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Developing Phonological Awareness and Improving Speech Production

and LiteracyLearning to Speak Clearly,Read, Write and Spell

Presented by: Helen Sherman-Wade, MA CCC-SLPExecutive Director-Speech, Language & Educational Associates

CSUS-NSSLHA ConferenceJanuary 30, 2010

Phonological AwarenessLearning to Speak Clearly,

Read, Spell, and Write

Phonological awareness is the ability to notice, think about or manipulate the sounds in language. It refers generally to the awareness of words, syllables or phonemes. Phonological awareness includes the ability to consciously manipulate the sounds of speech tasks such as blending, segmenting and rhyming. It is the awareness of individual sounds in words (e.e., c-a-t). If a student can’t accurately recognize and manipulate speech sounds, he/she will have difficulty relating to those sound to printed letters and words, a skill essential to decoding words. If children cannot decode words quickly, they will have difficulty comprehending what they are reading.

Phonological Awareness Skill Development – Age 3

• Recite known rhymes, for example, Jack and Jill.

• Produce rhyme by pattern, for example, give the word “cat” as a rhyming word for “hat.”

• Recognize alliteration (words beginning with the same first sound), for example, “Mommy, Michele, they’re the same.”


• Segment syllables, for example, know there are two parts to the word “cowboy.”

• Count the number of syllables in words (50% of 4-year-olds can do this).

Phonological Awareness Skill Development- Age 5

• Count syllables in words (90% of 5-year-olds can do this).

• Count phonemes within words (fewer than 50% of 5-year-olds can do this).


• Match initial consonants in words, for example, able to recognize that “shoe” and “sheep” begin with the same first sound.

• Blend two to three phonemes, for example, recognize that the sounds /d/ /o/ /g/ for the word “dog.”

• Count phonemes within words (70% of 6-year olds can do this).

• Identify rhyming words, for example, “pit” rhymes with “mit.”

• Divide words by onset (first consonant or blend) and rime (rest of the word), for example, can divide the word “stop” into /st/ /op/.

Phonological Awareness Cont’Learning to Speak Clearly,

Read, Spell, and Write

• Ability to focus on and manipulate phonemes in spoken words

• Some of the tasks commonly used:– Phoneme isolation/identification: Tell me the

first sound in the word car.– Phoneme identity: Tell me the sound that is

the same in dog, door, dime.– Phoneme categorization: Which word does

not belong – bug, boy sit.

Learning to Speak Clearly, Read, Spell, and Write

• Ability to focus on and manipulate phonemes in spoken words cont’

• Some of the tasks commonly used:– Phoneme blending: What is this word? /s/

/p/ /i/ /n/– Phoneme segmentation: How many sounds in

the word break?– Tapping or counting– Pronouncing sound by sound

– Phoneme deletion: Say slip without the l.

CTOPP-Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing

• Ages 5 -24• Provides Composite Scores for:

– Phonological Awareness– Phonological Memory– Rapid Naming

The Phonological Awareness Test-2 (TPAT-2)

• Ages 5 thru 9-11• Rhyming Subtest• Segmentation Subtest• Isolation Subtest• Deletion Subtest• Substitution Subtest – similar to LAC Test• Blending Subtest• Grapheme & Decoding Subtest – Invented Spelling

Phononological Awareness Learning to Speak Clearly,

Read, Spell, and WriteP.A. Development Continuum:

•Rhyming songs•Sentence segmentation•Syllable segmentation & blending•Onset-rime, blending and segmentation•Blending and segmenting individual phonemes

Importance of Reading Fluency

Phonological vs. Phonemic Awareness• Phonological Awareness: Awareness of

words, syllables, or phonemes• Phonemic Awareness: Awareness of

individual sounds• A word about phonics:

– Systematic phonics instruction– Teaches reading by stressing acquisition of

letter-sound correspondences– Teaches how letter-sound relationships are

important for reading and spelling.

