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Institute of Technology – Nirma University

B. Tech. (First Year) - Civil Engineering Department

CL101 – ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENERGY STUDIES

(ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES SECTION)

Literature Abstract (Lecture - 1)

“ENVIRONMENT”- DEFINITION AND MEANING:

‘ENVIRONMENT’ refers to the surrounding conditions – more scientifically the PHYSICAL,

CHEMICAL and BIOLOGICAL conditions.

COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT:

ENVIRONMENT

ATMOSPHERE LITHOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE BIOSPHERE

Troposphere Core

Stratosphere Mantle

Mesosphere Crust

Thermosphere

ATMOSPHERE – It is the envelope of gases surrounding the earth, comprising a complex

mixture of major, minor & trace components.

LITHOSPHERE – It refers to the solid layers of rock materials, on the continents and below

the oceans.

HYDROSPHERE – It refers to the layer / cover of water on the earth’s surface in the form of

oceans, seas, rivers, lakes and ponds.

BIOSPHERE – It collectively covers the portions of Atmosphere, Lithosphere and

Hydrosphere which supports all the life forms.

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ENVIRONMENTAL DIVISIONS:

From the scientific study point of view, the overall environment & each component thereof is

divided into the following two divisions.

1) PHYSICAL / ABIOTIC (Non-living) Environment.

2) BIOLOGICAL / BIOTIC (living) Environment.

THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENT:

The environment in totality is not a single element but it comprises of the 4 components viz –

Atmosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and Biosphere. Thus the complete nature of

environment and its study requires the lawful application of techniques and knowledge of all the

streams of science and technology.

SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES:

The ‘Development’ to be in pace with environmental protection and conservation, vast scope lies in

all disciplines of science and technology towards-

Study and exploring the nature.

Technological developments.

Practical applications and implementations.

Post implementation impacts and problems.

Remedial measures and solution findings to the problems.

Means to conserve the nature and environment.

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ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENERGY STUDIES

Literature Abstract (Lecture – 2 + 3)

PRESENT SCENARIO OF ENVIRONMENT – WORLD

Excessive consumption of natural resources:

The latest WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) report on state of world’s ecology says that

“Humans are consuming 20% more natural resources than the earth’s biological capacity to produce

them”.

Higher resources demand:

According to the Living Planet report 2002, “Humanity has been running an ecological deficit since

the 1980s, and if the present trend continues, by 2050, to sustain the humanity, we would be needing

resources equal to two earths.

PRESENT SCENARIO OF ENVIRONMENT – INDIA:

India is a land of physical, ecological, social, cultural and linguistic diversity. Bounded by the

Himalayas in the North and Indian Ocean in the South, it has a multitude of climates, soils and

geographical areas and consequently habitats, flora, fauna and wildlife.

The important aspects of environmental scenario in India are highlighted as-

Population Explosion-Very High Rate Of Population Growth:

Water Pollution:

-Discharge of Industrial Waste with high organic content in the river water:

-Discharge of Hot Industrial Waste in the river water:

Air Pollution:

Land Pollution & Ground Water Contamination:

Deforestation:

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NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS TOWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION:

“Pollution is the burning issue of the day at the global level. A combined effort to control pollution

has to be made by all government agencies, technologists, industrialists, agriculturists and last but

not least the common man.”

Thus there is an urgent need to create awareness in every individual towards-

Control of environmental pollution.

Natural resources conservation.

Land management.

Development of non-polluting sources of energy.

Environmental education.

Environmental laws.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION:

Each and every individual and collectively the whole population from all walks of life must

contribute towards environmental protection. This can be achieved by setting objective & guidelines

and structured system of environmental education.

In this direction, large number of workshops, seminars, training programmes, etc…. have been and

are being conducted across the world.

Objectives of Environmental Education:

Six Objectives and Guiding Principles of Environmental Education.

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ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION – STRUCTURE:

Organization of Environmental Education System

The environmental education can be imparted in two ways-

FORMAL EDUCATION NON FORMAL EDUCATION

The formal education is given in teaching

centers as schools, colleges / institutions,

universities etc….

It is having a well defined & systematic

curriculum (syllabus) and specific period of

teaching and evaluation.

The formal education is provided at

different levels of studies as-

Pre Primary School

Primary School

Secondary School

Higher Secondary School

College (Graduation & Post

Graduation Level)-

For a majority portion of the population

that still does not have adequate access to

the formal education, environmental

education and awareness can be acquired

by programmes that fall outside the formal

education system.

It includes organization of extra curricular

activities like eco development camps,

posters & essay writing competitions,

exhibitions, seminars, nature camps, nature

club activities, audio-visual slides, mobile

exhibitions etc.

It also include observing and celebrating

days like ‘World Environment Day’

‘Vehicle Free Day’ ‘World Forest Day’

etc….

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ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Pollution is referred to the direct or indirect alteration of the environment in such a way that it

interferes with the human health, the quality of life and the natural functioning of the

ecosystems.

Pollution is an undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the

environment. Any change in the environment which contributes to its deterioration is called

pollution.

Pollution is the contamination of the environment or destruction of the purity, safety and sanctity

of the environment.

The substance which pollutes the environment or becomes the cause for the environmental

pollution is called as pollutant.

CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS:

- On the basis of existence in nature:

Quantitative

Qualitative

- On the basis of formation:

Primary (Particulate matter of natural origin as dust, seeds, pollen grains )

Secondary (sulphur trioxide ,nitrogen dioxide, acid rain)

- On the basis of characteristics (from Ecosystem point view):

Bio-degradable ( Organic matter , sewage food waste)

Non-biodegradable(various plastics, inorganic materials and radioactive

materials)

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SOURCES OF POLLUTION

Natural resources Man made (Anthropogenic sources)

-Volcanic Eruptions -Urbanization

-Forest fires -Industrialization

-Dust storms -Vehicular pollution

-Pollens, cysts, spores -Population explosion ,over use

-Natural organic matter decay -Unscientific Agriculture activities

-Radioactive pollution -Deforestation

-Bacteria -Nuclear explosions ,explosives

mining and quarrying activities

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION:

Air Pollution (Atmospheric pollution), Water pollution, Land\Soil pollution, Solid Wastes, Noise

pollution, Radioactive Pollution.

EFFECT OF POLLUTION ON THE ENVIRONMENT:

Pollution has various adverse effects on both-

1. Biotic (Living) components of the environment

2. Abiotic (Non-living) components of the environment.

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Literature Abstract (Lecture – 6 to 9)

AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL

AIR POLLUTION:

Air pollution refers to the atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in such

concentrations that they can produce undesirable effects on man and the environment.

AIR POLLUTION (Definition):

According to Bureau of Indian Standards, IS – 4167 (1966): ‘The presence in ambient atmospheres

of substances, generally resulting from the activity of man, in sufficient concentration, present for a

sufficient time and under circumstances such as to interfere with comfort, health or welfare of

persons or with reasonable use or enjoyment of property’.

