Society of America Book SeriesSally Logsdon, series editorPublished by Soil Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA

Copyright © 2013 by Soil Science Society of America

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

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Soil Science Society of America, Inc.5585 Guilford Road, Madison, WI 53711-5801 USA

soils.orgdl.sciencesocieties.orgSocietyStore.org

ISBN: 978-0-89118-960-2 (print) ISBN: 978-0-89118-961-9 (electronic)doi:10.2136/sssabookser10Library of Congress Control Number: 2013951552

SSSA Book Series ISSN: 2163-2804 (online)ISSN: 1047-4986 (print)

Cover design: Patricia ScullionCover photo: A small stand of pond cypress [Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.] displaying their fall colors prior to leaf drop on the shore of a dystrophic Carolina Bay Lake Wetland complex in Jones Lake State Park in Bladen county, NC. Photograph by Dr. Curtis J. Richardson, Director of the Duke University Wetland Center, Durham, NC.

Printed in the United States of America.

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ContentsForeword xiiPreface xiiiContributors xv

Chapter 1Issues of Sampling Design in Wetlands 1

Monica Rivas Casado, Ron Corstanje, Pat Bellamy, and Ben MarchantDESIGN-BASED SAMPLING APPROACHES 8MODEL-BASED SAMPLING APPROACHES 11

Chapter 2Soil and Sediment Sampling of Inundated Environments 21

Todd Z. Osborne and R.D. DeLauneSAMPLING IN INUNDATED ENVIRONMENTS: SAMPLING PLAN AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 22SAMPLING METHODS FOR INUNDATION DEPTHS LESS THAN 1.5 METERS 26SAMPLING METHODS FOR INUNDATION DEPTHS GREATER THAN 1.5 METERS 32SPECIAL CONDITIONS OR CONSIDERATIONS 36

Chapter 3Physicochemical Characterization of Wetland Soils 41

K.R. Reddy, M.W. Clark, R.D. DeLaune, and M. KongchumSOIL SAMPLING 42PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES 43CONCLUSIONS 52

Chapter 4Soil Pore Water Sampling Methods 55

M.M. Fisher and K.R. ReddyTECHNIQUES FOR SAMPLING SOIL PORE WATER 56SAMPLE HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS 64SAMPLING PORE WATER GASES 66SUMMARY 68

Chapter 5Reduction–Oxidation Potential and Oxygen 71

J. Patrick Megonigal and Martin RabenhorstREDOX POTENTIAL THEORY 73OXYGEN MEASUREMENT WITH DIFFUSION CHAMBERS 73REDOX MEASUREMENT 78

Chapter 6Determination of Dissolved Oxygen, Hydrogen Sulfide, Iron(II), and Manganese(II) in Wetland Pore Waters 87

George W. Luther III and Andrew S. MadisonEXPERIMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRODE FABRICATION 91EXPERIMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF WORKING ELECTRODE CALIBRATIONS 96PROCEDURES FOR MICROPROFILING 101SUMMARY 104

Chapter 7Soil Redox Potential and pH Controllers 107

Kewei Yu and Jörg RinklebeREDOX POTENTIAL AND pH CONTROL 108MODIFICATIONS 110AN AUTOMATED BIOGEOCHEMICAL MICROCOSM SYSTEM 112APPLICATIONS 114

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Chapter 8Morphological Methods to Characterize Hydric Soils 117

M.J. VepraskasEQUIPMENT 120METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR DESCRIBING HYDRIC SOILS 122FIELD TEST TO ASSESS SOIL MATERIAL TYPE 124IDENTIFYING HYDRIC SOIL FIELD INDICATORS 132

Chapter 9Emergent Macrophyte Biomass Production 137

Christopher CraftSAMPLING CONSIDERATIONS 139INDIRECT METHODS 139DIRECT METHODS 144EMERGING METHODS 151

Chapter 10Photosynthetic Measurements in Wetlands 155

S.R. PezeshkiOXYGEN EXCHANGE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE 157CARBON ISOTOPE TECHNIQUE 158MICROMETEOROLOGICAL TECHNIQUE 159CHLOROPHYLL FLUORESCENCE METHOD 161PHOTOSYNTHETIC MEASUREMENTS USING CHAMBERS 165SUMMARY 173

Chapter 11Gas Transport and Exchange through Wetland Plant Aerenchyma 177

Brian K. Sorrell and Hans BrixGENERAL PRINCIPLES 178EXPERIMENTAL PRINCIPLES 180LABORATORY AND GLASSHOUSE CHAMBERS 184MODELING APPROACHES 190

Chapter 12A Primer on Sampling Plant Communities in Wetlands 197

Curtis J. Richardson and Ryan S. KingOVERVIEW OF SAMPLING PLANT POPULATIONS AND COMMUNITIES 199SAMPLE SIZE 200PLANT SAMPLING APPROACHES 203RAPID ASSESSMENT APPROACHES TO ESTIMATE PLANT ABUNDANCE AND COVER PERCENTAGE 206PLANT SAMPLING METHODS AND CALCULATION PROCEDURES 207ANALYSIS OF DATA 211COMPARISON OF PLANT COMMUNITIES 212SUGGESTIONS FOR DEVELOPING A PLANT SAMPLING PROGRAM 215APPENDIX 218

Chapter 13Plant Productivity—Bottomland Hardwood Forests 225

William H. Conner and Julia A. CherryABOVEGROUND PRODUCTIVITY 228BELOWGROUND PRODUCTIVITY 234

