READABILITY THEORY

A. The Notion of Readability

1. The Definition of Readability

Readability refers to the easy degree of a text to be understood

(Sakri, 1993: 135) in Nababan (1999: 62). The same definition stated by

Richard et al (1985: 238) in Nababan (1999: 62) readability is how easily

written materials can be read and understood. From the two definitions

above the writer can conclude that readability is the easy degree a written

text to be read and to catch the content by the readers.

At the beginning, the readability is only related to reading activity.

Then the readability is also used in translation because translating is

always related to reading. Basically, in translation context, the readability

is not only related to the readability of the target language text. This is

appropriate with the reality of every translation process which always

involves two languages at once. But, up to this day, the indicator used to

measure the readability level of text still need to be proved. According to

Gilmore and Root (1997: 102), in Nababan (1999: 62) the readability

level of a text which is based on linguistic factors and human

enchantment is not more than a support tool for a writer in adjusting the

readability of a text with the ability of the readers.

Apart from the unstable the measuring tool of the readability, a

translator needs to understand readability concept of the source language

text and the target language. A good understanding of the readability

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concept will help the translator in doing the translation work. According

to Wardah (1978: 2) in her thesis, readability level is used to show how

communicate or how easy to understand a particular reading text is, both

in terms of its contents and forms for a group of readers.

To determine the readability level of text, the writer uses readability

formula proposed by Robert Gunning (1952). Readability formulas are

mathematical techniques used to determine how difficult it is for someone

to read and understand a piece of writing. According to Gunning Fog

Index, the Fog Index is obviously interesting in terms of its applicability

and simplicity. The formula is used to determine the amount of fog,

obscurity, ambiguity, or complexity in writing. Gunning proposed

counting words of three or more syllabus. These he termed “hard words”.

More than 100 different readability formulas exist, and many are

being used by government agencies and business in an attempt to improve

writing. Most readability formulas are based on an idea that short words

and sentences are easier to understand than long words or sentences.

For example, Robert Gunning’s “Fog Index” works like this:

1. Find the average number of words per sentence (L), using a 100

+ words passage.

Count all of words (W) and all of the independent clauses (C) and

divide (W: C).

Dates count as a single word.

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2. Find the number of different words (D), defined as those with

three or more syllabus.

3. Add the average sentence length to the number of difficult

words and multiply by 0.4. This will give you estimate of the

average grade level that a reader should have obtained to understand

the writing. That is, Gunning Fog Index = 0.4* (L+D).

2. The Factors which Determine the Readability of the Text

Readability refers to the easy degree of a text to be understood. The

definition of readability above is rather abstract because it has not

involved interaction between reader and the text. In fact, reader has a role

in deciding the readability of the text. The involvement of the reader in

deciding the readability of the text is a really important addition element

in linguistic factors. However, every text resulted has a purpose to be

read, so that automatically that text involves the readers.

The readability of a text is determined by some factors. According

to Richard (1985: 238) in Nababan (1999: 62), readability depends on: the

average length of the sentence, the number of a new word, Sakri (1993) in

Nababan (1999: 63) also suggest the same factors, some as the quotation

below:

“Keterbacaan, antara lain, bergantung pada kosakata dan bangun kalimat yang dipilih oleh pengarang untuk tulisannya. Tulisan yang banyak mengandung kata yang tidak umum lebih sulit dipahami dari pada yang menggunakan kosakata sehari-hari, yang sudah dikenal pembaca pada umumnya. Demikian pula bangun kalimat ganda susun yang panjang dan sangat menyulitkan pembaca akan memahaminya. Kesulitan yang dimaksud disini berkait dengan isi yang sukar dicerna. Isi yang

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sukar, dalam batas tertentu, dapat disajikan dengan bahasa yang sederhana sehingga uraian keterbacaan tinggi.”

Besides those factors, there are other factors, such as: the use of

foreign word and traditional proverbs (culture word), ambiguous word

and sentence, and the incomplete sentence will also cause a low

readability level.