The Phonological Awareness Profile – Ages 5-8

• Rhyming• Segmentation• Isolation• Deletion• Substitution• Blending

Funnel Toward Phonics by Judy Montgomery, Ph.D., CCC-SLP

• Level I:– Phonics (explicitly teaching the code for

sound symbol correspondence, with print• Letters represent the sounds (phonemes)• Predictable patters (CVC, CVCC• Most consistent consonants• Short, then long vowels

Goldman Lynch Sound Symbol Program

• High Hat

Judy Montgomery…cont• Phonemic Awareness (systematically

isolating sounds of specific words)– Hearing, counting, repeating all phonemes– Segmenting, substituting, reversing specific

sounds in words.– Recognizing that letters are different from

sounds.– Sensing a pattern of how sounds can be

represented by letters.

Judy Montgomery…continued• Phonological Awareness (generally manipulating

the sounds of spoken language without print.)

– Reproducing visual, auditory and motor patterns– Rhymes and chants.– Sentence imitation.– Knowing and counting words.– Knowing and counting syllables.

Judy Montgomery…con’t

• Phonological Processing• Speaking

Fluent vs. Non-Fluent ReadersFluent Readers Read Text With:

Speed• Accuracy• Proper expression• Good Comprehension• Freedom from word identification

problems• Able to group words appropriately

into grammatical units for interpretation (rapid use of punctuation and determination of where to place emphasis or pause to make sense of information.

Non Fluent Readers Read Text with:

• Sound out words, but very slowly

• Don’t recognize familiar sight words

• Sound stiff without expression

• Insert words, omit words, misread small words.

Importance of Fluency….

Fluency involves:• Not only automatic word recognition, but the

ability to attend to prosodic features (rhythm, intonation and phrasing.

• Anticipation of what comes next in the text –anticipation facilitates reaction time and aids comprehension.

There is a close relationship between fluency andreading comprehension. Hallmark of fluent reading isthe ability to decode and comprehend at the sametime.

Phonological vs. Phonemic Awareness Cont’

Fluency and automaticity: Terms used synonymously

Automaticity: processing of complex information that ordinarily requires long period of training before it can be done with little attention.

It is carried out without immediate attention, • Without conscious awareness, • Without interfering with other processes that are

occurring at the same time. • Once activated, processes continue to completion because

they are difficult to suppress.


If automaticity is used to describe quick, automatic recognition of word level stimuli, then fluency is used to describe reading in connected text-accurate and quick. The non-fluent reader’s mental effort is on decoding and very little on comprehension. The fluent reader’s effort is minimally on decoding and mostly on comprehension.

We know that children with poor Rapid Auditory Processing have listening, reading and speaking problems. They score poorly on tests such as the RAN

RAN/RASRapid Automatized Naming & Rapid

Alternating Stimulus Tests• Objects• Colors• Numbers• Letters• 2-Set Letters and Numbers• 3-Set Letters, Numbers, and Colors

Importance of Reading FluencyDouble Deficit Hypothesis (Wolf & Bowers,

1999 )

“A core deficit in phonological processesimpedes the acquisition of word recognitionskills, which, in turn, impedes theacquisition of fluentreading”…ie….phonological process deficitthought to cause non-fluent reading.THEN… “Many severely impaired readershave naming-speed deficits…in theprocesses underlying rapid recognition andretrieval of visually presented linguisticstimuli.”


Double Deficit Hypothesis Cont’

Types of non-fluent readers:

1. Processing rate/efficiency of system– Reading accurate, but painfully slow– Often not identified by schools– Can’t keep up with assignments– Brain locus: cerebellum – control of precise timing

2. Automaticity of processing– Oral reading inaccurate and slow– Errors: false starts, hesitations filled with pauses and repetitions– Adequate phonological awareness skills but not at automatic level.– Self-monitored and self-corrected– Executive functions intact– Brain locus striatum and/or insula

Importance of Reading FluencyDouble Deficit Hypothesis Cont’