Chapter 14 Current Methods to Evaluate Net Primary Production and Carbon Budgets in Mangrove Forests 243

Victor H. Rivera-Monroy, Edward Castañeda-Moya, Jordan G. Barr, Vic Engel, Jose D. Fuentes, Tiffany G. Troxler, Robert R. Twilley, Steven Bouillon, Thomas J. Smith III, and Thomas L. O’Halloran

CURRENT METHODS TO ESTIMATE NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY 245COMPARING MANGROVE NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION ESTIMATES TO WHOLE-FOREST CARBON FLUX MEASUREMENTS 263SUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS 275APPENDIX 276

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Chapter 15Characterization of Wetland Soil Organic Matter 289

Robert L. Cook and Thomas S. BianchiSAMPLE TREATMENT AND PROCESSING 290SPECTROSCOPIC CHARACTERIZATION 292BULK ELEMENTAL AND CHEMICAL BIOMARKER ANALYSES 301SUMMARY 309

Chapter 16Dissolved Organic Matter 317

Robert G. QuallsEQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 321MATERIALS AND REAGENTS 321SAMPLE PREPARATION 323PROCEDURES 323CONCLUSIONS 327

Chapter 17Soil Microbial Biomass and Phospholipid Fatty Acids 331

Jörg Rinklebe and Uwe LangerTHE SUBSTRATE-INDUCED RESPIRATION METHOD 333PHOSPHOLIPID FATTY ACIDS 338ESTIMATES OF MICROBIAL BIOMASS 343SUMMARY 343

Chapter 18Molecular Genetic Analysis of Wetland Soils 349

Hee-Sung Bae and Andrew V. OgramDNA EXTRACTION 350QUANTITATIVE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION 354POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION BASED MOLECULAR CLONING 362

Chapter 19Enzyme Activities 373

Hojeong Kang, Seon-Young Kim, and Chris FreemanEQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 376MATERIALS AND REAGENTS 376SAMPLE PREPARATION 377PROCEDURE 377CALCULATION 377SUMMARY 378

Chapter 20Organic Matter Mineralization and Decomposition 385

Scott D. Bridgham and Rongzhong YeLITTER DECOMPOSITION 386DECOMPOSITION OF STANDARD SUBSTRATES 393SOIL HETEROTROPHIC RESPIRATION 393PHOTODEGRADATION 403

Chapter 21Methanogenesis and Methane Oxidation in Wetland Soils 407

Kanika S. Inglett, Jeffery P. Chanton, and Patrick W. InglettEXPERIMENTAL METHANE MEASUREMENTS 409ISOTOPIC MEASUREMENTS OF METHANE 417

Chapter 22Greenhouse Gas Emission by Static Chamber and Eddy Flux Methods 427

Kewei Yu, April Hiscox, and R.D. DeLauneSTATIC CHAMBER MEASUREMENT 428EDDY COVARIANCE MEASUREMENT 432SUMMARY 436

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Chapter 23Characterization of Organic Nitrogen in Wetlands 439

C.M. VanZomeren, H. Knicker, W.T. Cooper, and K.R. ReddyCHEMICAL FRACTIONATION OF SOIL ORGANIC NITROGEN 440CHLOROFORM FUMIGATION METHOD 446NUCLEAR RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY 448MASS SPECTROMETRY OF ORGANIC NITROGEN 454CONCLUSIONS 458

Chapter 24Measurements of Nitrogen Mineralization Potential in Wetland Soils 465

Eric D. Roy and John R. WhitePOTENTIALLY MINERALIZABLE NITROGEN 467SUBSTRATE-INDUCED NITROGEN MINERALIZATION 469LIMITATIONS 470SUMMARY 471

Chapter 25Wind Tunnel Method for Measurement of Ammonia Volatilization 473

M.E. Poach, K.S. Ro, and P.G. HuntEQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 476MATERIALS AND REAGENTS 479SAMPLE PREPARATION 479PROCEDURE 480SAMPLE ANALYSIS 480CALCULATION 481STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 481QUALITY ASSURANCE 481SUMMARY 482

Chapter 26Ammonium Oxidation in Wetland Soils 485

K.S. Inglett, A.V. Ogram, and K.R. ReddyAEROBIC AMMONIUM OXIDATION (NITRIFICATION) 486ANAEROBIC AMMONIUM OXIDATION (ANAMMOX) 488METHODS FOR ASSESSING AEROBIC AMMONIUM OXIDATION (NITRIFICATION) 489METHODS FOR ASSESSING ANAEROBIC AMMONIUM OXIDATION (ANAMMOX) POTENTIAL 492MOLECULAR METHODS FOR ASSESSING AMMONIUM OXDIATION IN WETLAND SOILS 494SUMMARY 497

Chapter 27Denitrification Measurement Using Membrane Inlet Mass Spectrometry 503

Patrick W. Inglett, Todd M. Kana, and Soonmo AnGENERAL PRINCIPLES 504EXPERIMENTAL PRINCIPLES 505ISOTOPE PAIRING BY THE MIMS METHOD 510SUMMARY 516

Chapter 28Nitrate Reduction, Denitrification, and Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonium in Wetland Sediments 519

Amy J. Burgin, Stephen K. Hamilton, Wayne S. Gardner, and Mark J. McCarthyEQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 521MATERIALS AND REAGENTS 524PROCEDURES 525SAMPLE PREPARATION 530CALCULATIONS 533