Diction and sentence forms as factors which influence the

readability level in more details will be explained as follows:

a. Diction

Diction is choice and use of words, style, or manner of speaking and

writing (Hornby, 1987: 239). In this research, diction is used to

emphasize the manner of writing on the text, namely: the use of new

words, the use of foreign words and traditional proverbs, and

ambiguous words which are related to the factors of readability.

1) The Use of New Words

The use of uncommon words in daily life will cause difficulties for

readers to understand those words. So, that will directly cause the

low of readability level. For example words: Anggit (concept), nas

(text), langgas (transitive verbs).

2) The Use of Foreign Words and Traditional Proverbs

Foreign words and traditional proverbs usually cause a readability

problem because they are less understandable. Foreign words such

as: Hard disk, Mouse, Desktop, Digital Camera will be difficult to

understand by common readers. Traditional proverb such as:

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ujung, mitoni, nyewu, which are cultural events in Javanese

community, also cause difficulties for the readers to understand the

text.

3) Ambiguous Word

When certain word which appears in certain situation support the

meaning, there will be double interpretation. Ambiguity will

appear if the context does not support the meaning, so that, the

translator will be doubt whether the word has meaning or not.

Those words are ambiguous because they have more than one

meaning, or it is usually called homonym. Homonym is word that

is the same in term and sound as another but different in meaning

(Hornby, 1987: 409). For example: the word bank means

“financial institution” or” edge of river”.

b. Sentence Forms

In this research, sentences forms which are related to the factors of

readability are ambiguous sentences, length of sentence, complex

sentence.

1) Ambiguous sentence

Ambiguous sentence is a sentence which has two meaning. For

example: the sentence “flying planes can be dangerous”. The

meaning of that sentence can be:

(a) The action (flying planes) is dangerous.

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(b) Flying planes (the planes that are flying) are

dangerous.

2) Length of Sentence

Generally, the longer a sentence is the more difficult to understand.

A long sentence uses many more words. In order to understand the

sentence, the readers have to understand the meaning of each word

in that sentence and then the readers have to understand the

meaning from the relation among words in the sentence. The

average length of sentence refers to the average amount sentence in

the text.

3) Complex Sentence

Complex sentence is a sentence which has more than one idea. It

will cause difficulties for the readers to understand complex

sentence.

According to Wardhaugh (1977: 114-115), a sentence with one

main, i.e. matrix, clause and one or more subordinate, i.e. embedded

clause is called a complex sentence.

(a) I went when I was sent for.

(b) He asked what I wanted.

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According to Frank (1972: 223) such sentences also have two or

more full predications. One of these is an independent clause, (or,

main clause) that is similar to the similar to the form of the simple

sentence, and or more of these are dependent clauses (or,

subordinate clauses).

(c) The man who stole the jewelry hid it in his home.

B. Translation

1. The Definition of Translation

There are some definitions of translation. Brislin (1976: 1) states

that translation is the general terms referring to the transfer of thought and

ideas from one language (source language) to another (target language),

whether language is written in oral form. Pinchuck (1977: 35) in Yuwono

(2000: 1) states that translation is transferring the meaning.

According to Catford (1974: 1) in Yuwono (2002: 2) translation is a

process of substituting a text in one language to another language. This

definition stresses the importance of linguistic theory in translation. In

fact, the translation process does not only deal with linguistic theory. It

usually tends to maintain the form of language of the original text. A more

complete definition is stated by Basnett (1988: 2) that is “what generally

understood as translation involves the rendering of source language text

into the target language. So as to ensure:

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a. The surface meaning of the two

languages will be approximately similar.

b. The structures of sources language

(SL) will be preserved as closely as possible, but not to closely that

target language (TL) will be seriously distorted.

From the definition above, the translation has the same term

“equivalent”. The meaning, context, thought, or message of both source of

reproducing in the receptor language, the closest natural equivalent to the

message of the source language. First in meaning and secondly in style.

