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Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies Jenny Rabin Neuropsychology Rounds September 9, 2013

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Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies. Jenny Rabin Neuropsychology Rounds September 9, 2013. What is Amnesia?. Impaired Abilities Episodic memory (EM). Spared Abilities General intelligence Semantic m emory Procedural memory Working memory Attention. Amnesia. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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Page 1: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Jenny RabinNeuropsychology Rounds

September 9, 2013

Page 2: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

What is Amnesia?

Impaired Abilities

• Episodic memory (EM)

Spared Abilities

• General intelligence

• Semantic memory

• Procedural memory

• Working memory

• Attention

Page 3: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Amnesia

Page 4: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Amnesia• For a long time it was thought that amnesia results in an

isolated deficit in EM

• However, there is growing evidence that other abilities may be impaired in amnesia

• E.g., Future thinking

– Early support came from conversations Endel Tulving had with K.C. (Tulving, 1985)

– Systematically replicated in other amnesic cases (Andelman et al., 2010; Kwan et al, 2010; Race et al., 2011)

Page 5: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

EM and Future Thinking

Remembering Future Thinking

• Both abilities supported by a common core network

Addis et al., 2007, Neuropsychologia

Page 6: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

EM and Future Thinking

Remembering Future Thinking

• Both abilities supported by a common core network• EM and the hippocampus contribute to imagining

the future– draw on details from past experiences to imagine future

eventsAddis et al., 2007, Neuropsychologia

Page 7: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Are there other abilities impaired in amnesia?

Page 8: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Theory of Mind (ToM)

• The ability to infer other people’s thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, and intentions (Premack & Woodruff, 1978)

• Recognize that other people can have different mental states from our own

• Use ToM automatically and effortlessly

Page 9: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies
Page 10: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies
Page 11: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Theory of Mind (ToM)

• How do we do infer others’ mental states?

• We rely on our own past experiences to simulate another person’s mental state (Buckner & Carroll, 2007; Gallagher & Frith, 2003; Spreng & Mar, 2012)

Page 12: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

EM and ToM• There is evidence supporting the idea that ToM may rely

on EM

– Both abilities emerge around the same time during development (Perner & Ruffman, 1995)

– Impaired together in several patient populations (Corcorran & Frith, 2003; Dimaggio et al., 2012)

– Supported by a common set of brain regions that includes the hippocampus (Buckner & Carroll, 2007)

Page 13: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

EM, Future Thinking, and ToM EM Future Thinking ToM

Addis et al., 2007 Saxe & Kanwisher, 2003

Buckner & Carroll, 2007

Page 14: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

EM, Future Thinking, and ToM

Schacter, Addis & Buckner, 2008, Nat. Neurosci.

Page 15: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Outline

Study 1: Is ToM impaired in amnesia?

Study 2: What are the unique neural correlates of EM and ToM?

Study 3 and 4: Are there certain conditions under which ToM depends on EM?

Page 16: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Outline

Study 1: Is ToM impaired in amnesia?

Study 2: What are the unique neural correlates of EM and ToM?

Study 3 and 4: Are there certain conditions under which ToM depends on EM?

Page 17: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 1• Evidence that a core network of regions supports

EM, future thinking, and ToM (Buckner & Carroll, Spreng et al., 2009)

• Draw on past experiences to imagine the future and to simulate other people’s mental states

• Amnesic people have difficulty imagining the future (Andelman et al., 2010; Kwan et al, 2010; Race et al., 2011)

• Do amnesic people also have difficulty with ToM?

Page 18: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 1

• Participants:

– H.C., an individual with amnesia

– A group of demographically matched controls

Rabin et al., 2012, Neuropsychologia, see also Rosenbaum et al., 2007, Science

Page 19: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Patient H.C.• 20-year old woman

• Hypoxia one week after birth

• 30 - 50% bilateral hippocampal volume loss (Olsen et al., 2013)

• Therefore, she never developed normal episodic memory (Rosenbaum et al., 2011)

• Graduated from a mainstream high school and completed one year of technical college

Page 20: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Patient H.C. cont.