Chapter 29System-Level Denitrification Measurement Based on Dissolved Gas Equilibration Theory and Membrane Inlet Mass Spectrometry 539

Andrew Laursen and Patrick W. InglettGENERAL THEORY 541EXPERIMENTAL PRINCIPLES 541CALCULATIONS 544DISCUSSION AND LIMITATIONS 549SUMMARY 550

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Chapter 30Biogeochemical Nitrogen Cycling in Wetland Ecosystems: Nitrogen-15 Isotope Techniques 553

Dries Huygens, Mark Trimmer, Tobias Rütting, Christoph Müller, Catherine M. Heppell, Katrina Lansdown, and Pascal Boeckx

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY SETUPS 554ISOTOPE PAIRING AND REVISED ISOTOPE PAIRING TECHNIQUES 555ISOTOPE DILUTION AND TRACING TECHNIQUES 573

Chapter 31Biological Dinitrogen Fixation 593

Patrick W. InglettACETYLENE REDUCTION 594DINITROGEN-15 INCORPORATION 598SUMMARY 601

Chapter 32Methods for Soil Phosphorus Characterization and Analysis of Wetland Soils 603

Curtis J. Richardson and K.R. ReddyTERMINOLOGY, OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS, AND COMPARISON OF PHOSPHORUS FORMS 607SAMPLE PREPARATION AND STORAGE 609SOIL PHOSPHORUS ANALYSIS 610PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY INDICES 618ANION EXCHANGE RESIN AND IRON OXIDE PAPER 625SOIL INORGANIC PHOSPHORUS FORMS 626GENERAL COMMENTS 631

Chapter 33Phosphorus Characterization in Wetland Soils by Solution Phosphorus-31 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 639

Alexander W. Cheesman, James Rocca, and Benjamin L. TurnerBRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PRINCIPLES 641APPLICATION TO WETLAND SOILS 647

Chapter 34Phosphorus Sorption and Desorption in Wetland Soils 667

Vimala D. Nair and K. Ramesh ReddyBATCH INCUBATION TECHNIQUE 669CALCULATIONS 670THE SINGLE-POINT ISOTHERM 673APPLICATIONS OF PHOSPHORUS SORPTION INDICES 674SUMMARY 678

Chapter 35Organic Phosphorus Mineralization in Wetland Soils 683

K.R. Reddy, T. Chua, and Curtis J. RichardsonORGANIC PHOSPHORUS POOLS 684ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS OF ORGANIC PHOSPHORUS 689POTENTIALLY MINERALIZABLE PHOSPHORUS 690CONCLUSIONS 696

Chapter 36Iron and Manganese Reduction–Oxidation 701

Martin Pentrák, Linda Pentráková, and Joseph W. StuckiSAMPLING 702INERT-ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE HANDLING 703IRON 706MANGANESE 708SAMPLE PREPARATION FOR FURTHER ANALYSES 711SUMMARY 715

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Chapter 37Using Synthesized Iron Oxides as an Indicator of Reduction in Soils 723

M.C. RabenhorstEQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION 725MATERIALS AND REAGENTS 725PROCEDURES 729CONCLUSIONS 738

Chapter 38Characterization of Sulfur Forms and Isotopic Compositions in Wetland Soils 741

William H. Orem and Anne L. BatesANALYSIS OF TOTAL SULFUR IN WETLAND SOIL 743SPECIATION OF SULFUR IN WETLAND SOIL 748SULFUR ISOTOPE ANALYSIS 760

Chapter 39Measurement of Sulfate Reduction in Wetland Soils 765

Jeffrey C. CornwellEQUIPMENT 768MATERIALS AND REAGENTS 769CORE COLLECTION AND INCUBATION 770SAMPLE DIGESTION 771CALCULATION 772RADIATION AND CHEMICAL SAFETY 772

Chapter 40Total Heavy Metal Analyses and Extractions 775

Robert P. GambrellIMPORTANCE OF METALS 776METAL LEVELS IN UPLAND VS. WETLAND SOILS AND SEDIMENTS 777FORMS OF METALS IN SOILS, WETLAND SOILS, AND SEDIMENTS 779PRECAUTIONS AND PROCEDURES FOR ANAEROBIC SAMPLES 783PROCESSING WATER SAMPLES FOR METALS 785SOIL AND SEDIMENT SAMPLES 790WETLAND SOIL AND SEDIMENT EXTRACTIONS 793INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSES 796QUALITY CONTROL 796

Chapter 41Speciation of Arsenic(III)/Arsenic(V) and Selenium(IV)/Selenium(VI) Using Coupled Ion Chromatography–Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 801

Sabine Goldberg and Bruce A. ManningEQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 804REAGENTS AND MATERIALS 804SAMPLE PREPARATION 808PROCEDURE 809RESULTS 809CONCLUSIONS 812

Chapter 42Methods for Determining Toxic Organic Compounds in Wetlands 815

Elisa D’AngeloSAMPLING AND PRESERVATION 816EXTRACTION 823EXTRACT CLEANUP 827DETERMINATIVE METHODS 829CALIBRATION CALCULATIONS 832SUMMARY 835

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Chapter 43Methods for Determining Emerging Contaminants in Wetland Matrices 841

Jeremy L. Conkle, John R. White, and Chris D. MetcalfeGENERAL METHOD INFORMATION 843QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY CONTROL 844SAMPLE COLLECTION, STORAGE, AND HOLD TIMES 844SAMPLE PREPARATION 845EXTRACTION, CONCENTRATION, AND SOLID EXTRACT CLEANUP 849ANALYTICAL METHODS 850CALCULATIONS 851METHOD APPLICATION AND ADAPTATIONS 852SUMMARY 853