Types of non-fluent readers cont’:3. Executive Coordination

– Oral reading inaccurate and slow– Rarely self-corrected– Error pattern showed inattention to:

• Orthographic and morphological feature of words• Serial order of words in sentences• Prosody of language• Self monitoring of meaning• Brain locus: left frontal


Double Deficit Hypothesis Cont’What’s The Most Currennt Description Of Fluency? (Wolf and Katzir-Cohen, 2001)

1. In its beginnings, reading fluency is the product of the initial development of accuracy and the subsequent development of automaticity

2. In underlying sublexical processes, lexical processes, and their integration in single-word reading and connected text

3. These include perceptual, phonological, orthographic and morphological processes at the: letter, letter-pattern, and word levels, as well as semantic and syntactic processes at the word level and connected text level.


Double Deficit Hypothesis Cont’What’s The Most Currennt Description Of Fluency? (Wolf and Katzir-Cohen, 2001) Cont’

4. After it is fully developed, reading fluency refers to a level of accuracy and rate where decoding is relatively effortless….where oral reading is smooth and accurate with correct prosody, and where attention can be allocated to comprehension.

The Importance of Language

Phonology» Morphology » Syntax» Semantics» Pragmatics

• How do these 5 areas relate to reading?


• Fluency in reading should be addressed as soon as a child can read connected text. Do not wait to address fluency until the child is in 3rd or 4th grade.

Importance of Reading FluencyEvaluation of Reading

Reading evaluations should include:• Accuracy• Rate• Sight word vocabulary• Word attack skills, particularly in timed

condition• Comprehension (silent, oral)• Phonemic awareness• Rapid Naming• Working memory/phonological memory


Evaluation of Reading Cont’Tests for Reading:• Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT-4): looks at Rate, Accuracy,

Fluency, and Comprehension• Diagnostic Achievement Battery: looks at Alphabet/Word

Knowledge Reading (Silent) Comprehension, and Story Comprehension (auditory comprehension)

• Woodcock Reading Mastery Test: looks at 1. Reading cluster: visual-auditory learning and letter identification 2. Basic skills cluster: Word identification and word attack skills and 3. Reading Comprehension: Word comprehension and Passage comprehension

• Test of Word Reading Efficiency: Sight Word Efficiency and Phonemic Decoding Efficiency.

• Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing:– Phonological Awareness

• Elision, Blending, Phoneme Reversal, Segmenting, Sound Matching– Phonological Memory of Digits, non-words– Rapid Naming of colors, pictures, letters, digits

Tests for Assessment of Phonological Awareness

• Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test

• Test of Phonological Awareness

• The Phonological Awareness Test


When working on reading:• Use phonological awareness materials – complete

activities several times to build automaticity• The student should complete activities under time

constraints

Counting UP Counting DOWNSelect given number of stimuli and time how long it takes student to complete these

Use a timer that has audible alarm

Goal is to shorten time of subsequent trials

Determine a preset time (e.g., one minute)

Student completes the activity and sees how far he can get.

Phonological Awareness & Letter Recognition

Continued…

Phonological awareness is “ a means rather than an end.” PA is not acquired for its own sake, but rather for its value in helping children understand and use the alphabetic system to read and write. That is why including letters in the process of teaching children to manipulate phonemes is important

Importance of Reading FluencyGeneral Flow of Therapy

• Building phonological awareness skills

• Increasing speech and accuracy of decoding/word attack– Increasing speed of recognition of letter patterns– Increasing speed of recognition of syllable and word

patterns– Decoding multi-syllabic words

• Recognizing sight words

• Word retrieval, semantics, and vocabulary• Putting all together for improved reading of connected

text.