The message of the source language and that of receptor language must be

equivalent. The readers of the translation who know the target language

only will be confused if the target language is influenced by the source

language.

Meanwhile the result of translation must be transferring the meaning

of the source language clearly. In order to make the clear meaning of

source language, it is expected that the meaning of target language can be

understood by the readers. So, the result of the translation must be

readable. In target language, readability is needed, because it makes the

readers easier to catch the content of the translation text, conversely when

the translation text is not readable. It will make the readers difficult to

understand the content of the text well.

So translator must understand both source and target languages well.

A translator must be able to differentiate between lexicon, grammatical

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structures and cultural context of the source language and those of the

target language because translation is not only word-for word translation,

but also phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence.

From many definitions above, the writer knows that translation is a

process of transferring thoughts and message from source language to

target language, in the form of written or oral. It is the meaning that has to

be transferred, while the form or the style may change. Also, the

translation text in the target language must readable.

2. The Kinds of Translation

Practically, there are some kinds of translation that have their own

characteristics and forms. Some kinds of translation are found because of

the differences and similarities of the source language structures, different

kinds of text that are going to be translated and different purpose of

translation.

Catford in Yuwono (2000: 4) divides translation into three kinds

namely:

a. Word for word translation

b. Literal translation

c. Free translation

According to Nababan (1999: 29) in translating practice he applied

some kinds of translation, because translating practice was caused by four

factors namely: (1) there are differences between the source language and

target language; (2) there are differences on the kinds of the text material

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that will be translated; (3) there is assumption that translation as a

communication tool; (4) there is a different purpose in translation of the

text.

Nababan (1999: 30) in his book Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris

differentiates kinds of translation: word for word translation, free

translation, literal translation, dynamic translation, pragmatic translation,

aesthetic-poetic translation, ethnographic translation, linguistic translation,

communicative translation, and semantic translation.

a. Word – for – word translation

Word –for –word translation is translation based on the arrangement of

word from the source language into target language. In this type of

translation, the translator just transfer the meaning of each word based

on the word order and part of speech of the source language. This type

can be used if the source language (SL) and the target language (TL)

have same structure.

Example: I will go to New York tomorrow. Saya akan pergi ke New

York besok. (Nababan, Nababan, 1999: 30)

b. Free translation

Free translation is the type of translation which is not bound to the

search equivalence of the word or sentence but of the paragraph rank

or discourse. This type of translation emphasizes on the transfer of the

source language message. A translator has a freedom to express the

idea of source language into target language through her own language

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style and structure but it is better for her not to change the message of

the source language.

Example: Killing two birds with one stone.

Sambil menyelam minum air.

c. Literal translation

This type of translation is located between both types above, it is

started by translation word –for –word translation but several parts of

translation change related to the grammar of the target language.

Examples: His heart is in the right place.

Hatinya berada ditempat yang benar.

(Nababan, 1999: 33)

d. Dynamic translation

Dynamic translation is called natural translation. The message of the

source language is transformed and expressed by using custom

expressions in target language. All of thing that is still peculiar or less

natural characteristic, not only on cultural context but also on the

expression of target language can be avoided. This type emphasizes on

message transformation and on particular expression of target

language.

Example: The Author has organized this book since 1995.

Penulis telah menyusun buku ini sejak 1995.

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(Nababan, 1999: 33)

e. Pragmatic translation

Pragmatic translation refers to the translation of message with an

interest in accuracy of the information that was meant to be conveyed

in a source language form. The clearest example of pragmatic

translation is in the treatment of technical documents in which

information about, say, repairing a machine is translated into another

language. Translator would have no concern other than getting the

information across in the second language. (Brislinn, 1976: 3).

Example: White cross Baby Powder is soft and smoothing, it absorbs

moisture and keeps baby cool and comfortable.