Chapter 44Nanoscale Analytical Transmission Electron Microscopy Techniques Applicable to Wetland Research and Monitoring 857

Bojeong Kim, Curtis J. Richardson, Mitsuhiro Murayama, and Michael F. Hochella, Jr.MODERN ANALYTICAL TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY: A SYNOPSIS 859SAMPLE PREPARATION 861TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY ANALYSES 863

Chapter 45Dating Wetland Sediment Cores 879

Mark Brenner and William F. KenneyRADIOCARBON DATING 880LEAD-210 DATING 885SUMMARY 898

Chapter 46The Surface Elevation Table–Marker Horizon Method for Measuring Wetland Accretion and Elevation Dynamics 901

John C. Callaway, Donald R. Cahoon, and James C. LynchPREVIOUS USES 904EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 905MATERIALS AND REAGENTS 908PROCEDURE 909CALCULATIONS 913

Chapter 47Wetland Water Budgets 919

Jennifer Mitchell and James W. JawitzWATER BUDGET 920DATA REQUIRED 922EXAMPLE WATER BUDGETS 926SUMMARY OF WATER BUDGET APPLICATIONS 933

Chapter 48On the Calculation of the Flux of Materials through Wetlands and Estuaries under Oscillatory Motions 937

Chunyan Li, John R. White, and Sibel BarguMETHOD 939APPLICATION AND DISCUSSION 941SUMMARY 946

Chapter 49Methods to Assess High-Resolution Subsurface Gas Concentrations and Gas Fluxes in Wetland Ecosystems 949

Bo Elberling, Michael Kühl, Ronnie N. Glud, Christian Juncher Jørgensen, Louise Askaer, Lars F. Rickelt, Hans P. Joensen, Morten Larsen, and Lars Liengaard

SUBSURFACE GAS MEASUREMENTS 950NET SURFACE GAS FLUX MEASUREMENTS 963CONCLUSIONS 966

Index 971

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Foreword

Wetlands only occupy 6% of the Earth’s surface, yet their role in the eco-sphere is much greater than their extent suggests. These ecosystems occur at the interface between land and water. Their position results in physical,

chemical, and biological properties that combine those observed in uplands with those observed in water. As a result, the processes in wetlands affect both uplands and aquatics ecosystems. With this in mind questions arise as to what methods should be employed to study these ecosystems? This book provides the answers.

As part of the Methods of Soil Analysis offerings published by the Soil Science Society of America, this book deserves special attention. It was edited by several world-renowned soil scientists who specialize in wetlands. They have worked with more than 100 soil and wetland scientists to compile a methods book that is interdisciplinary and will be a standard for everyone investigating wetlands for years to come. This book is much more than just a typical, cookbook style, meth-ods book—its authors are sharing with the scientific community methods they have specially developed and modified to work in unique wetland soil environ-ments. The authors are sharing their years of trial and error to ensure wetlands are properly investigated and that those just starting their study of wetlands use proven methods without having to reinvent the wheel. The list of authors truly shows the multi- and interdisciplinary nature of research in wetlands, as well as in soil science in general. It is a book that should occupy a critical place with the other Methods of Soil Analysis books on the shelves of all soil scientists, geoscien-tists, biologists, and ecologists, just as wetlands themselves occupy a critical place in our ecosphere.

David L. Lindbo, 2013 President of the Soil Science Society of America

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Preface

Wetland biogeochemistry is an interdisciplinary science that includes the study of physical, chemical, and biological processes that create the func-tions and values of wetland ecosystems. Globally, wetlands can be found

in all climatic zones, from tropical to boreal, with the exception of polar. Approxi-mately 6% of Earth’s land surface, which equals about 800 million ha, is covered by wetlands. The United States alone contains about 14% of the world’s wetlands, or about 111 million ha. These environments include freshwater marshes and swamp forests, tidal freshwater, brackish and salt marsh wetlands, mangroves, northern and southern peatlands, bogs and fens, tropical peat swamp forests, riparian wet-lands, and wet tundra.

Wetlands typically occur at the interface of upland and aquatic ecosystems, making them unique environments that are dominated by both strongly reducing (anaerobic) and strongly oxidizing (aerobic) conditions that vary across a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. The interplay between these vastly different reduction‒oxidation conditions is a central feature of all plant and microbial pro-cesses in wetland soils, and is essential to understanding the vital role wetlands perform for Earth biogeochemical processes.

Because wetlands are sinks, sources, and transformers of elements and com-pounds, they also have a significant impact on the adjacent ecosystems to which they are linked in landscapes. Wetlands intercept allocthonous elements, compounds, and minerals transported from upland ecosystems by erosion, groundwater dis-charge, or flooding. Biogeochemical processes control the exchange or flux of these materials between living and nonliving components of the biosphere—they transform substances within the wetland, often causing phase changes between solid, liquid, and gaseous states that dramatically alter the fate of the substance. In a transformed state, substances exported from wetlands are imported into down-stream systems such as streams, rivers, lakes, and seas. Wetland biogeochemical processes are thus relevant to regional-scale issues, such as coastal or lake eutro-phication, and global scale issues, such as climate change. In particular, wetlands are significant global sources of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, and sinks of carbon dioxide, nutrients, and metals.