According to Engineer’s Joint Council, U.S.A: ‘Air pollution means the presence in the outdoor

atmosphere of one or more contaminants such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour in

quantities of characteristics and of duration as to be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to

property or which reasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property’.

CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS:

The Air pollutants are classified as-

- According to origin:

PRIMARY POLLUTANTS – These are directly emitted from the source into the atmosphere.

Examples-Sulphur oxides, Nitrogen oxides, Hydrocarbons, ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist,

radioactive materials etc.

SECONDARY POLLUTANTS – These are formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions

between primary pollutants and atmospheric constituents, generally by photo-chemical reactions,

hydrolysis or oxidation reactions.

Examples-Ozone, Peroxy acyl Nitrate (PAN), Sulphur Trioxide, Aldehydes, Ketones, Photo-

chemical Smog etc.

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- According to Chemical compositions:

ORGANIC POLLUTANTS – Biodegradable, For example-Hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones,

amines, alcohols etc.

INORGANIC POLLUTANTS – Non-biodegradable, For example-Non-carbon compounds,

Nitrogen compounds, Sulphur compounds, Halogen compounds, Oxidising agents etc….

- According to the State of matter:

GASEOUS POLLUTANTS – These get mixed with the air and do not normally settle down. For

example-CO, NOx, SO2 etc…

PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS – These comprise of finely divided solids (or liquids)

dispersed in the air and often exist in colloidal state as aerosols.

For example-Smoke, fumes, dust, mist, fog, smog and spray etc…. These are further divided into-

i) Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)

ii) Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM).

CAUSES / SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION:

- Natural Sources

- Man made (Anthropogenic) Sources.

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION:

Due to rapid developments and industrialization the pollutants are being discharged and

accumulating in so high concentrations that it is beyond the self cleaning capacity of the

environment to nullify their effects. As a result, this is having many adverse effects which can be

summarized as effects on-

On human health

On animals

On plants

On materials

On climate

On aesthetic beauty

Effects of some specific pollutants as:

Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen oxides (NOX).

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CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION:

Air pollution control methods-

Source correction methods

Pollution control equipment

Diffusion(dilution) of pollutant in air

Vegetation

Zoning(The planning aspect)

Legislation

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT:

The Air Pollution control equipments are classified as follows:

1. Control devices for particulate contaminants

2. Control devices for gaseous contaminants

(1) Control devices for particulate contaminants-

Gravitational settling

Cyclone separators

Fabric filters

Electrostatic precipitator

Wet collectors (scrubbers)

(2) Control devices for gaseous contaminants-

Wet absorption methods.

Dry absorption methods.

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WATER POLLUTION

Water Pollution: Water pollution is the presence of any foreign substances (organic, inorganic,

radiological, biological) in water which tends to degrade the quality so as to constitute a hazard or

impair the usefulness of water USPHS, Drinking Water Standards). Courts of law define water

pollution as any impairment of water quality that makes water unsuitable for beneficial use. It can

also be defined as the presence of foreign substances, either from natural or man-made sources,

which contaminates the water and if consumed is harmful to life. Contaminated water is harmful

because of its toxicity, low level of oxygen and has the potential to spread epidemic diseases.

Classification of Water Pollutants:

Organic Pollutants:

1) Oxygen demanding wastes: These include domestic and animal sewage, biodegradable organic

compounds and industrial wastes from the food mills.

2) Disease causing waste: These include pathogenic microorganisms which may enter the water

along with sewage and other wastes and may cause tremendous damage to the public health.

3) Synthetic organic compounds: These are man made materials such as synthetic pesticides, food

additives, insecticides, etc.

4) Sewage and agricultural runoff: Sewage and runoff from agricultural lands supply plant nutrients

which may stimulate the growth of algae and other aquatic weeds resulting in eutrophication.

5) Oil: Oil pollution may take place because of oil spills from cargo oil tankers on the seas, losses

during off-shore exploration and production of oil.

Inorganic Pollutants:

The inorganic pollutants include mineral acids, inorganic salts, cyanides, sulphate, etc.

Suspended Solids and sediments:

1) Sediments: Sediments are mostly contributed by soil erosion by natural processes, agricultural

development, construction activities, etc.

2) Suspended solids: Suspended solids in water mainly comprise silt, sand and minerals eroded from

the land.

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Radioactive Materials:

Radioactive pollutants like Sr90, I 131, Cs137, Co60, Ra226, etc may originate from the anthropogenic

activities like mining and processing of ores, from nuclear power plants and nuclear reactors, from

testing and use of nuclear weaponry, etc.

Heat:

Waste heat which is discharged in water through waste hot water, etc acts as a pollutant.

Effects of the Water Pollutants on Water Quality:

1. Change in colour: Water acquires colour when textile and dyeing operation, food processing

units, mining, paper production, animal slaughter houses, etc discharge their waste effluents into

water bodies. Objectionably, coloured water is aesthetically unacceptable and unsuitable for

bathing, laundering, beverage manufacturing, food processing, etc.

2. Objectionable taste and odour: Agents like various minerals, metals, phenols, free chlorine,

hydrogen sulphide, etc impart objectionable taste & odour to the water thereby impairing its use.

3. Depleting Dissolved Oxygen Content: The immediate oxygen demand due to impurities such

as starch, nitrites, etc depletes the dissolved oxygen content & adversely affects the aquatic life.

4. Affecting the oxygenation process: The oil present interferes with the oxygenation of the

receiving water streams.

5. Curtailing the self purification property: The dissolved chromium present is toxic to fish and

aquatic life and thus affects the natural self purification property of the stream.

6. Increasing the Hardness: Multivalent metallic cations like Calcium, Magnesium, Iron,

Aluminum, etc increase the hardness (either Permanent or Temporary). Hard water consumes

soap and thereby results in economic loss. Hard water results in scaling and even bursting of

boilers and hot water pipes through which it passes.

7. Increasing the pH: The high pH is deleterious to aquatic life.

8. Interference in the photosynthesis process: The dyes present in the effluents of Leather

Tannery Industry impart persistent colour to the receiving streams and interfere with

photosynthesis of phytoplanktons.

9. Community Health Hazards – Pathogenic microorganisms.

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Control of Water Pollution:

1. Hot water from the factories should be cooled before it is discharged into the water body.

2. Effluents containing high bio-organic material should be appropriately treated so that when

missed with water, they do not deplete the dissolved oxygen content much.

3. Pesticides and fertilizers should be judiciously used to avoid chemical pollution of water

through agricultural farm run-offs.

4. Reuse of treated water should be encouraged.

5. For effective control of water pollution, legal provisions regarding water pollution should be

enforced by special administrative machinery comprising of highly qualified and experienced

personnel.