White cross Baby Powder lembut dan halus, menyerap

kelembapan, menjaga kesegaran dan kenyamanan bayi

anda.

From the text above, in pragmatic translation, the grammar is ignored

by the translator, because the pragmatic translation must be suitable to

the context. Word “soft” for example, not parallel with word

“smoothing”. And there is deleted subject on translation text sentences

or on target text. From the phenomenon above, a translation gives

more attention on the transfer information as complete as possible.

f. Aesthetic – poetic translation

According to Brislin (1976: 3) Aesthetic – poetic translation is kind of

translation in which the translator takes into the effect, emotion, and

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feeling of an original language version, the aesthetic forms (e.g.

sonnet, dramatic dialogue) used by the original author, as well as any

information in message. Aesthetic – poetic translation is called literary

translation. The clearest examples are in the translation of literature.

g. Ethnographic translation

Ethnographic translation purposes to explicate the cultural context of

the source and second language versions. A translator has to be

sensitive to the way words used (e.g. yes versus yea American

English), and must know how the words fit into the cultures that use

the source and target language.

h. Linguistic translation

According to Casagrande (1954: 337) in Brislin (1976: 4) linguistic

translation is concerned with “equivalent meanings of the constituents

morphemes of the second language and with grammatical form”.

Example: 1) Harry is willing to help

2) Harry is difficult to help

The sentences of (1) and (2) above have the same surface structure.

But, they have different in grammar. In the first sentence, Harry acts

the activity to help on the other hand, in the second sentence, Harry is

patient of the verb to help.

Surface structure Deep structure

(1) Harry is willing to help Harry is willing to help me

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(2) Harry is difficult to help Harry is difficult for one to help

(Nababan, 1999: 39)

i. Communicative translation

In his book Approach to Translation, Newmark (1981: 26) in Nababan

(1999: 40) states that translation has the function as means of

communication. This is expressed on the statement as follows”…

translation is basically a means of communication or a manner of

addressing one or more persons in the speaker presence:. “In that

expression, the meaning which can be interpreted as a means of

communications, the translation has the function as an instrument to

convey an opinion or feeling to the people. Basically, communicative

translation emphasizes transferring of message, meaning, and function

of language translating.

Example: Jimmy Carter was the President of the United States, have

different meaning with, Jimmy Carter is the President of the United

States.

j. Semantic translation

According to Newmark (1981: 39) in Nababan (1999: 45) this

semantic translation resembles with communication translation.

Semantic translation concentrates on looking for the equivalence of

word only, with attached on cultural source language. The translation

in this type tries to transfer the context meaning of source language as

nearly as possible by syntax.

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Examples: context situation 1

Mr. Andrew : You must not go out this evening.

Harry : Yes dad

Context situation 2

Mr. Andrew : You must not go out this evening

Harry : Yes sir.

Both examples above show that Harry gives different responses, that is

reflected from uses of the words. In dialogue 1, Harry uses word

“Dad”, and “sir” dialogue 2, both of them refer to the same references,

that is Mr. Andrew (Harry’s father). (Nababan, 1999: 45).

3. The Process of Translation

The process of translation can be defined as the activity of

translation. The translation process usually is used by a translator as a

guide in translating text from source language into target language. Nida

(1975: 80) in Yuwono (2000: 63) illustrates the process of translation

converse three steps namely analysis, transfer and restructuring.

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Source Language Text

Analysis

Receptor Language Translation

Restructuring

From the diagram above, it can be seen that there is a process in

translating text. First, a translator faces a written text in the source

language, then tries to understand the content of the text. In addition to

that point, a translator has to transfer the meaning into the target language

exactly, without any change of meaning in target language. The

translator’s last work is she has to restructure the transfer into a good

language.