Decoding

• Decoding Letter Patterns:• Normal readers begin to recognize letter patterns rather than letters as

individual units. (Berninger, 1987, 1991)• How well they recognize letter patterns is associated with how frequently

they have seen the patterns. (Bowers, et al., 1994)• When normal readers begin to recognize a pattern – learning to read by

orthographic analogy – e.g., bake, make take

What might interfere with child developing adequate letter cluster codes? (Bowers &

Wolf, 1993)

Child cannot discriminate the sound unit• The way the child processes letter clusters interferes with

forming clear orthographic image• Slow to recognize individual letters• Child uses poor strategies such as guessing the

word based on the first letter• Child lacks exposure to print


Decoding Cont’Work For Automaticity:• Read stimuli multiple times• Correct any errors• Pre-read stimuli to find any “hard” stimuli• Use a timerRecommended Programs:• Lindamood – LIPS- program• SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS- Goldman and Lynch- High Hat• Orton Gillingham• Wilson Method• Rewards• Score• Sound Reading Solutions (SRS)• LEXIA SOS (good with Wilson Method)• Read America• Phoneme Sequencing Program• Fast ForWord• Explode the Code• PHONICS – Selma Herr• Seeing Stars- Lindamood

Recommended Programs• Lindamood – LIPS- program• SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS- Goldman and Lynch- High Hat• Orton Gillingham• Wilson Method• Rewards• Score• Sound Reading Solutions (SRS)• LEXIA SOS (good with Wilson Method)• Read America• Phoneme Sequencing Program• Fast ForWord• Explode the Code• PHONICS – Selma Herr• Seeing Stars- Lindamood


Decoding Cont’Decoding Morpheme Patterns:

FREE MORPHEMES BOUND MORPHEMESCan stand alone as whole word Cannot stand alone

Cannot be divided without losing its meaning

Can combine with free morpheme to modify meaningPrefixes, suffixes always bound

• Teaching students to look for morphological cues helps with spelling and understanding meaning

• Teaching morpheme patterns helps improve morphological knowledge and helps improve decoding and spelling

• Helps the student decode more quickly


Decoding Cont’Decoding Multi-syllabic Words:• Structural analysis – analysis of the internal

structure of a word that permits decoding• Requires the student to use knowledge of

syllables and morphemes– 3rd, 4th, 5th graders who received instruction

in both decoding and structural analysis improved more in reading and spelling than those who used a basal reader approach. (Henry, 1998)

– 4th thru 7th graders improved word recognition when given explicit structural analysis instruction. (Abbot & Berninger)


Decoding Cont’Decoding Multi-syllabic Words Cont’:• It is important for students to understand the

concept of syllables and counting syllables (Earobics, FastForword, Rewards, SRS,Lexia, Reading Blaster, Seeing Stars, Wilson Reading)

• It is important for students to understand that where the stress is placed can change the meaning of what is being read: e.g., greenhouse vs. green house.

Intervention Techniques recommended by Candace

Goldsworthy, Ph.D. (Developmental Reading Disabilities: A Language Based Treatment Approach-

1996)• Level I: Increasing word awareness: dividing sentences into

words.• Level II. Increasing syllable awareness:dividing words into

syllables.• Level III: Increasing sound awareness: dividing syllables

into sounds.• Each level of the training program includes two sections:• 1. Listening activities to increase a student’s attention to

the sound structure of the language.• Activities for deliberate manipulation of words, syllables,

and phonemes to increase the student’s ability to play with, that is, to analyze the sounds of language, thereby providing explicit phonological awareness training.


How Sight Words are Acquired• Memory for the visual and spelling patterns of

word or word parts.

• These representations allow rapid identification of the word as a whole unit, or at least a unit composed of patterns rather than of individual letters.

• Pronunciation is the anchor for the word.• Allows a match with the word in the oral

vocabulary (Torgeson 2002)


Importance of RepetitionHow Many Times Must The Word Be

Seen?• Six exposures sufficient to give good 1st.

grade readers an advantage in naming words compared to unfamiliar spellings with the same pronunciation

• Six exposures were not enough for older, poorer readers. (Reitsma, 1983)

• Poor readers may be slow to identify targets they have practiced up to 18 times. (Ehri and Wilce, 1983, Manis, 1985)


Importance of Repetition Cont’How do you help students learn sight words?