Water Treatment Process:

A typical Water Treatment Plant involves the following processes:

1. Aeration

2. Settling / Sedimentation

3. Coagulation & Settling (Clariflocculation)

4. Filtration

5. Disinfection (by – ‘Chlorination’ and other gaseous chlorine disinfection)

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LAND/SOIL POLLUTION

Land/Soil Pollution:

The unwanted change in the physical and chemical properties of land such that it becomes

unsuitable for any use or becomes unproductive or less productive is called land pollution.

Causes of Land/Soil Pollution:

1. Soil erosion: Loss or removal of the superficial layer of the soil by the action of water, wind or

by the activities of man is termed as soil erosion. The top layer of the soil is very fertile.

Therefore, its removal degrades the quality of land making it less productive.

2. Soil mismanagement by improper use: Faulty methods of surface drainage, over grazing,

wrong methods of cultivation, forests fires, etc come under soil mismanagement. The

mismanagement of soil degrades the quality of land.

3. Soil Pollution: Soil pollution is the reduction in the productivity of soil due to presence of soil

pollutants from all sorts of industrial effluents discharged on land. The soil pollutants include

pesticides, fertilizers, plastics, leather goods, etc. These soil pollutants have an adverse effect on

the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil and reduce its productivity.

4. Water logging: An agricultural land is said to water logged when its productivity or fertility is

affected by high water-table. Water logging in particular is normally the result of several

contributory factors like inadequate surface drainage, seepage from canal system, over-irrigation

of fields, obstruction of natural drainage, construction of water reservoirs, etc.

5. Dumping: Dumping of solid wastes is one of the most important factors which are responsible

for the land pollution. In developing countries like India, the garbage and refuse products are

simply dumped leading to land pollution.

6. Shifting Cultivation: In shifting cultivation, selected portions of the forest are cut and burnt.

Crops are cultivated on that land for some years till it becomes sterile. Then fresh fields are

formed for crop cultivation. This practice has led to complete destruction of forests in mainly

hilly areas of India and caused soil erosion and problems that accompany soil erosion.

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Effects of Land/Soil Pollutants:

1. Effects of Modern Agricultural Practices as-

Use of Synthetic Fertilizers & Pesticides – The soil enriched by chemical fertilizers can not

support the natural microbial flora which are very essential to enrich the humus that helps in

plant growth. The pesticides pose potential hazard to animals, humans and the aquatic life and

have deleterious effect on soil fertility and crop productivity.

2. Effects of Industrial Effluents- The solid, liquid & gaseous chemicals from various industries

as Paper & Pulp, Iron & Steel, Fertilizers, Dyes, Automobiles, Pesticides, Tanneries, Coal-based

Thermal Power Plants etc. contain a variety of pollutants such as toxic heavy metals, solvents,

detergents, plastics, suspended particulates and various other chemicals which adversely alters

the soil characteristics.

3. Effects of Urban Wastes : (Domestic Solid Waste & Sewage)- The Domestic Solid Waste and

Sewage disposed in large quantities in untreated & unscientific manner cause serious health

hazards and also pollute soil and decrease its fertility and productivity.

Control of Land Pollution:

1. Afforestation and Reforestation: Afforestation means growing forests where there were no

forests before while reforestation means replanting forests at places where they were destroyed

by overgrazing, excessive felling, forests fires, etc.

2. Better Agricultural Practices: Better agricultural practices like terracing, regular cultivation

and crop rotation are ways to control land pollution.

3. Planting Wind breaks and Shelter Belts: To check the velocity of wind, two or more rows of

tall trees are planted at right angles to the direction of the prevailing winds. These wind breaks

check the movement of wind and therefore check soil erosion.

4. Population control programmes.

5. Judicious and controlled use of Pesticides and Fertilizers.

6. Complete treatment and then discharge of Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Land.

7. Secured land filling for domestic solid wastes.

8. Control through legislation.

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NOISE POLLUTION

NOISE POLLUTION:

Noise: It is the unwanted and undesirable sound in the wrong place and at the wrong time. What is

pleasant to someone may be extremely unpleasant to others depending on number of psychological

factors. The sweetest music, if it disturbs a person, is a noise to him. Thus, any sound may be noise,

if circumstances cause it to be disturbing.

“The unwanted noise which produces undesirable physical, physiological and psychological

effects in an individual by interfering with his work, social activities, efficiency, rest/sleep etc. is

called as NOISE POLLUTION.” It is measured in ‘Bels’ or ‘Decibels’.

Sources of Noise Pollution:

1. Industrial Sources: Industrialization has resulted in creating noise pollution. Textile mills,

printing presses, engineering establishments, etc contribute heavily towards noise pollution.

2. Vehicles: Automobile revolution in urban centers has proved to be a big source of noise

pollution. Increasing traffic has given rise to traffic jams in congested areas where the repeated

hooting of horns by the impatient drivers pierces the ears of all the road users.

3. Public Address system: The usage of loud speakers contributes in its own way towards noise

pollution.

4. Defense equipments: A lot of noise is created by the defense equipments like tanks, launching

of rockets, shooting practices, etc. during war and also during practices & weapon testing

Effects of Noise Pollution:

1. Physical Effects:

The physical manifestation of noise pollution is the effect on hearing ability. Repeated exposure

to noise may result in temporary or permanent hearing disability depending upon the level and

duration of the exposure to the noise.

2. Physiological effects:

a) Headache by dilating blood vessels

b) Increasing the rate of heart beat

c) Pain in heart

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d) Decrease in the rate of colour perception

e) Muscular strain and nervous break down

f) Lowering of concentration and effect on memory

3. Psychological Effect:

a) Depression and fatigue which considerably reduces the efficiency of a person

b) Insomnia as a result of lack of undisturbed and refreshing sleep

c) Straining of senses and annoyance as a result of slow but persistent noise from motorcycles,

alarm clocks, etc

d) Emotional disturbance

Control of Noise Pollution:

1) Control at the receiver’s end: For people working in noisy installation, ear protection aids

like ear plugs, headphones, helmets etc. must be provided to reduce occupational exposure.

Design of doors & windows and treatment of walls, floorings and ceilings with noise

insulating materials also significantly protects the building occupants from noise pollution.

2) Suppression of noise at source: Suppression of noise at source is possible if working

methods are improved. Proper lubrication and better maintenance of machines controls

noise pollution. Even by providing a layer of damping material like rubber, neoprene or

plastic beneath the machine also helps in controlling noise pollution. Noise producing

machines/sources are also encased or wrapped with noise insulating materials like

thermocol, glasswool etc.

3) Acoustic Zoning: Increased distance between source and receiver by zoning of noisy

industrial areas, bus terminus and railway stations, aerodromes, etc away from the

residential areas would go a long way in minimizing noise pollution.

4) Planting of Trees: Planting of trees, shrubs along roads, hospitals, educational institutions,

etc help in noise reduction to a considerable extent by breaking and dissipating the noise

waves.

