baking - sweethaven02.combread§culturalsignificance...

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Baking Bedouins making and baking bread Anders Zorn - Bread baking (1889) Baking is a method of cooking food that uses prolonged dry heat, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. The most common baked item is bread but many other types of foods are baked. [1] Heat is gradu- ally transferred “from the surface of cakes, cookies, and breads to their centre. As heat travels through it trans- forms batters and doughs into baked goods with a firm dry crust and a softer centre”. [2] Baking can be combined with grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant by us- ing both methods simultaneously, or one after the other. Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit. Because of historical social and familial roles, baking has traditionally been performed at home by women for do- mestic consumption and by men in bakeries and restau- rants for local consumption. When production was in- dustrialized, baking was automated by machines in large factories. The art of baking remains a fundamental skill and is important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a common but important food, both from an economic and cultural point of view. A person who pre- pares baked goods as a profession is called a baker. 1 Foods and techniques A Palestinian woman baking markook bread on tava or Saj oven in Artas, Bethlehem All types of food can be baked, but some require special care and protection from direct heat. Various techniques have been developed to provide this protection. In addition to bread, baking is used to prepare cakes, pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers, pretzels, and more. These popular items are known col- lectively as “baked goods,” and are often sold at a bakery, which is a store that carries only baked goods, or at mar- kets, grocery stores, or through other venues. Meat, including cured meats, such as ham can also be baked, but baking is usually reserved for meatloaf, smaller cuts of whole meats, or whole meats that contain stuffing or coating such as bread crumbs or buttermilk batter. Some foods are surrounded with moisture dur- ing baking by placing a small amount of liquid (such as 1

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Baking

Bedouins making and baking bread

Anders Zorn - Bread baking (1889)

Baking is a method of cooking food that uses prolongeddry heat, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or onhot stones. The most common baked item is bread butmany other types of foods are baked.[1] Heat is gradu-ally transferred “from the surface of cakes, cookies, andbreads to their centre. As heat travels through it trans-forms batters and doughs into baked goods with a firmdry crust and a softer centre”.[2] Baking can be combinedwith grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant by us-ing both methods simultaneously, or one after the other.Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept ofthe masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit.Because of historical social and familial roles, baking hastraditionally been performed at home by women for do-mestic consumption and by men in bakeries and restau-rants for local consumption. When production was in-dustrialized, baking was automated by machines in largefactories. The art of baking remains a fundamental skilland is important for nutrition, as baked goods, especiallybreads, are a common but important food, both from an

economic and cultural point of view. A person who pre-pares baked goods as a profession is called a baker.

1 Foods and techniques

A Palestinian woman bakingmarkook bread on tava or Saj ovenin Artas, Bethlehem

All types of food can be baked, but some require specialcare and protection from direct heat. Various techniqueshave been developed to provide this protection.In addition to bread, baking is used to prepare cakes,pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers,pretzels, and more. These popular items are known col-lectively as “baked goods,” and are often sold at a bakery,which is a store that carries only baked goods, or at mar-kets, grocery stores, or through other venues.Meat, including cured meats, such as ham can alsobe baked, but baking is usually reserved for meatloaf,smaller cuts of whole meats, or whole meats that containstuffing or coating such as bread crumbs or buttermilkbatter. Some foods are surrounded with moisture dur-ing baking by placing a small amount of liquid (such as

1

2 2 BAKING IN ANCIENT TIMES

A terracotta baking mould for pastry or bread, representing goatsand a lion attacking a cow. Early 2nd millennium BC, Royalpalace at Mari, Syria

water or broth) in the bottom of a closed pan, and lettingit steam up around the food, a method commonly knownas braising or slow baking. Larger cuts prepared with-out stuffing or coating are more often roasted, which isa similar process, using higher temperatures and shortercooking times. Roasting, however, is only suitable forfiner cuts of meat, so other methods have been devel-oped to make tougher meat cuts palatable after baking.One of these is the method known as en croûte (Frenchfor “in a crust”), which protects the food from directheat and seals the natural juices inside. Meat, poultry,game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking encroûte. Well-known examples include Beef Wellington,where the beef is encased in pastry before baking; pâtéen croûte, where the terrine is encased in pastry beforebaking; and the Vietnamese variant, a meat-filled pas-try called pâté chaud. The en croûte method also allowsmeat to be baked by burying it in the embers of a fire –a favourite method of cooking venison. In this case, theprotective casing (or crust) is made from a paste of flourand water and is discarded before eating. Salt can alsobe used to make a protective crust that is not eaten. An-other method of protecting food from the heat while it isbaking, is to cook it en papillote (French for “in parch-ment”). In this method, the food is covered by bakingpaper (or aluminium foil) to protect it while it is beingbaked. The cooked parcel of food is sometimes servedunopened, allowing diners to discover the contents forthemselves which adds an element of surprise.Eggs can also be used in baking to produce savoury orsweet dishes. In combination with dairy products espe-cially cheese, they are often prepared as a dessert. For ex-ample, although a baked custard can be made using starch(in the form of flour, cornflour, arrowroot, or potatoflour), the flavour of the dish is muchmore delicate if eggsare used as the thickening agent. Baked custards, such ascrème caramel, are among the items that need protectionfrom an oven’s direct heat, and the bain-marie method