C. Folklore

1. The Definition of Folklore

Etymologically, the folklore word is compound word which is

derived from two syllabus folk and lore. Folk has the same meaning as a

collective word. According to Alan Dundes, folk is a group of people who

have physical, social, and cultural identity features. So that, we can

differentiate it from other group. The identity features are among others:

the same skin color, the same hairstyle, the same of job, the same of

language, the same in educational level, and the same religion. However,

the most important thing is they have a tradition, that is, culture which is

Transfer

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inherited hereditary from their ancestor. There are at least two generations

which can be claimed by them as a join property and they realize their

identity (Dundess, 1965: 2; 1977: 17-35; 1978: 7) in Dananjaja (1994: 1)

So, folk is synonym word of collective, also it has physical identity

feature or the same culture, and folk has a personal awareness as a unit

society.

Lore is folk tradition. It means that the parts of the culture, which are

inherited by oral or by examples which are completed by movement

signals or remainder tolls. So folklore is a part culture of collective, which

is traditionally spread and inherited hereditary among any kinds of

collective in any versions, whether in oral form or example completed by

movement signals or reminder tools (Dananjaja, 1994: 2).

According to Brunvand (1965: 5) in Danandjaja (1994: 2) the

definition of folklore may be as those materials in culture that circulate

traditionally among members of any group in versions, whether in oral or

by means of customary example.

In order to able to differentiate folklore from other culture, firstly the

book’s writer has to find out the main feature of folklore, which can be

formulated as follows:

a. Usually, the folklore process are spreaded and inherited

orally, that is, spreaded up by words from mouth to mouth in one

generation to the next generations.

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b. Folklore has a traditional characteristic, that is, spreaded

up in a relative constant or standard form. Folklore spread among

certain collectives in a long period of time (at least in two generations).

c. Folklore exists in various versions. That is, because of the

spreading process orally, not by a print or record form. Because of

forget fullness process of people or interpolation. Folklore is easily

changed.

d. Folklore has an anonym characteristic. It means that the

first creator is unknown.

e. Usually, folklore has a formula or pattern form.

f. Folklore has a function in a collective’s life. Folktale for

examples: it has a function as an education tools, fun, social protest,

and projections of a deep wish.

g. Folklore has prelogical characteristic. It has its own logic

which does not agree with general logic, for example in verbal and

partly verbal folklore.

h. Folklore becomes a join property in certain collectives.

This is as a result from the unknown creator.

i. Folklore is commonly smooth and plain so that it looks

rough and spontaneous. This is because folklore is the most honest

manifestations of human and it is as human’s expression of emotional

projection.

2. The Kinds of Folklore

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According to Jan Harold Brunvand, in Danandjaja (1994: 21-22)

based on the type, folklore can be classified into three groups based on the

type:

a. Verbal folklore

b. Party Verbal folklore

c. Non Verbal folklore

The explanation of the type of folklore, is as follows:

a. Verbal folklore

Verbal folklore is a folklore of which form is originally verbal. The

examples of verbal folklore are as follow:

(1) Folk speech: dialect, nick name, traditional rank, and nobility title.

(2) Traditional question: puzzle.

(3) Traditional expression: proverb and pemeo.

(4) Folk poem: poetry and rhyme.

(5) Story of people’ fairy tales: myth, legend and folklore.

(6) Folk song.

b. Partly Verbal Folklore.

Partly verbal folklore is a folklore which form is a combination of oral

and non-oral elements. For examples: people’s trust which refers to

superstition by “modern” people that can be called”myth”. It consists

of a statement which has oral characteristic which is added by signals

gesture.

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The form of folklore included into this group are: folk’s playing, folk’s

theater, folk’s dance, folk’s ceremony, and folk’s party.

c. Non Verbal Folklore.

Non verbal folklore is a folklore which form is non-verbal, although

the technique of making it is taught verbally.

This can be divided into sub groups, namely:

(1) Material : such as, the form of folk house, the folk’s

architect, the folk’s hand made, dress, articles of

the body, food and beverage, and the traditionally

drugs.

(2) Non material : such as, the traditional signal gesture, the sound

of folk communication, and folk music.

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