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THERMAL POLLUTION & NUCLEAR (RADIOACTIVE) POLLUTION

THERMAL POLLUTION:

Thermal pollution: Thermal pollution can be defined as an accumulation of unusable heat from

human activities that disrupts ecosystems in the natural environment. Heat is not ordinarily

thought of as a pollutant by many people, at least not in the same sense as a corrosive chemical.

However, the addition of excess heat to a body of water brings about adverse effects as numerous as

many of the chemical pollutants.

Sources of thermal pollution:

1. Industries: The most important anthropogenic sources of thermal pollution are the industries

which reject vast quantities of heat in the environment.

2. Steam electric power generation stations: Vast quantities of water find use for cooling purposes

by steam electric power generation stations. Cooling water is discharged at a raised temperature

at 8-10°C higher than the coolant uptake water. In modern power stations producing 100MW,

nearly one million gallons of water are discharged in an hour with increase in temperature of the

cooling water passing by 6-9°C.

Effects of thermal pollution:

Increasing the water temperature of a system is harmful since it generally alters the physical,

chemical and biological characteristics of that system. Aquatic systems are most delicately balanced

ecosystems which do not fluctuate much in temperature as do the landmasses. Therefore, a slight

change in temperature over the natural limit will affect them to a great extent. Following are some of

the physical, chemical and biological effects caused by thermal pollution:

1. Physical effects: The temperature variations affect almost every physical property of water.

Temperature influences the viscosity, density, gas solubility and gas diffusion rates. Heated water

has low density and spreads on the surface of water, causing them to stratify thermally. The

stratification is a barrier to the oxygen penetration into the deeper layers. This also disrupts the

normal circulation patterns, the ecological consequences of which would be drastic, unpredictable

and almost certainly deleterious.

2. Chemical effects: Chemistry of water greatly depends upon the temperature. At elevated

temperatures, the ability of water to contain dissolved oxygen decreases. This seriously affects

the fish life.

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3. Biological effects: The biological effects of thermal pollution include mainly effects on metabolic

rates and reproductive rates.

a) Metabolic rates: At high temperature, the dissolved oxygen decreases, while the metabolic

rates of the organisms, requiring oxygen, increases thus accentuating the stress. At the same

time, the bacteria activity increases, further reducing the oxygen supply. The aerobic

degradation gives way for the anaerobic degradation, making the water more polluted.

b) Reproductive rates: Elevated temperatures seriously affect the reproductive rates of the

aquatic animals. At temperature 22°C and above, the banded sunfish fails to develop eggs.

Temperatures in the range of 20-23°C prevent cell division in carp. Gammarus above 7.8°C

produces only female offspring.

Control of Thermal Pollution:

Prevent the discharge of hot water/effluents/gases in the environment. These should be cooled down

and treated properly prior to discharge into the external environment.

NUCLEAR / RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION:

Radioactive Pollution: Radioactive pollution is the physical pollution of air, water and soil by

radioactive materials (Radioactive materials are those materials whose atomic nuclei disintegrate

thereby spontaneously emitting energy in the form of alpha, beta and gamma radiations).

Sources of Radioactive pollution:

1. Nuclear Weapons: Testing of nuclear arms comprises the use of Uranium 235 and Plutonium

239 for fission and hydrogen or lithium as fusion material. Atomic explosions are uncontrolled

chain reactions. They give rise to very large neutron-flux conditions that cause other materials in

the surrounding environment to become radioactive. Huge clouds of fine radioactive particles

and gases are thrown up in the environment and are carried away to distant areas by the agency

of wind. Gradually they settle down on earth as fall out or are brought down by rain. When rain

drops containing these radioactive particles, the radioactivity is transferred to soil particles

causing soil pollution. From the soil, these radioactive are washed into different water sources

where the aquatic organisms absorb them and accumulate them through the food chains and may

pass them to human beings.

2. Atomic reactor and Nuclear Fuel: In the atomic reactor, the fuel used for the fission purpose is

generally the radioactive isotope of Ur 235. Both fuel elements and coolants are sources of

radioactive pollution.

3. Radioactive Isotopes: A large number of radioactive isotopes I-125, C-14, P-32, etc. and their

compounds find wide usage in scientific research. The waste water from these institutions

contains varying amounts of radioactive materials. This waste water pollutes various water

sources and the radioactive materials enter the food chain which is dangerous to human beings.

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4. Medical Treatment/Research and Other Sources: Varying concentrations of radiations enter

the human body during different medical treatments for example X-rays are common for

detection skeletal disorders, therapy for cancer patients often includes radium and other isotopes

radiations.

Effects of radioactive pollution:

1. Somatic Effects: Somatic effects are caused on the persons exposed to the radioactive materials

leading to the damage of the cells. This cell damage may manifest in malignancies such as

leukemia or cancer.

2. Genetic Effects: When the nuclear radiations, Radiation-rays, etc pass through the genetic cells,

they affect the chromosomes. When the genetic cells are affected then the consequences are very

serious as these cause mutation effects. Mutations are generally transmitted from generation to

generation and so the damage is inherited by the progenies of the affected generation.

The atomic blasts of Japan (1945) resulted in innumerable deaths due to malignant growth,

leukemia and cancer. Many children became mentally retarded and developed congenital

malformations

Control of Radioactive Pollution

1. Radiation Exposure Protection: The three principles of radiation protection are distance,

time to exposure and shielding.

a) Distance: The exposure of the radioactive materials decrease with the square of

distance from the source.

b) Time: The time of exposure should be kept as low as possible to accomplish a

particular task.

c) Shielding: Shielding means stopping the radiation from penetrating the body of the

living beings.

2. Controlled Area: Areas which cause or permit exposure to radiation are required to have

controlled accessibility and should be marked ‘Restricted Area’ or ‘Radiation Zone’ etc.

Level of the radioactive pollution should be regularly checked. Radiation resistant cases or

walls should be constructed for screening workers from radioactive materials.

3. Collection, Storage and Disposal: Radioactive wastes should be properly collected,

should be changed into harmless form or stored in deep layers of lithosphere where their

gradual harmless decay can take place. These are stored in thick walled containers of inert

materials as concrete/RCC, dark coloured glass, iron/steel containers etc.

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SOLID and E-WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid Waste – Any unwanted solid / discarded material from residential, commercial, industrial,

mining, agricultural activities that cause environmental problems may be termed as solid waste.

Solid Waste Management – “Solid waste management comprises of purposeful and systematic

and scientific approach for the control of the generation, separation, storage, collection,

transportation, processing for recycling, recovery and disposal of solid wastes.”

Thus, these various activities of control of the generation, separation, storage, collection,

transportation, processing for recycling, recovery and disposal of solid wastes forms the basic

elements of solid waste management.

Objectives and Consideration of Solid Waste Management:

The principal objectives of solid waste management are to control, collect, treat, utilize and dispose

of the solid wastes in an economical manner consistent with the protection of the public health.