• Drill, drill, drill• 20 minutes per session (Meyer and Felton, 1999)• Drill on error words probably more effective than drill on new

words.• However, drill on new words “ better development than no

drill.” (Hansen and Eaton, 1978)• Correct any errors.• Drill practice transfers to reading in connected text. – e.g.,

Rewards Reading Program• Time limit needed when reading flash cards• Drill can be done with lists, but timing is better controlled with

flash cards.


Importance of Repetition Cont’

• Words may be related to contet, or other (e.g., Fry list)• After training, should be able to read words from a list with

95% accuracy• Fleisher (1995) suggests goal of 90 WPM – e.g., Seeing Stars• Track progress• Use computer – one word at a time on monitor• Page speed drills Sample:• Rid hid hide side• Hit ride hid kite• Ride ride kit hit

Have student mark short and long vowels

Improving the speed and accuracy of connections – Word Recognition:


Importance of Repetition Cont’Stories can be constructed to help the student practice certain sight words.

• Their mother said, “When you are done with your work, would you like to play catch?” Dan and Sam said they would like to play catch, but they didn’t want to wait until their work was done. They asked their mother, “Would you let us play catch now instead of later?” Their mother would not let them play catch now and said they had to wait until they were done.

Heibert’s Quick Reads (2003)•60 expository passages with frequently occurring words for reading grade levels 2,3,4.•Each level has a high-frequency words and phonic patters and a read-along CD

What Do Word Retrieval, Semantic & Vocabulary Development Have To

Do With Fluency?• A well-established vocabulary enhances the student’s

ability to retrieve specific words• Speed of retrieval facilitates word recognition processes

(Wolf & Segal, 1999)• Fast word recognition facilitates fluent reading.• Connectionist model (Seidenberg, 1990) says reading

occurs when there is parallel interaction of three sub-systems– Phonological (sounds of language)– Orthographic (rules of the printed word)– Semantic (meaning of the words

• Fast and accurate retrieval, whether for oral or written language, occurs best for words that are highly familiar and that possess rich associations for the reader. (Wolf, 1997)

• Is a naming speed deficit a reflection of a broader word-finding problem? Results are equivocal!


Do With Fluency? Cont’Improving the speed and accuracy of connections – Semantics• Dysfluent readers cannot afford time to process different meanings of

a word they have read (Wolf, Miller and Donnelly, 2000)• Students with rich vocabulary, easy access to multiple meanings, can

retrieve information more quickly.Can working on vocabulary and word retrieval have an impact on reading skills?• Some aspects of word retrieval problems in dyslexic readers will

respond to treatment, and these gains might generalize to other naming-speed tasks (Wolf & Segal, 1992)

• Working on word retrieval accuracy and vocabulary generalized to untrained naming-speed task (Wolf & Segal 1999)

• Work on core words (especially with multiple meanings) may be beneficial since slow readers don’t have time to process alternative meanings for words (Recommend: LinguiSystems-Reading program)

• Work On:– BUILDING VOCABULARY– UNDERSTANDING WORDS WITH MULTIPLE MEANINGS– RETRIEVING MEANINGS QUICKLY


Do With Fluency? Cont’• There are many commercially available materials.• Use Glossary section from student’s textbooks• Select words from fiction student read• Use Word Web and Word Plus (word webbing

programs)• Games: Go Fish, Concentration, Write silly stories

with words

THE NEXT STEP IS TO INCREASE READINGFLUENCY IN CONTEXT: Reading 95 WPM isminimum a student will need to complete moststandardized tests of proficiency within the timelimit (Meyer and Felton, 1998)


Do With Fluency? Cont’Improving Fluency – Repeated Reading:• Repeat reading is oldest, most frequently

cited, most researched method for improving fluency. It is based on the premise that fluent readers are those who decode text automatically, leaving attention free for comprehension

• Goals of repeat reading:– Increase reading speed– Transfer that improvement to subsequent material– Enhance comprehension with each successive reading

Reading Rate and Short-Term Memory/Processing

• Breznitz & Share (1992) did multiple studies manipulating reading rate with novice readers

• They consistently supported the hypothesis that accelerated reading rate increased level of comprehension and reduced decoding errors.