There is increasing need to quantify the chemical, physical, and biological pro-cesses operating in wetlands in order to assess their ecosystem function and services. At present many of the standard methods developed for upland soils are adopted with some modifications to study wetland soils. Observation and experimentation in the plant‒soil‒atmosphere of wetland systems is dramatically different from upland systems. The likelihood of highly reducing conditions that occur because excess water restricts the oxygen supply, and the resulting low decomposition rates means a high proportion of primary productivity can be stored as soil organic mat-ter. The saturated (anaerobic), highly organic, and low bulk density soils that often occur in wetlands require analytical techniques that are different from those used

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for unsaturated (aerobic), low organic, high bulk density upland soils. For exam-ple, exposing an oxygen-deficient soil sample to an atmosphere of ambient air (21% of oxygen) in order to analyze it can substantially change the parameter to be measured. For these reasons it has been necessary to develop special techniques, sometimes alter standard methods, and make measurements on wet or reduced soils rather than air-dried soils in order to develop realistic numbers for wetland biogeochemical processes.

Many wetland researchers have developed specialized analytical methods and sampling techniques for use in wetland studies, but often scientists are not aware of these procedures because they have never been collected into one source. In this book we provide chapters on the key methods used by our community for a wide variety of applications, including characterizing the biological and physicochemical properties of wetland soils, quantifying plant processes such as biomass production and gas trans-port, plant community sampling, determining concentrations and transformation rates for nutrients, redox-active elements, toxic organic compounds, and emerging contam-inants. Transport processes, modeling, and soil dating, as well as measurements on greenhouse gas fluxes, wetland water budgets, and estuarine fluxes are also presented.

Overall, we have drawn on more than 100 experts including several young scientists in representative wetland fields to share key methods as well as new proce-dures they have developed to overcome problems encountered in wetland analysis. The suggested methods for wetland soil and plants are intended to assist scientists in the discipline as well as provide some standardization in methods. However, we are not advocating a “cookbook” approach or the use of these methods only since many of the authors point out the complexity and limitations of many of these meth-ods and the need to introduce new approaches to overcome site-specific issues. This book compliments the Methods of Soil Analysis books published by the Soil Science Society of America (SSSA). Many methods presented in this volume rely on the original methods published in SSSA book series or specialized volumes. We antici-pate this volume will serve as the primary reference on analytical methods used by wetland scientists in several disciplines including: biogeochemists, hydrologists, ecologists, pedologists, and other environmental scientists. We hope this volume provides a foundation for wetland research but look forward to the exciting break-throughs in methods the next generation of wetland scientists develop.

The editors of this volume express their sincere gratitude and appreciation to many anonymous reviewers for their critical review of the manuscripts, which improved the quality. Special thanks to Lisa Al-Amoodi and Pamm Kasper of the SSSA Headquarters staff for their excellent editorial assistance in improving the quality of manuscripts.

EditorsR.D. DeLaune, Louisiana State University, Baton RougeK.R. Reddy, University of Florida, GainesvilleC.J. Richardson, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina J.P. Megonigal, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, Maryland

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ContributorsAn, S. Dep. of Oceanography, 2, Busandaehak-ro 63beon-gil, Geumjeong-gu, Busan,

South Korea

Askaer, L. Ctr. for Permafrost, Dep. of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Univ. of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark

Bae, H.-S. Soil and Water Science Dep., Univ. of Florida, 2161 McCarty Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611-0290 (hsbae@ufl.edu)

Bargu, S. Dep. of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, School of the Coast and Environment, 1235 ECE, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (sbargu@lsu.edu)

Barr, J.G. South Florida Natural Resource Ctr., Everglades Natl. Park, 40001 State Road 9336, Homestead, FL 33034 (Jordan_Barr@nps.gov)

Bates, A.L. USGS, 956 National Ctr., 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., MS 956, Reston, VA 20192 (abates@usgs.gov)

Bellamy, P. Dep. of Environmental Science and Technology, School of Applied Sciences, Building 37, Cranfield campus, Cranfield Univ., Cranfield, UK (p.bellamy@cranfield.ac.uk)

Bianchi, T.S. Dep. of Geological Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2120 (tbianchi@ufl.edu)

Boeckx, P. Laboratory of Applied Physical Chemistry – ISOFYS, Ghent University, Coupure 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium (pascal.boeckx@ugent.be)

Bouillon, S. Dep. of Earth and Environ. Sci., KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200E, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium (steven.bouillon@ees.kuleuven.be)

Brenner, M. Dep. of Geological Sciences and Land Use and Environmental Change Inst., Univ. of Florida, 241 Williamson Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611-2120 (brenner@ufl.edu)

Bridgham, S.D. Environmental Sciences Institute and Institute of Ecology and Evolution, 5289 Univ. of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-5289 (bridgham@uoregon.edu)

Brix, H. Plant Biology, Dep. of Bioscience, Univ. of Aarhus, Ole Worms Alle 1, DK-8000 Aarhus C., Denmark (hans.brix@biology.au.dk)

Burgin, A.J. School of Natural Resources, Univ. of Nebraska, 3310 Holdrege St., 412 Hardin Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583 (aburgin2@unl.edu)

Cahoon, D.R. USGS, Patuxent Wildlife Research Ctr., 10300 Baltimore Ave., BARC-East, Bldg. 308, Beltsville, MD 20705 (dcahoon@usgs.gov )

Callaway, J.C. Dep. of Environmental Science, Univ. of San Francisco, 2130 Fulton St., San Francisco, CA 94117 (callaway@usfca.edu)