1. Public Health

2. Waste separation for recovery and recycling

3. Recovery (in the form of Bio-fertilizer / Energy).

Sources and Classification / Types of Solid Waste:

There are basically five main categories of solid wastes as-

1. Domestic Wastes

2. Munucipal Wastes

3. Industrial Wastes

4. Agricultural Wastes

5. Special Wastes – Radioactive wastes, Toxic & Hazardous chemicals, Bio-medical wastes

and other miscellaneous substances, e-wastes

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Disposal of Solid Wastes:

The following methods are available for disposal of the solid wastes.

1. Incineration: In the process, the waste is subjected to controlled combustion so as to

convert them into incombustible residue and gaseous products. The toxic and harmfulness

of the wastes is completely eliminated and it is reduced to a small volume of ash as residue.

The incineration method of disposal is suitable for non-biodegradable wastes of Toxic &

Chemical nature and the Bio-medical wastes of pathogenic nature.

2. Open dumping: Open dumping of solid wastes is done in low lying areas and outskirts of

the towns and cities. Being comparatively cheaper, this method of disposal is used

extensively in India. However, major disadvantages of this methods are-

a) Public health hazards are caused by the breeding of flies, mosquitoes, etc

b) Obnoxious gaseous and particulate matter is produced by the burning of the

combustible solid wastes resulting in air pollution.

c) Open dumping requires large land areas which further aggravate the problem of land

shortage for human habitation.

3. Sanitary Land Filling: (Refer Pgs. 122 to 124 & figure on Pg. 124 of Textbook of Environmental Chemistry &

Pollution Control: S.S. Dara)

Sanitary land filling involves disposal of municipal wastes on or in the upper layers of

earth’s mantle. After hand sorting or machine sorting of the wastes, pulverizing or high

pressure compaction may be done for volume reduction. The waste is then spread and

compacted in layers of about 0.5 m thickness.

After the end of each day’s operation and when the depth is about 3 m, the waste is

covered with 15 to 30 cm of earth to form a ‘Cell’. This method does not cause

environmental damages by creating nuisances and diseases or health hazards as the waste

is covered and prevents breeding of pests and disease vectors.

Besides, these is no danger of air pollution resulting from burning and no water pollution

provided precaution is taken to avoid leachates (leachates is the liquid produced in a

landfill from the decomposition of waste within the landfill) of the waste from

contaminating the surface or underground water sources.

4. Composting: Bacterial decomposition of the organic components of the municipal solid

wastes result in the formation of humus or compost and the process is known as

composting. In this process, a compost pile is constructed by making alternate layers of

organic matter and soil (source of micro organisms). Some fertilizers and water are

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periodically added to the compost pile to stimulate microbial action and to maintain the

necessary moisture content (55%). Periodically, the refuse is turned over to allow aeration

i.e. penetration of oxygen to all parts of the organic waste to facilitate aerobic bacterial

decomposition. It takes nearly a month for composting to be complete.

ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION:

Following are the few ways through which an individual can help in curbing the various types of

pollution and thus help in combating various environmental problems:

Recycling of paper is one of the best ways to conserve environment. India produces more than

fourteen lakh tonnes of paper a year. Thousands of trees are felled in the process. Selling old

newspapers, diaries, magazines, etc helps in getting them recycled. Simple habit like using blank

sheets of notebooks as rough pads, photocopying on both sides of a paper, re-using paper bags,

etc all help in protecting our environment.

Plastic bags are a great cause of worry to environmentalists around the world. By now, a well

known fact that polythene is not bio-degrable, an irresponsible disposal of the same causes land

pollution if dumped, air pollution if burnt and severe physical malfunctions if consumed by stray

animals. Use cloth bags and paper bags and say NO to plastic bags. Carry bags from home while

shopping – avoid asking plastic bags from shopkeepers. Remember, ‘re-usage’ is the key word.

We consume an enormous amount of fuel everyday in our kitchens & automobiles. Here too,

small changes can bring about great results. Use a pressure cooker (it saves 75% of fuel and

time). Keep vessels covered while cooking, use aluminum containers rather than steel ones and

maintain the stove. The engines of automobiles should be switched off at cross road signals.

Segregate the organic and inorganic wastes. The organic waste could be composted for getting

bio-manure.

Instead of using chemical pesticides, use bio-pesticides prepared from Neem and other plants.

This would help to avoid adverse and long lasting toxic effects of other pesticides. Also grow

medicinal plants to cure certain diseases.

Avoid using chemical fertilizers. Instead use bio-fertilizers or organic manure to increase the

fertility of the soil

The recent hike in petrol and diesel prices has evoked a new spate of complaints among the

people. But the best way to overcome such price hikes is to consume lesser fuel. Use the clutch

and brake sparingly, turn off the engine at traffic signals, maintain your vehicle well and use

public transport as far as possible.

Encourage the use of non-conventional energy sources like solar energy, biogas, etc. Use solar

cookers in summer. Solar heaters cut down the electricity bills heavily.

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Spare some thought over your ever mounting electricity bills. We burn tonnes of coal everyday

to produce thermal power and can definitely do our bit to present wastage. Switch off electric

and electronic gadgets immediately if not in use, keep them dust free, defrost refrigerators, use

tube lights instead of bulbs (a 40 watt tube-light is equivalent to 100 watt bulb), and use natural

light as and when possible.

Conserve water – it is the essence of life. Keep taps shut tightly when not used. Store &

conserve rain water by rain water harvesting.

Plant trees – Fresh trees are the most prominent evidence of a healthy environment. Grow grass

in bare patches of land. They can be grown in any kind of soil. The trees (our green friends)

purify air, prevent soil erosion, to certain extent control Noise Pollution and attract rain clouds.

Spread environmental awareness. We, as the educated class of the society, can spread the

awareness in the people and by this way we can stop mankind from harassing our Mother

Nature.

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Literature Abstract (Lecture – 23)

SOCIAL ISSUES & ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACTS

NEED FOR PUBLIC & SOCIETAL AWARENESS TOWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION:

Unplanned development, overpopulation and pollution are the potent ecological forces impinging

upon man by affecting the quality of environment. It is constantly increasing pressure on the

environment and the natural resources. Careless management of natural resources is disrupting the

whole ecological process so much that the earth’s life supporting capacity is being substantially

threatened. Unmindful exploitation of the finite resources of the biosphere has a severe ecological

backlash; because no development is sustainable unless it is environmentally compatible. The

development to be environmental compatible demands that it should be in line with environmental

protection and conservation.

“Pollution is the burning issue of the day at the global level. A combined effort to control pollution

has to be made by all government agencies, technologists, industrialists, agriculturists and last but

not least the common man.”

Thus there is an urgent need to create awareness in every individual and the society towards-

Control of environmental pollution.

Natural resources conservation.

Land management.

Development of non-polluting sources of energy.

Environmental education.