serves this purpose. The cooking container is half sub-merged in water in another, larger one, so that the heatin the oven is more gently applied during the baking pro-cess. Baking a successful soufflé requires that the bakingprocess be carefully controlled. The oven temperaturemust be absolutely even and the oven space not sharedwith another dish. These factors, along with the theatri-cal effect of an air-filled dessert, have given this bakedfood a reputation for being a culinary achievement. Sim-ilarly, a good baking technique (and a good oven) are alsoneeded to create a baked Alaska because of the difficultyof baking hot meringue and cold ice cream at the sametime.Baking can also be used to prepare various other foodssuch as pizzas, baked potatoes, baked apples, bakedbeans, some casseroles and pasta dishes such as lasagne.

2 Baking in ancient times

An Egyptian funerary Model of a bakery and brewery (11th dy-nasty, circa 2009–1998 B.C.)

The first evidence of baking occurred when humans tookwild grass grains, soaked them in water, and mixed ev-erything together, mashing it into a kind of broth-likepaste.[3] The paste was cooked by pouring it onto a flat,hot rock, resulting in a bread-like substance. Later, whenhumans mastered fire, the paste was roasted on hot em-bers, which made bread-making easier, as it could nowbe made any time fire was created. The world’s old-est oven was discovered in Croatia in 2014 dating back6500 years ago. The Ancient Egyptians baked bread us-ing yeast, which they had previously been using to brewbeer.[4] Bread baking began in Ancient Greece around600 BC, leading to the invention of enclosed ovens.[4]

3

“Ovens and worktables have been discovered in archaeo-logical digs from Turkey (Hacilar) to Palestine (Jericho)and date back to 5600 BC.”[5]

Baking flourished during the Roman Empire. Begin-ning around 300 BC, the pastry cook became an occu-pation for Romans (known as the pastillarium) and be-came a respected profession because pastries were con-sidered decadent, and Romans loved festivity and cele-bration. Thus, pastries were often cooked especially forlarge banquets, and any pastry cook who could invent newtypes of tasty treats was highly prized. Around 1 AD,there weremore than three hundred pastry chefs in Rome,and Cato wrote about how they created all sorts of diversefoods and flourished professionally and socially becauseof their creations. Cato speaks of an enormous numberof breads including; libum (sacrificial cakes made withflour), placenta (groats and cress), spira (our modern dayflour pretzels), scibilata (tortes), savaillum (sweet cake),and globus apherica (fritters). A great selection of these,with many different variations, different ingredients, andvaried patterns, were often found at banquets and dininghalls. The Romans baked bread in an oven with its ownchimney, and had mills to grind grain into flour. A bak-ers’ guild was established in 168 BC in Rome.[4]

3 Commercial baking

Vincent van Gogh – The Bakery in Noordstraat (1882)

Eventually, the Roman art of baking became knownthroughout Europe and eventually spread to eastern partsof Asia. By the 13th century in London, commercial trad-ing, including baking, had many regulations attached. Inthe case of food, they were designed to create a system“so there was little possibility of false measures, adulter-ated food or shoddy manufactures.” There were by thattime twenty regulations applying to bakers alone, includ-ing that every baker had to have “the impression of hisseal” upon each loaf of bread.[6]

Beginning in the 19th century, alternative leaveningagents became more common, such as baking soda.[4]Bakers often baked goods at home and then sold them inthe streets. This scene was so common that Rembrandt,among others, painted a pastry chef selling pancakes in

the streets of Germany, with children clamoring for asample. In London, pastry chefs sold their goods fromhandcarts. This developed into a delivery system ofbaked goods to households and greatly increased demandas a result. In Paris, the first open-air café of bakedgoods was developed, and baking became an establishedart throughout the entire world.