Casado, M.R. Centre for Environmental Risks and Futures, Environmental Science and Technology Dep., School of Applied Sciences, Building 42, Cranfield campus, Cranfield Univ., Cranfield, UK (m.rivas-casado@cranfield.ac.uk)

Castañeda-Moya, E. Dep. of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, School of the Coast and the Environment, 1002-Y Energy, Coast & Environment Building, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, LA 70803

Chanton, J.P. Dep. of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sci., Florida State Univ., 1017 Academic Way, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4520 (jchanton@fsu.edu)

Cheesman, A.W. School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook Univ., E Precinct MacGregor Rd., Smithfield, QLD 4878, Australia (Alexander.Cheesman@gmail.com)

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Cherry, J.A. Dep. of Biological Sciences and New College, The University of Alabama, 503 6th Ave., Lloyd 201, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487 (julia.cherry@ua.edu)

Chua, T. Wetland Biogeochemistry Lab., Soil and Water Science Dep., Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611; currently with the Agronomy Dep., 2104 Agronomy Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 (tchuaona@iastate.edu)

Clark, M.W. Wetland Biogeochemistry Lab., Soil and Water Science Dep., 2181 McCarty Hall A, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611 (clarkmw@ufl.edu)

Conkle, J.L. Environmental Sciences, Univ. of California, Sciences Labs 1 Building, Room 211, Riverside, CA (jeremy.conkle@ucr.edu)

Conner, W.H. Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology and Forest Science, Clemson University, 177 Hobcaw Road, Highway 17 N, Georgetown, SC 29440 (wconner@clemson.edu)

Cook, R.L. 307 Choppin Hall, Dep. of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (rlcook@lsu.edu)

Cooper, W.T. Dep. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State Univ., 95 Chieftan Way, Tallahassee, FL 32306 (cooper@chem.fsu.edu )

Cornwell, J.C. Ctr. for Environmental Science, Univ. of Maryland, Horn Point Lab., 5745 Lovers Lane, Cambridge, MD 21613-0775 (cornwell@umces.edu)

Corstanje, R. Dep. of Environmental Science and Technology, School of Applied Sciences, Building 37, Cranfield campus, Cranfield Univ., Cranfield, UK (roncorstanje@cranfield.ac.uk)

Craft, C. School of Public and Environmental Affairs, MSB II Room 408, 702 N. Walnut Grove Ave., Indiana University, Bloomington IN 47405 (ccraft@indiana.edu)

D’Angelo, E. Dep. of Plant and Soil Science, Office: 122J, Univ. of Kentucky, 1100 Nicholasville Rd., Lexington, KY 40546-0091 (edangelo@uky.edu).

DeLaune, R.D. Dep. of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, School of the Coast and Environment, Louisiana State Univ., Energy & Coast Bldg., S. Stadium Dr., Baton Rouge, LA 70803-7511 (rdelaun@lsu.edu)

Elberling, B. Ctr. for Permafrost, Dep. of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Univ. of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark (be@geo.ku.dk)

Engel, V. USGS, Southeast Ecological Science Ctr., 7920 NW 71st St., Gainesville FL 32653 (vengel@usgs.gov)

Fisher, M.M. Water Resources Group, LLC, 14222 N Friendship Ln., Nine Mile Falls, WA 99026 (millard3@gmail.com)

Freeman, C. School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, UK (c.freeman@bangor.ac.uk)

Fuentes, J.D. Dep. of Meteorology, 508 Walker Building, Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park, PA 16802 (jdfuentes@psu.edu)

Gambrell, R. Dep. of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, School of the Coast and Environment, Louisiana State Univ., 3173 ECE, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (gambrell@lsu.edu)

Gardner, W.S. Marine Science Institute, Univ. of Texas at Austin, 750 Channel View Dr., Port Aransas, TX 78373 (wayne.gardner@utexas.edu)

Glud, R.N. Scottish Association for Marine Science, Dunstaffnage Marine Lab., Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, UK; Dep. of Biology and Nordic Ctr. for Earth Evolution, Univ. of Southern Denmark, Odense M, Denmark; and Greenland Climate Research Centre, Kivioq 2, Box 570, 3900 Nuuk, Greenland (ronnie.glud@sams.ac.uk)

Goldberg, S. U.S. Salinity Lab., 450 W. Big Springs Rd., Riverside, CA 92507 (Sabine.Goldberg@ars.usda.gov)

Hamilton, S.K. Kellogg Biological Station and Dep. of Zoology, Michigan State Univ., 3700 East Gull Lake Dr., Hickory Corners, MI 49060 (hamilton@kbs.msu.edu)

Heppell, C.M. School of Geography, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK (c.m.heppell@qmul.ac.uk)

xvii contributors

Hiscox, A. Dep. of Geography, Univ. of South Carolina, Calcott, Rm. 111, 709 Bull St., Columbia, SC 29208 (hiscox@mailbox.sc.edu)

Hochella, M.F. Jr. Dep. of Geosciences, and Inst. for Critical Technology and Applied Science, Environmental Nanoscience and Technology Lab., 4044 Derring Hall (0420), Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061 (hochella@vt.edu)

Hunt, P.G. USDA-ARS, Coastal Plains Soil, Water, and Plant Research Ctr., 2611 W. Lucas St., Florence, SC 29501-1242 (Patrick.Hunt@ars.usda.gov)