Environmental laws.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACTS:

The environmental protection acts and their salient features are:

1. The Wild Life Protection Act-1972 (Amended in 1983, 1986 and 1991):

This act was enacted for protection of wild animals and birds. It provides for the constitution of a

Wild Life Advisory Board, appointment of Chief Wild Life Warden, Wild Life Wardens and other

employees by the State Governments for the protection of wild life. Regulation of hunting of wild

animals and birds, laying down the procedures for declaring areas as sanctuaries, national parks and

biosphere reserves, and regulation of trade in wild animals are included in the act.

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2. The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (Amended in 1988):

This act provides the schedule for conservation of the forests under which no forest land or any

portion thereof may be used for any non-forest purpose without the prior permission of the Central

Government. All powers of lies with the Central Government and no State Government and any

other authority / agency has the right to take any decision.

3. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (Amended in 1988):

This act provides for the prevention and control of water pollution and stipulates establishment of

the central and state boards and their constitutions. The act defines the relevant terms related to

water pollution like pollution, sewage effluent, trade effluent, etc….

4. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 (Amended in 1991):

This act empowers the Central Water Board to collect cess on water consumed by industrial

establishment. The cess and consent fees form the major sources of revenue for the central and state

water boards.

5. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (Amended in 1987):

This act provides for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution in order to preserve the

quality of air. The act defines the relevant terms related to air pollution like air pollution, air

pollutant, industrial plant, etc….

6. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986:

This act was enacted as per the spirit of the Stockholm Conference held in June, 1972 to take

appropriate steps for the environmental protection and improvement. The act ensures enforcement of

several Acts / Regulations concerning pollution control and environmental protection / safety. It

confers powers to the Central Government to take all such measures as it deems necessary or

expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and

preventing, controlling and abating environmental pollution.

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS:

The birth of environmental ethics is partly the result of concern for our own long-term survival and

our realization that humans are a part of one form of life, and that we share our earth with other

forms of life. (Refer Pg 376 / S. K. Dhameja)

The word ‘Ethic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Ethos’ which means the character of a person as

described by his / her actions. This character was developed during the evolutionary process and

was influenced by the need for adapting to the natural environment. Our ethic is our way of doing

things and is a direct result of our natural environment. But, it is a matter of dis-appreciation that

under the influence of industrialization & civilization, our ethics became more self-modified than

environmentally adopted.

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Thus, we are no longer adapted to our natural environment, but rather to our self-made environment.

In the ecological context, such mal-adaptation results in one of the two consequences-

1. The organism dies out; or

2. The organism evolves to form and character where it once again is compatible with the

natural environment.

Assuming that we choose the latter course, how can this change in character (ethic) be brought

about? Each individual must change his / her character or ethic, and the social system must change

to become compatible with the global ecology.

The acceptable system is one in which we learn and attempt to share our exhaustible resources – to

regain a balance. This requires that we reduce our needs and use maximum replenishable materials.

We must treat all of the earth as a sacred trust to be used so that its content is neither diminished nor

permanently changed, we must not generate & release substances/materials in the environment that

can not be reincorporated without damage to the natural system. The recognition for such adaptation

(as a means of survival) for care & concern for environment has developed into what we call

‘Environmental Ethic’. It’s the moral responsibility of every individual to develop and act by these

environmental ethics.

Urban problems related to environmental protection:

The important urban problems related to environmental protection as a consequences of

urbanization and civilization are enlisted as below:

Energy Problem / Pollution of Air, Water and Soil / Impact of Urban Areas / Nuclear Energy

and Radio active pollution / Industrial and Chemical Pollution, etc.

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RAINWATER HARVESTING & SARDAR SAROVAR PROJECT

RAINWATER HARVESTING:

Water is one of the basic human requirements. The very fact that the civilizations developed on the

banks of the rivers speaks volumes about the importance of water in our life. As of now, both the

quality and quantity of water has declined to such an extent that many parts of India today face a

drought like situation. This is despite the fact that India receives good rainfall. However, this rainfall

occurs during short spells of high intensity (most of the rain falls in just around 100-120 hours out of

the 8,760 hours). Because of such short duration of heavy rain, most of the rain falling on the

surface tends to flow away rapidly leaving very little for the recharge of the ground water. Rain

water harvesting is one of the best options available for over coming the water crisis.

Rain water harvesting means – capturing and collecting the rain water and allowing it to

percolate in the ground, instead of flowing as runoff.

In a simple Roof top rainwater harvesting system, the rainwater falling on the building roof and the

other land area is collected and conveyed to the lowest point in the land area. (If natural terrain is

not available, slope is designed and provided). This water is then collected in a siphon pit and then

discharged to the RECHARGE WELL. The recharge well consists of a shallow well (pit) followed

by a deep borehole, filled with filter media of various grades of gravel and sand. The rainwater

collected undergoes a filtering action of purification and is allowed to percolate in the soil (ground)

in the vicinity, thus maintaining the water table in that area. (Refer fig - Roof Top Rainwater

Harvesting System).

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SARDAR SAROVAR PROJECT:

Sardar Sarovar Project is an interstate, multipurpose, joint venture of four states viz. Gujarat,

Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra and Rajasthan with a terminal major dam on river Narmada in Gujarat.

It is the largest water resource development project in India. Although, this project was originally

envisaged in 1946, a decision by Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (NWDT) 1979 (for various

community problems like-rehabilitation, land submergence, environmental safety aspects) and after

getting clearance from environment and forest angle from Government of India; the project saw the

light of the day in 1987. As per the basin planning recommended by NWDT, in all 30 major dams,

135 medium dams and 3,000 minor dams are to be constructed.

Need for Sardar Sarovar Project: The total geographical area of Gujarat State is 196 lakh ha. Out

of this, cultivable land is 124 lakh ha. Irrigation potential developed till today (2004) is around 38

lakh ha. against ultimate potential of 65 lakh ha. Moreover, Gujarat faces a massive problem of

recurring droughts (every three years). Billions of rupees have been spent on drought relief

measures. The drought is such a menace that not only eats away billions of rupees but along with it,

because of lakh of surface and ground water resources, millions of cattle and shepherds have to

migrate from Saurashtra, Kachchh and North Gujarat to the areas of South Gujarat. This migration

has led to an ecological imbalance and ecological disruption.

Main features of Sardar Sarovar Project: Sardar Sarovar Project is of a unique type in India with

many respects. Main features of the project are as follows:

No. PARTICULARS

DETAILS

MAIN DAM

1. Length of the main concrete gravity dam 1210 m

2. Maximum height above the deepest foundation level 163 m

3. Total R.L. of the dam 146.50 m

4. Catchment area of river above dam site 88,000 Km2

5. Live storage capacity 0.58 M. ha.m / (4.7 MAF)

6. Length of the reservoir 214 Km

7. Maximum width 16.1 Km

8. Spillway gates

7 Nos.- 60’× 60’

23 Nos.- 60’× 55

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

9. No of branches 42

10. Length of distribution system network 66,000 Km

11. Annual Irrigation

18 lakh ha

HYDRO-POWER GENERATION

12. River Bed Power House 1200 MW

13. Canal head power house 250 MW

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Benefits of Sardar Sarovar Project:

1. Drinking Water Benefits:

Around 8,215 villages and 135 urban centers of Saurashtra and Kachchh and all ‘no-source’ villages

of North Gujarat will have no drinking water problem. No more hauling of drinking water from long

distances.