Page 21: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

ToM Tests

• Tested H.C. and controls on a battery of ToM tests

• Same ToM tests that have been shown to activate the core network of regions involved in EM (Buckner & Carroll, 2007; Spreng et al., 2009)

• ToM tests that are sensitive to ToM impairment in a variety of patient groups (Gregory et al., 2002; Stone et al., 1998; Stone et al., 2003; Stuss et al., 2001)

Rabin et al., 2012, Neuropsychologia, see also Rosenbaum et al., 2007, Science

Page 22: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Mind in the Eyes Test

Hateful Jealous

Arrogant Panicked

Rabin et al., 2012, Neuropsychologia, see also Rosenbaum et al., 2007, Science

Page 23: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Mind in the Eyes Test

Hateful Jealous

Arrogant Panicked

Rabin et al., 2012, Neuropsychologia, see also Rosenbaum et al., 2007, Science

Page 24: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Faux Pas TaskJill had just moved into a new apartment. Jill went shopping and bought some new curtains for her bedroom. When she finished decorating the apartment, her best friend, Lisa, comes over. Jill gives her a tour of the apartment and asks, "How do you like my bedroom?" "Those curtains are horrible," Lisa replies. "I hope you're going to get some new ones!"  Did anyone say something they shouldn't have said or something awkward?

If yes, ask:Who said something they shouldn't have said or something awkward?Why shouldn't he/she have said it or why was it awkward?Why did they say it?

Page 25: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 1: Results & Discussion

• H.C. performed at the same level as controls on all ToM tests

• Suggests that EM is not necessary for ToM, at least as measured by standard tests

• H.C. may be relying on her intact semantic knowledge to perform these tasks

Rabin et al., 2012, Neuropsychologia, see also Rosenbaum et al., 2007, Science

Page 26: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 1: Results & Discussion cont.

• Activation of a particular region during a task does not necessarily indicate that the region is necessary for that task

• Activation of the hippocampus during ToM, does not necessarily mean that the hippocampus is necessary for ToM

Page 27: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Outline

Study 1: Is ToM impaired in amnesia?

Study 2: What are the unique neural correlates of EM and ToM?

Study 3 and 4: Are there certain conditions under which ToM depends on EM?

Page 28: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 2• Evidence of a shared brain network underlying EM

and ToM based on independent fMRI studies (Buckner & Carroll, 2007; Spreng et al., 2009)

• Objective: To investigate EM and ToM in the same study using the same participants– Goal 1: Replicate the common pattern of activity observed

across studies– Goal 2: Are there differences in activation?

• Naturalistic paradigm using closely matched conditions

Page 29: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 2: Details

Participants:

• 18 healthy, middle aged adults (9 males; 9 females)

• Mean age = 57.2 years; SD = 8.0 years;

Page 30: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Family Photos Paradigm

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

Page 31: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Family Photos Paradigm

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM ToM

Participant Unfamiliar people

Page 32: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Family Photos Paradigm

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM ToM

Participant Unfamiliar people

Page 33: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Family Photos Paradigm

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM ToM

Participant Unfamiliar people

Recall each event in as much detail as possible and focus on what you were thinking and feeling at the time.

Create a novel event and focus on what one person in the photo was thinking and feeling at the time.

Page 34: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Task

Button Press

20 sec

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

Page 35: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Task

Button Press

Elaboration PhaseConstruction Phase

20 sec

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

Page 36: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Post Scan Interview• Viewed the same photos they saw in the

scanner

• Rate the vividness of each EM and ToM event they generated in the scanner

vague vivid

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

Page 37: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Post Scan Interview• Viewed the same photos they saw in the

scanner

• Rate the vividness of each EM and ToM event they generated in the scanner

vague vivid

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

Page 38: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Common Areas of Activation

EM

ToM

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Base

Base

Page 39: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Common Areas of Activation

EM

ToM

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Base

Base

Page 40: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Common Areas of Activation

EM

ToM

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Base

Base

Page 41: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Common Areas of Activation

EM

ToM

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Base

Base

Page 42: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Differences in Activation

• All regions activated were engaged to a greater extent during EM vs. ToM

Construction Phase

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

Page 43: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Differences in Activation

• Midline regions showed greater activity during EM– Self-related processes (Craik et al., 2002)

– Realness of events (Summerfield et al., 2009)

• Lateral regions showed greater activity during ToM– Involved in semantic memory (Martin & Chao, 2001)