• Due in part to:– Lower distractibility– How the words sound when read more quickly,

matching more closely the stored pronunciations.– PRIMARILY DUE TO “CHANGES IN SHORT-TERM

MEMORY PROCESSING.”

Reading Rate and Short-Term Memory/Processing

• When reading words that need to be decoded or checked for meaning are retained in temporary storage while the processing occurs. (Perfetti & Lesgold, 1977)

• Fast-paced reading may facilitate interaction between short-term and long-term memory storage functions

• Allow for better integration between top-down and bottom-up processing (Swanson, 1994)

How Is Short-term Memory/Processing Related To Reading?

Connectionist Theory(Seidenberg, 1990)

• Reading occurs when there is parallel activation of three subsystems:– Phonological– Orthographic– Semantic

• Breznitz (1997) hypothesizes that fast-paced reading forces information to arrive in working memory more quickly, making it more likely that information from all three subsystems will arrive at the same time.

• Acceleration might shift emphasis away from slow phonological route to other, possibly compensating, routes for processing information during reading.

• Perhaps it forces students to rely more on orthographic and contextual cues (Breznitz, 1997)

Role of Corrective Feedback

• With corrective feedback, you get significantly fewer:– Overall errors– Meaning change errors– Errors on lists of error words– Errors on passage comprehension questions (Pany et.al. 1981, Pany & McCoy, 1988)

Methods of Corrective Feedback

Method I Method IISupply the word as soon as the student misreads it.

Supply the word as soon as the student misreads it.

Student repeats the word and continues reading.

Student repeats the word and continues reading.

Print missed words on cards and drill.

Method II resulted in some small changes in comprehension.

Language Processing Remediation

The Connection to MemoryRepeat Reading Is Designed To:• Increase reading speed• Transfer that improvement to

subsequent material• Enhance comprehension with each

successive reading of the text• First described by Samuels in 1979


The Connection to Memory Cont’How Do You Do It?• Student should follow text with finger• May also cover remaining lines of text.• Choose passages at independent (95-100%) or instructional (90-95%) level.• Correct any errors immediately by saying word correctly.• Student should repeat the correct word (note: some students too

frustrated by this).• Read passages 3-4 times (O’shea et al. 1985, Bowers 1993) Some

research says up to 7 times.• Select short passages rather than on-going story.• Record accuracy as well as rate.• Practice 15-20 minutes daily.• Use different types of repeat reading for different students.• Ask comprehension questions to remind the student to pay attention to the

content.


The Connection to Memory Cont’Parent Practice:• Rasinski (1995) has parent read passage to

child each night• Then they read it together several times• Then child reads text to parent.What About Silent Reading Practice?• Silent reading does NOT have a significant

effect on post-test reading performance (Wilkinson et. Al., 1988)


The Connection to Memory Cont’What Is Acceptable Oral Reading Speed?• First graders 30-50 wpm• Mid-second grade 85-120 wpm• Fifth grade 120-150 wpm• 1st grade: multiply age by 10• 2nd grade: multiply age by 10• 3rd grade: 100 wpm• 6th grade: 150 wpm or more

Does Oral Reading Practice Work?• Guided oral reading has a consistent and positive

impact on word recognition, fluency, and comprehension• Works with non-impaired readers at least through

grade 4, as well as on students with reading problems through high school.


The Connection to Memory Cont’

Programs That Incorporate Repeat Reading:– Great Leaps– Read Naturally– Literacy First

REPEAT READING MAY WORK BECAUSE “IT AFFORDS READERS THE OPPORTUNITY TO PERCEIVE THE SYNTACTIC ORGANIZATION OF THE SENTENCES (Schreiber, 1991)

Thank you!

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