2. Irrigation Benefits:

The Sardar Sarovar Project will provide irrigation facilities to 17.93 lakh hac. of land covering 3,393

villages of 62 talukas in 12 district of Gujarat. It will also irrigate 75,000 ha of land in the strategic

deserts of Barmer and Jallore in Rajasthan and 37,500 hac. in the tribal hilly tract of Maharastra

through lift. About 75% of the command area in Gujarat is drought prone while entire command

(75,000 ha.) in Rajasthan in drought prone. Assured water supply will soon make this area drought

proof.

3. Power Benefits:

There are two hydro-power houses viz. River bed power house and Canal head power house with an

installed capacity of 1200 MW and 250 MW respectively. The power would be shared by three

states – Madhya Pradesh (57%), Maharastra (27%), and Gujarat (16%). This will provide a useful

peaking power to Western-grid of the country which has very limited hydel power production at

present. A series of micro hydel power stations are also planned on the branch canals where

convenient falls are available.

4. Flood Protection Benefits:

Sardar Sarovar Project will also provide flood protection to riverine reached measuring 30,000 ha.

covering 210 villages and Bharuch city of Gujarat.

5. Benefits in totality:

Sardar Sarovar project would generate 5000 million units of electricity. On completion, annual

additional agricultural production would be Rs.1600 cores, power generation of Rs.400 cores and

water supply Rs.175 cores aggregating to about Rs.2175 cores every year equivalent to Rs.6.0 cores

a day. (These prices are with reference to Price Index of the year 1993).

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HUMAN POPULATION - POPULATION GROWTH & ENVIRONMENT - VARIATION &

DEVELOPMENT

Ever since man appeared on the face of the earth, he has exploited and modified the environment to

his advantage in many ways. This has resulted into lot of disturbances in the ecosystems which can

permanently upset the balanced state of the natural cycles. One of the factors that have degraded the

environment is the population growth rather the population explosion. With the discovery, some ten

thousand years ago, that food could be produced either by cultivating plants or domesticating certain

species of animals, man’s life style has been significantly altered. This has resulted into an assured

food supply and a subsequent gradual increase in the human population but a few natural calamities

like earthquakes, floods, famine, drought kept the population under control. However with the

development of thousands of chemical compounds to restore and enhance the soil fertility and to help

and protect many of the domesticated species, man was to expand his food producing capacity

significantly. These activities together with the inventions of modern medicine have resulted in an

explosive growth of population with inevitable consequences.

To access the impact of population on the environment, it is first necessary to consider the growth of

the world population, the general trend of which is as follows;

There was a slow rate of increase until about 500 years ago after which the number began to

increase more rapidly. The growth is not only exponential in nature but the rate of growth has

also increased.

The doubling time ranges from 6400 years which indicated a very stable population growth

with its environment to 36 years, the value for present time.

The world population reached approximately 545 millions by 1650. advances in food

production, industry, medical sciences, etc has lowered the death rate and this has further

shortened the time needed for population to double.

The simplest measure of population growth is the annual % which relates easily to the

doubling time.

Td ≈ 70 / r.

Td = doubling time in years

r = % rate of growth

The % rate of growth can be easily predicted by the equation

r = b – d + m

(where; b = birth rate, d = death rate, m = net migration rate)

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PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH POPULATION EXPLOSION:

The important urban problems related to environmental protection as a consequence of urbanization

and civilizations are enlisted as below:

Energy Problem: India’s energy requirements are met from traditional sources such as firewood,

dung cakes, agricultural wastes, modern commercial sources such as coal, oil, etc. in India not only

commercial fuels but also non-commercial fuels play a dominant role as far as energy consumption is

concerned which in terms cause a great damage to our environment. Firewood consumption is about

65% of the total non-commercial energy resources in India. Due to which forest cover is only 17.25%.

Deforestation in turn causes a great deal of problems. Decrease in firewood has forced the people to

use cow-dung cakes as a fuel which is very useful for agricultural practices. Globally, the

requirements of energy are closely related to issues of population expansion and economic

development. Growth in population increases the demand for energy.

Pollution of Air, Water and Soil: Coal mining requires a lot of land, whether the coal is mined on

surface or underground. In India, there are more open-cast mines which destroy large land areas,

unclaimed mine sites pollute the aquatic streams with runoff of mine drainage containing toxic soluble

metals salts and sediments. Also noise, dust from blasting and air pollutants from machinery and

trucks are the sources of impact on the environment.

Impact of Urban Areas: The combustion of fossil fuels and their bi products are responsible for a

sizable amount of anthropogenic air pollution. This problem is very acute in urban areas. This air

pollution in urban areas causes reduction in visibility, change in urban climate, and increase in

temperature as compared to the rural areas.

Nuclear Energy and Radio active pollution: Nuclear power has significant advantages with regard

to air pollution, but there is contamination by radioactivity particularly that arises from disposal of

radioactive wastes. Mining and refining of the uranium and thorium ore may result in considerable

radiation hazard to the workers.

Industrial and Chemical Pollution: Modern technological development has multiplied the hazards

to which human beings are exposed. Nearly 5 million chemicals are synthesized in the world in the

last 40 years; some are used without any proper toxicological information. Various industries like

steel, non-ferrous metals, fertilizers and petroleum; in addition to emit the common effluents are

sources of toxic pollutants like lead, cadmium, zinc, arsenic, nickel and mercury. Thousands of

chemical compounds are released into the environment and many of these compounds are non-

biodegradable. Indiscriminate uses of pesticides like DDT are of great concern because these

chemicals are passed from one organism to the other through food chains and food webs.

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INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND STRUCTURE

& METHODOLOGY OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Environmental Management System:

An Environmental Management System (EMS) is a systematic approach for incorporating energy

and environmental goals and priorities (such as energy use and regulatory compliance) into routine

operations. It is a methodology to reduce the environmental footprint in day-to-day activities.

‘An Environmental Management System (EMS) is a set of processes and practices that enable an

organization to reduce its environmental impacts and increase its operating efficiency. EMS

refers to the system of managing an organization's environmental programs in a comprehensive,

systematic, planned and documented manner. It includes the organizational structure, planning

and resources for developing, implementing and maintaining policy for environmental

protection’.

The following are essential requirements of EMS for an organization:

Written objectives/policies of the organization towards environmental management.

Documented/written processes and procedures that the officers/employees involved in the EMS

will follow.

Assigning responsibilities to officers/employees to ensure that everyone knows ‘who has to do

what’.