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Elaboration Phase

Page 44: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Differences in Activation

• Midline regions showed greater activity during EM– Self-related processes (Craik et al., 2002)

– Realness of events (Summerfield et al., 2009)

• Lateral regions showed greater activity during ToM– Involved in semantic memory (Martin & Chao, 2001)

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Elaboration Phase

Page 45: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Differences in Activation

• Midline regions showed greater activity during EM– Self-related processes (Craik et al., 2002)

– Realness of events (Summerfield et al., 2009)

• Lateral regions showed greater activity during ToM– Involved in semantic memory (Martin & Chao, 2001)

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Elaboration Phase

Page 46: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Differences in Activation

• Midline regions showed greater activity during EM– Self-related processes (Craik et al., 2002)

– Realness of events (Summerfield et al., 2009)

• Lateral regions showed greater activity during ToM– Involved in semantic memory (Martin & Chao, 2001)

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Elaboration Phase

Page 47: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Differences in Activation

• Midline regions showed greater activity during EM– Self-related processes (Craik et al., 2002)

– Realness of events (Summerfield et al., 2009)

• Lateral regions showed greater activity during ToM– TPJ is a key region involved in ToM (Saxe et al., 2006)

– VLPFC and lateral temporal cortex; regions known to support semantic memory (Martin & Chao, 2001)

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Elaboration Phase

Page 48: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Differences in Activation

• Midline regions showed greater activity during EM– Self-related processes (Craik et al., 2002)

– Realness of events (Summerfield et al., 2009)

• Lateral regions showed greater activity during ToM– TPJ is a key region involved in ToM (Saxe et al., 2006)

– VLPFC and lateral temporal cortex; regions known to support semantic memory (Martin & Chao, 2001)

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Elaboration Phase

Page 49: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Differences in Activation

• Midline regions showed greater activity during EM– Self-related processes (Craik et al., 2002)

– Realness of events (Summerfield et al., 2009)

• Lateral regions showed greater activity during ToM– TPJ is a key region involved in ToM (Saxe et al., 2006)

– VLPFC and lateral temporal cortex; regions known to support semantic memory (Martin & Chao, 2001)

Rabin et al., 2010, JOCN

EM

ToM

Elaboration Phase

Page 50: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 2: Discussion• Replicated common network supporting EM and ToM

– Healthy people may rely on EM during ToM

• For the first time showed differences between the two

• Lateral regions engaged during ToM are the same regions known to support semantic memory

– Rely on scripts/schemas about how the average person would respond in a given situation

– Amnesic patients may rely on these lateral regions to carry out ToM tasks

Page 51: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Outline

Study 1: Is ToM impaired in amnesia?

Study 2: What are the unique neural correlates of EM and ToM?

Study 3 and 4: Are there certain conditions under which ToM depends on EM?

Page 52: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 3• ToM has been studied using tasks that typically

involve fictional characters or unfamiliar others (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Stone et al., 1998; Rabin et al., 2010; Spreng et al., 2010)

• However, in everyday life we typically infer the mental states of people we know well

– We have shared past experiences on which one can draw when imagining the thoughts/feelings of personally known others

Page 53: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies
Page 54: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 3

• Objective: To test whether different neural and cognitive mechanisms support mental state inferences of personally familiar vs. unfamiliar others

– Do individuals rely on EM to a greater extent for ToM involving personally familiar others?

– Do individuals rely on semantic to a greater extent for ToM involving unfamiliar others?

Page 55: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 3

• Participants:

– 18 healthy females (mean age = 19.44; SD = 1.24)

Page 56: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Methods Unknown others (ToM)Personal event; EM

Participant Unfamiliar people

Recall each event in as much detail as possible and focus on what you were thinking and feeling at the time.

Create a novel event and focus on what one person in the photo was thinking and feeling at the time. Do not draw on specific past experiences.

Rabin & Rosenbaum, 2012, NeuroImage

Page 57: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

MethodsPersonally known others (pToM) Unknown others (ToM)Personal event; EM

Participant Participant’s brother Unfamiliar people

Recall each event in as much detail as possible and focus on what you were thinking and feeling at the time.

Create a novel event and focus on what one person in the photo was thinking and feeling at the time. Do not draw on specific past experiences.