Huygens, D. Isotope Bioscience Laboratory–ISOFYS, Ghent Univ., B-9000 Gent, Belgium (dries.huygens@ugent.be); also Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal–IMBIV, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de Argentina, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina and Fac. of Agricultural Sciences, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile

Inglett, K.S. Wetland Biogeochemistry Laboratory, Soil and Water Science Dep., 2181 McCarty Hall A, University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32611-0510 (Kanika@ufl.edu)

Inglett, P.S. Wetland Biogeochemistry Laboratory, Soil and Water Science Dep., 2181 McCarty Hall, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0510 (pinglett@ufl.edu)

Jawitz, J.W. Soil and Water Science Dep., 2181 McCarty Hall A, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0290 (jawitz@ufl.edu)

Joensen, H.P. Ctr. for Permafrost, Dep. of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Univ. of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark

Jørgensen, C.J. Ctr. for Permafrost, Dep. of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Univ. of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark (cjj@geo.ku.dk)

Kana, T.M. Ctr. for Environmental Science, Horn Point Lab., Univ. of Maryland, 2020 Horns Point Road, Cambridge, MD 21613 (kana@hpl.umces.edu)

Kang, H. School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, A261, Engineering Hall I, 134 Shinchon-Dong, Seodaemoon-Gu,Yonsei Univ., Seoul, Korea (hj_kang@yonsei.ac.kr)

Kenney, W.F. Land Use and Environmental Change Inst., Williamson Hall, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2120 (kenney@ufl.edu)

Kim, B. Dep. of Geosciences, and Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science, Environmental Nanoscience and Technology Lab., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061; currently at Earth and Environmental Science, Temple Univ., Philadelphia, PA 19122-6081 (bkim@temple.edu).

Kim, S.-Y. School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, A261, Engineering Hall I, 134 Shinchon-Dong, Seodaemoon-Gu,Yonsei Univ., Seoul, Korea (gusdid33@hotmail.com )

King, R.S. Dep. of Biology, Baylor University, Office C.414 Baylor Sciences Bldg., One Bear Place, Waco, TX 76798-7388 (Ryan_S_King@baylor.edu)

Knicker, H. Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Sevilla, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Avenida Reina Mercedes 10, Seville, E-41012, Spain (knicker@irnase.csic.es)

Kongchum, M. School of Plant, Environmental, and Soil Sciences, Louisiana State Univ., 325 M.B. Sturgis, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (MKongchum@agCtr..lsu.edu)

Kühl, M. Marine Biological Section, Dep. of Biology, Univ. of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, DK-3000 Helsingør, Denmark; also Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, Dep. of Environmental Science, Univ. of Technology, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia (mkuhl@bio.ku.dk)

Lansdown, K. School of Geography, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK (k.lansdown@qmul.ac.uk)

Langer, U. Dep. of Soil Protection, State Office for Environmental Protection of Saxony-Anhalt, Reideburger Straße 47, 06116 Halle/Saale, Germany

Larsen, M. Scottish Association for Marine Science, Dunstaffnage Marine Lab., Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, UK; Dep. of Biology and Nordic Ctr. for Earth Evolution; Univ. of Southern Denmark, Odense M, Denmark, and Greenland Climate Research Centre, Kivioq 2, Box 570, 3900 Nuuk, Greenland (mortenl@biology.sdu.dk)

xviii

Laursen, A. Dep. of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson Univ., Kerr Hall North, KHN 212, 43 Gerrard Street East, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3 Canada (alaursen@ryerson.ca)

Li, C. Dep. Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, 331 Howe-Russell Geocomplex, Coastal Studies Inst., Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (cli@lsu.edu)

Liengaard, L. Ctr. for Permafrost, Dep. of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Univ. of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark

Luther, G.W. III 700 Pilottown Road, Cannon Laboratory 218, School of Marine Science and Policy, University of Delaware, Lewes, DE 19958 (luther@udel.edu).

Lynch, J.C. National Park ServiceNortheast Coastal & Barrier Network, 4598 MacArthur Blvd., NW, Washington, DC 20007 (james_lynch@nps.gov)

Madison, A.S. Golder Associates, Inc., 200 Century Parkway, Suite C, Mt. Laurel, NJ 08054 (Andrew_Madison@golder.com)

Manning, B.A. Dep. of Chemistry & Biochemistry, San Francisco State Univ., 1600 Holloway Ave., San Francisco, CA 94132 (bmanning@sfsu.edu)

Marchant, B. British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Nicker Hill, Keyworth, Nottingham, UK (a.marchant@bgs.ac.uk)

McCarthy, M.J. Marine Science Inst., Univ. of Texas at Austin, 750 Channel View Dr., Port Aransas, TX 78373 (mjm.kingston@gmail.com)

Megonigal, J.P. Smithsonian Environmental Research Ctr., 647 Contees Wharf Rd., Edgewater, MD 21037-0028 (megonigalp@si.edu)

Metcalfe, C.D. Environmental and Resource Studies, Trent Univ., 1600 West Bank Dr., Peterborough, ON, K9J 7B8, Canada (cmetcalfe@trentu.ca)

Mitchell, J. Soil and Water Science Dep., 2181 McCarty Hall A, Univ. of Flori-da, Gainesville, FL 32611 (jdmitchell@alachuacounty.us)

Müller, C. Dep. of Plant Ecology, Justus-Liebig Univ. Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26, 35392 Giessen, Germany (Christoph.Mueller@bot2.bio.uni-giessen.de); also School of Biology and Environmental Science, Univ. College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland

Murayama, M. Inst. for Critical Technology and Applied Science, Environmental Nanoscience and Technology Lab., and Dep. of Materials Science and Engineering, 304-A Holden Hall (0237),Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061 (murayama@vt.edu)

Nair, V.D. Soil and Water Science Dep., Univ. of Florida, 2181 McCarty Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611-0290 (vdn@ufl.edu)

Ogram, A.V. Wetland Biogeochemistry Lab., Soil and Water Science Dep., 21861 McCarty Hall A, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0290 (aogram@ufl.edu)

O’Halloran, T.L. Dep. of Environmental Science, Sweet Briar College, 134 Chapel Road, Sweet Briar, VA 24595 (tohalloran@sbc.edu)

Orem, W.H. USGS, 956 National Ctr., 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., MS 956, Reston, VA 20192 (borem@usgs.gov)

Osborne, T.Z. Wetland Biogeochemistry Lab., Soil and Water Science Dep., Univ. of Florida, 2181 McCarty Hall A, Gainesville, FL 32611 (osbornet@ufl.edu)

Pentrák, M. Dep. of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Illinois, 1102 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801 (mpentrak@illinois.edu)

Pentráková, L. Dep. of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Illinois, 1102 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801 (uachlink@savba.sk)

Pezeshki, S.R. Dep. of Biological Sciences, 3774 Walker Ave., University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152 (pezeshki@memphis.edu)

Poach, M.E. NOAA, James J. Howard Marine Sciences Lab., 74 Magruder Road, Highlands, NJ 07732 (Matthew.Poach@noaa.gov)

Qualls, R.G. Dep. of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Nevada, MS 186, 1664 N. Virginia St., Reno, NV 89557 (qualls@unr.edu).

Rabenhorst, M. Dep. of Environmental Science and Technology, Univ. of Maryland, 1109 HJ Patterson Hall, College Park, MD 20742-5821 (mrabenho@umd.edu)

xix contributors

Reddy, K.R. Wetland Biogeochemistry Lab., Soil and Water Science Dep., 2181 McCarty Hall A, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0510 (krr@ufl.edu)

Richardson, C.J. Duke University Wetland Ctr., Nicholas School of the Environment, Levine Science Ctr., Duke University, Box 90333, 450 Research Dr., Durham, NC 27708-0333 (curtr@duke.edu)

Rickelt, L.F. Marine Biological Section, Dep. of Biology, Univ. of Copenhagen, Strandprome-naden 5, DK-3000 Helsingør, Denmark (lfrickelt@bio.ku.dk)

Rinklebe, J. Dep. D, Civil Engineering, Pauluskirchstraße 7, Univ. of Wuppertal, 42285 Wuppertal, Germany (rinklebe@uni-wuppertal.de)

Rivera-Monroy, V.H. Dep. of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, School of the Coast and the Environment, 1002-Y Energy, Coast & Environment Building, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (vhrivera@lsu.edu)

Ro, K.S. USDA-ARS, Coastal Plains Soil, Water, and Plant Research Ctr., 2611 W. Lucas St., Florence, SC 29501-1242 (Kyoung.Ro@ars.usda.gov)

Rocca, J. McKnight Brain Inst., 1149 South Newell Dr., P.O. Box 100015, Gainesville, FL 32611 (JRRocca@ufl.edu)

Roy, E.D. Dep. of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, School of the Coast and Environment, Louisiana State Univ., Energy, Coast & Environment Bldg., Rm. 3221, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (eroy5@tigers.lsu.edu)

Rütting, T. Guldhedsgatan 5A, 413 20 Göteborg, Sweden (tobias.rutting@gu.se)

Smith, T.J., III Southeast Ecological Science Ctr., USGS, 600 Fourth St., St. Petersburg, FL 33701 (Tom_J_Smith@usgs.gov)

Sorrell, B.K. Plant Biology, Dep. of Bioscience, Univ. of Aarhus, Ole Worms Alle 1, DK-8000 Aarhus C., Denmark (brian.sorrell@biology.au.dk)

Stucki, J.W. Dep. of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Illinois, 1102 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801 (jstucki@illinois.edu)

Trimmer, M. School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK (m.trimmer@qmul.ac.uk)

Troxler, T.G. Southeast Environmental Research Ctr. and Dep. of Biological Sciences, 11200 SW 8th ST, OE 148, Florida International Univ., North Miami, FL 33181 (troxlert@fiu.edu)

Turner, B.L. Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Edificio Tupper - 401, Balboa, Ancón, Panamá, República de Panamá (TurnerBL@si.edu)

Twilley, R.R. Dep. of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, School of the Coast and the Environment, 1002-Y Energy, Coast & Environment Building, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (twilley@lsu.edu)

VanZomeren, C.M. Wetland Biogeochemistry Lab., Soil and Water Science Dep., 2181 McCarty Hall A, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 (cvanzomeren@ufl.edu)

Vepraskas, M.J. Soil Science Dep., 3413 Williams Hall, 100 Derieux St., North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7619 (michael_vepraskas@ncsu.edu)

White, J.R. Dep. of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, School of the Coast and Environment, Louisiana State Univ., Energy, Coast & Environment Bldg., Rm. 3239, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (jrwhite@lsu.edu)

Ye, R. Dep. of Land, Air and Water Resources, Univ. of California, PES 3316, Davis, CA 95616 (rzye2012@gmail.com)

Yu, K. Dep. of Biological and Environmental Sciences, McCall Hall Room 210-C, Troy Univ., Troy, AL 36082 (kyu@troy.edu)