Environmental Audit (EA) to know and monitor the environmental aspect and impacts of

company’s activities and to have EMS assessed and certified by an independent certifier to

demonstrate that the system conforms to the stated policies and relevant standards.

Beneficiaries of Environmental Management System:

An EMS is a structured system which, once implemented, helps an organization to identify the

environmental impacts resulting from its business activities. It also helps manage and reduce those

impacts, so that the environmental performance of the organization is improved.

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Following are the key benefits of EMS for an organization:

Serves as a tool to improve environmental performance.

Provides a systematic way of managing an organization’s environmental affairs.

EMS is the aspect of the organization’s overall management structure that addresses immediate

and long-term impacts of its products, services and processes on the environment.

Gives order and consistency for organizations to address environmental concerns through the

allocation of resources, assignment of responsibility and ongoing evaluation of practices,

procedures and processes.

Focuses on continual improvement of the system.

Helps maintain compliance.

Reduce operating costs.

Integrate environmental programs into mission.

Increase employee involvement.

Reduce environmental impacts.

EMS methodology:

The methodology and process of environmental management system are founded on PDCA cycle

[Plan Do Check (Review& Feedback) Act]

Plan the company's environmental policies and goals.

Analyzing its environmental impacts and legal requirements.

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Setting environmental objectives and targets to reduce environmental impacts and comply

with legal requirements.

Establishing programs and trainings to meet the stated objectives and targets.

Monitoring and measuring progress in achieving the objectives.

Ensuring employees' environmental awareness and competence.

Reviewing progress of the EMS and making improvements

Environmental Management System Models:

There are many models or conceptual frameworks for an EMS. Though, the most well known and

adopted EMS model is the ISO 14001 international standard. Other models include the following:

European Union’s ‘Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)’ – originally a European

Standard, now extended to organizations outside Europe.

Responsible Care model developed by the ‘American Chemical Council (ACC)’

US Department of Justice (DOJ) – Seven Key Compliance Program Elements

EPA National Enforcement Investigation Center (NEIC) ‘Compliance Focused’ EMS.

British Standard Institution’s ‘BS7750’

Spain’s ‘UNE 77-801’

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Environmental Impact:

Any change to the environment whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an

(developmental) activity or from an organization’s environmental aspect.

Impact Assessment:

The assessment or measurement of environmental impacts arising out of a developmental project

(modification, extension or new project), with a view to achieve sustainable development is known

as impact assessment. It is carried out to assess the consequences of –

Individual projects – Environmental Impact Assessment.

Policies and programmes – Strategic Environmental Assessment.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is defined as ‘a tool used to identify the environmental,

social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making. It aims to predict environmental

impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find ways and means to reduce adverse

impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and present the predictions and options to

decision-makers’.

EIA is essentially a technique for drawing together, in a systematic manner, expert qualitative

assessment of a project’s environmental effects, and representing the results in a way which enables

the importance of the predicted effects, and the scope for modifying or mitigating them, to be

evaluated by the relevant decision making body before a decision is given. Environmental

assessment techniques can help both developers and public authorities with environmental

responsibilities to identify likely effects at early stage, and thus, to improve the quality of both

project planning and decision making and attain sustainable development. EIAs started in the 1960s

as part of a rational decision making process. It involved a technical evaluation that would lead to

objective decision making. EIA was made legislation in the US in the National Environmental

Policy Act (NEPA) 1969 and since then evolved and used increasingly in many countries around the

world.

EIA is considered as a project management tool for collecting and analyzing information on the

environmental effects of a project. As such, it is used to:

Identify, anticipate and prevent environmental impacts (problems)

Examine the significance of environmental implications

Assess whether impacts can be mitigated and identify ways to increase environmental benefits

Recommend preventive and corrective mitigating measures

Inform decision makers and concerned parties about the environmental implications

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Advise whether development should go ahead

Integrate environmental considerations into the planning, design and construction of projects at

all scales

The process (steps) of EIA:

Essentially EIA is a systematic process that examines the environmental consequences of

development actions, in advance. The EIA consists of eight steps with each step equally important in

determining the overall performance of the project.

1. Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project requires an EIA

and if it does, then the level of assessment required.

2. Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impacts that should be further investigated.

This stage also defines the boundary and time limit of the study.

3. Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts the likely environmental and social

impact of the proposed project and evaluates the significance.

4. Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the potential adverse

environmental consequences of development activities.

5. Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a report to the decision-making

body and other interested parties.

6. Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA report and provides the

information necessary for decision-making.

7. Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved or needs further change.

8. Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing: This stage comes into

play once the project is commissioned. It checks to ensure that the impacts of the project do not

exceed the legal standards and implementation of the mitigation measures are in compliance

with those described in the EIA report.

Specific methods of carrying out EIA:

Ad hoc approach

Impact checklist method

Matrix method

Network approach

Modelling approaches

Battlelle environmental evaluation system (BEES)

Computer aided EIA

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ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY AND ECONOMIC GAIN, CLEAN DEVELOPMENT

MECHANISM AND CARBON TRADING

Clean Development Mechanism:

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of the flexibility mechanisms defined in the

Kyoto Protocol (IPCC, 2007) that provides for emissions reduction projects which generate

Certified Emission Reduction units which may be traded in ‘emissions trading’ schemes.

The purpose of the CDM is to promote clean development in developing countries, i.e., the “Non-

Annex I” countries (countries that aren't listed in Annex I of the Framework Convention).

According to the Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment, under the Kyoto

Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries.

Advantages:

Such projects can earn saleable Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to

one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets (Direct Reductions).

These saleable credits can be used (bought) by industrialized countries to meet a part of their

emission reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol.

CDM projects can help local communities in Africa by providing opportunities for sustainable

development, creating employment or increased economic activity, improving air quality, and

transferring technology. CDM projects can also earn credits that are tradable and saleable.

Thus, the mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving

industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation

targets.

CARBON CREDIT:

Carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit

one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent

(tCO2e) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide. The certificate/ permit allows the holder to emit

one ton of carbon dioxide.

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Credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced their green house gases

below their emission quota.

Carbon credits can be traded in the international market at their current market price.

Carbon Credit is a term (measure) to assign a value to reduction or offset of greenhouse gas

emissions, usually equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-e).

Carbon Credit is ‘A certificate showing that a government or company has paid to have a certain

amount of carbon dioxide removed from the environment.’

Carbon Credit is ‘A permit that allows the holder to emit one ton of carbon dioxide, which can be

traded in the international market at their current market price.’

The goal of the carbon credits is: To stop the increase of carbon dioxide emissions.

Carbon credit markets:

Where does the trading take place?

The trading takes place on two stock exchanges:

The Chicago Climate Exchange.

The European Climate Exchange.

CC trading can also take place in the open market.

There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who

are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis. These carbon off-setters

purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated

the credits from individual projects. Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade,

such as the Carbon Trade Exchange, which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits. The quality

of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development

company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project. This is reflected in their price; voluntary

units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean

Development Mechanism.

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