Schulze Baking Company Factory (1914–15)

Every family used to prepare the bread forits own consumption, the trade of baking, nothaving yet taken shape.Mrs Beeton (1861)[7]

Baking eventually developed into a commercial industryusing automated machinery which enabled more goodsto be produced for widespread distribution. In the UnitedStates, the baking industry “was built on marketing meth-ods used during feudal times and production techniquesdeveloped by the Romans.”[8] Some makers of snackssuch as potato chips or crisps have produced baked ver-sions of their snack products as an alternative to the usualcooking method of deep-frying in an attempt to reducetheir calorie or fat content. Baking has opened up doorsto businesses such as cake shops and factories where thebaking process is done with larger amounts in large, openfurnaces.The aroma and texture of baked goods as they come outof the oven are strongly appealing but is a quality that isquickly lost. Since the flavour and appeal largely dependon freshness, commercial producers have to compensateby using food additives as well as imaginative labeling.As more and more baked goods are purchased from com-mercial suppliers, producers try to capture that originalappeal by adding the label “home-baked.” Such attemptsseek to make an emotional link to the remembered fresh-ness of baked goods as well as to attach positive associ-ations the purchaser has with the idea of “home” to thebought product. Freshness is such an important qual-ity that restaurants, although they are commercial (andnot domestic) preparers of food, bake their own prod-ucts. For example, scones at The Ritz London Hotel “are

4 5 PROCESS

not baked until early afternoon on the day they are to beserved, to make sure they are as fresh as possible.”[9]

4 Equipment

Baking needs an enclosed space for heating – typically inan oven. The fuel can be supplied by wood, coal, gas,or electricity. Adding and removing items from an ovenmay be done by hand with an oven mitt or by a peel, along handled tool specifically used for that purpose.Many commercial ovens are equipped with two heatingelements: one for baking, using convection and thermalconduction to heat the food, and one for broiling orgrilling, heating mainly by radiation. Another pieceof equipment still used for baking is the Dutch oven.“Also called a bake kettle, bastable, bread oven, fire pan,bake oven kail pot, tin kitchen, roasting kitchen, doufeu(French: “gentle fire”) or feu de compagne (French:“country oven”) [it] originally replaced the cooking jackas the latest fireside cooking technology,” combining “theconvenience of pot-oven and hangover oven.”[10]

Asian cultures have adopted steam baskets to producethe effect of baking while reducing the amount of fatneeded.[11]

5 Process

Baking bread at the Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum

There are eleven events that occur concurrently duringbaking, and some of them, such as starch glutenization,would not occur at room temperature.[12]

1. Fats melt;

2. Gases form and expand

3. Microorganisms die

4. Sugar dissolves

Baked goods

5. Egg, milk, and gluten proteins coagulate

6. Starches gelatinise

7. Gases evaporate

8. Caramelization and Maillard browning occur oncrust

9. Enzymes are inactivated

10. Changes occur to nutrients

11. Pectin breaks down.[13]

The dry heat of baking changes the form of starches inthe food and causes its outer surfaces to brown, givingit an attractive appearance and taste. The browning iscaused by caramelization of sugars and theMaillard reac-tion. Maillard browning occurs when “sugars break downin the presence of proteins”. Because foods contain manydifferent types of sugars and proteins, Maillard browningcontributes to the flavour of a wide range of foods, includ-ing nuts, roast beef and baked bread.”[14] The moisture isnever entirely “sealed in"; over time, an item being bakedwill become dry. This is often an advantage, especially insituations where drying is the desired outcome, like dry-ing herbs or roasting certain types of vegetables.The baking process does not require any fat to be usedto cook in an oven. When baking, consideration must begiven to the amount of fat that is contained in the fooditem. Higher levels of fat such as margarine, butter, lard,

5

or vegetable shortening will cause an item to spread outduring the baking process.With the passage of time, breads harden and becomestale. This is not primarily due to moisture being lostfrom the baked products, but more a reorganization ofthe way in which the water and starch are associated overtime. This process is similar to recrystallization and ispromoted by storage at cool temperatures, such as in adomestic refrigerator or freezer.

6 Cultural and religious signifi-cance

Further information: Bread § Cultural significanceBaking, especially of bread, holds special significance

Bird baked from bread on the March equinox to celebrate springand the forty martyrs

Baking matzot at Kfar Chabad

for many cultures. It is such a fundamental part of every-day food consumption that the children’s nursery rhymePat-a-cake, pat-a-cake, baker’s man takes baking as itssubject. Baked goods are normally served at all kindsof party and special attention is given to their quality atformal events. They are also one of the main compo-nents of a tea party, including at nursery teas and highteas, a tradition which started in Victorian Britain, re-portedly when Anna Russell, Duchess of Bedford “grew

Benedictine Sisters of Caltanissetta producing the crocetta of Cal-tanissetta

tired of the sinking feeling which afflicted her every after-noon round 4 o'clock ... In 1840, she plucked up courageand asked for a tray of tea, bread and butter, and cake tobe brought to her room. Once she had formed the habitshe found she could not break it, so spread it among herfriends instead. As the century progressed, afternoon teabecame increasingly elaborate.”[15]

Benedictine Sisters of the Benedectine Monastery ofCaltanissetta producing the crocette, they used to be pre-pared for the Holy Crucifix festivity. This was situatednext to the Church of the Holy Cross, from which thesweets take the name.[16]

For Jews, Matzo is a baked product of considerable reli-gious and ritual significance. Baked matzah bread can beground up and used in other dishes, such as Gefilte fish,and baked again. For Christians, bread has to be bakedto be used as an essential component of the sacrament ofthe Eucharist. In the Eastern Christian tradition, bakedbread in the form of birds is given to children to carry tothe fields in a spring ceremony that celebrates the FortyMartyrs of Sebaste.

7 See also

• Baking pan

• Baking chocolate

• Baking mix

• List of baked goods

• List of bakers

6 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

• List of ovens

• Sheet pan

8 References[1] Baked sausages Retrieved November 02, 2015.

[2] Figoni, Paula I. (2011). How Baking Works: Exploring theFundamentals of Baking Science (3rd ed.). New Jersey:John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-39813-5.p.38

[3] Pfister, Fred. “Pfister Consulting: History of Baking –How Did It All Start? Yes people”. Archived from theoriginal on 3 February 2013. Retrieved January 1, 2013.

[4] Morgan, James (2012). Culinary Creation. Routledge.pp. 297–298. ISBN 978-1-136-41270-7.

[5] Rochelle, Jay Cooper (2001). Bread for the Wilderness:Baking As Spiritual Craft. Fairfax, VA: Xulon Press. p.32. ISBN 1-931232-52-0.

[6] Peter Ackroyd (2003). London: the biography (1st An-chor Books ed.). New York: Anchor books. p. 59. ISBN0385497717.

[7] Beeton, Mrs (1861). Mrs Beeton’s Book of HouseholdManagement (Facsimile edition, 1968 ed.). London: S.O.Beeton, 18 Bouverie St. E.C. p. 831. ISBN 0-224-61473-8.

[8] Bessie Emrick Whitten (1990). David O. Whitten, ed., Handbook of American Business History: Manufactur-ing. Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN0-313-25198-3.p.53

[9] Simpson, Helen (1986). The London Ritz Book of After-noon Tea - The Art & Pleasures of Taking Tea. London,UK: Angus & Robertson, Publishers. p. 8. ISBN 0-207-15415-5.

[10] Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2004). Encyclopedia of KitchenHistory,. Taylor & Francis Books. p. 330. ISBN 0-203-31917-6.

[11] “Chinese steamed sponge cake (ji dan gao)". ChineseGrandma. 8 February 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2015.

[12] Figoni 2011, p. 38.

[13] Figoni 2011, ch.3 pp.38 ff.

[14] Figoni 2011, p. 42.

[15] Simpson, Helen (1986). The London Ritz Book of Af-ternoon Tea: The Art & Pleasures of Making Tea. Lon-don: Angus & Robertson Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 0-207-15415-5.

[16] “Caltanissetta riscopre le “Crocette"" (in Italian).

9 Bibliography• Figoni, Paula (2010). HowBakingWorks: Exploringthe Fundamentals of Baking Science (3 ed.). Wiley.ISBN 978-0470392676.—a textbook on baking andsetting up a bakery

10 Further reading• Pyler, E.J.; Gorton, L.A. (2008). Baking Sci-ence&Technology (PDF). Sosland Publishing Com-pany. ISBN 978-0-9820239-0-7. Retrieved Jan-uary 2013. Check date values in: |access-date=(help)

11 External links• Media related to Baking at Wikimedia Commons

• The dictionary definition of baking at Wiktionary

7

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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