Rabin & Rosenbaum, 2012, NeuroImage

Page 58: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Hypotheses• We expected that familiarity with the target person would

modulate the relationship between EM and ToM

1) Greater neural overlap between EM and pToM vs. ToM– Midline regions, including the hippocampus– Draw on past experiences to a greater extent when imagining

the mental states of personally known others

2) ToM vs. EM and pToM– Recruit lateral frontal and temporal regions to a greater extent– Script-like knowledge and semantic processing

Rabin & Rosenbaum., 2012, NeuroImage

Page 59: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Within Scanner Rating ScalesEM

pToM and ToM EM, pToM, ToM

• Postscan interview: Describe events

Rate the vividness of your memory/imagined event

1 2 3 4 Not vivid VIvid

Was your imagined event different from a memory?

1 2 3 4 Similar Different

Remember / Know / Don’t Know

Page 60: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Within Scanner Rating ScalesEM

pToM and ToM EM, pToM, ToM

• Postscan interview: Describe events

Rate the vividness of your memory/imagined event

1 2 3 4 Not vivid VIvid

Was your imagined event different from a memory?

1 2 3 4 Similar Different

Remember / Know / Don’t Know

Page 61: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

fMRI Analyses

• Spatiotemporal Partial Least Squares (PLS)

• A data reduction technique that identifies the strongest effects in the data

• Data-driven approach (vs. using a priori contrasts)

• Early vs. Late phase of event generationMcIntosh et al., 2004

Page 62: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Results: Common network

Series1

-100-80-60-40-20

020406080

EM pToM ToM Num

Bra

in S

core

s

Page 63: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Pattern 1: EM and pToM vs. ToM

2 – 4 s

EM

10 – 12 s

Page 64: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Pattern 2: EM vs. pToM

EM

2 – 4 s

10 – 12 s

Page 65: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

pToM vs. ToM

2 – 4 s

10 – 12 s

Page 66: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 3: Discussion• Familiarity with the target person in a ToM task

modulates the neural relationship between EM and ToM

• Multiple routes to ToM– Involve some balance between EM and semantic memory

• Strategy adopted likely depend on one’s relationship with the target person– Draw on past experiences for personally known others– Draw on semantic memory for unfamiliar others

Page 67: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 4

• Goal: Test whether EM, supported by the hippocampus, is necessary for imagining events from the perspective of personally known others.

• To address this question, we tested an amnesic person with impaired EM on the family photos test

Rabin et al., 2012, Frontiers in Psychology

Page 68: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 4

• Participants:

– Patient H.C. – A group of demographically matched controls

Rabin et al., 2012, Frontiers in Psychology

Page 69: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

MethodsPersonally known others (pToM) Unknown others (ToM)Personal event; EM

Participant Participant’s brother Unfamiliar people

Recall each event in as much detail as possible and focus on what you were thinking and feeling at the time.

Create a novel event and focus on what one person in the photo was thinking and feeling at the time. Do not draw on specific past experiences.

Rabin et al., 2012, Frontiers in Psychology

Page 70: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Methods

• H.C. tested on this paradigm twice for reliability purposes

• Control participants tested only once

• Excluded H.C.’s EM events from the first testing session– Rehearsed events

Page 71: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Postscan Interview

• Photos with the highest vividness ratings were selected for a semi-structured interview

• Describe the events as they had been remembered/imagined in the scanner

• No time limit

Page 72: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Narrative Scoring

• Adapted Autobiographical Interview scoring procedure (Levine et al, 2002)

– Internal: event, temporal, perceptual, spatial, thought/emotion

– External: semantic facts, details that were irrelevant to the central event, repetitions, metacognitive statement

Page 73: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Narrative Scoring

• Adapted Autobiographical Interview scoring procedure (Levine et al, 2002)

– Internal: event, temporal, perceptual, spatial, thought/emotion

– External: semantic facts, details that were irrelevant to the central event, repetitions, metacognitive statement

Page 74: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Autobiographical InterviewLevine et al. 2002

Page 75: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Descriptive vs. Elaborative Details

• Internal details were further divided into descriptive vs. elaborative details

– Descriptive detail – details that describe the visual content of the photo

– Elaborative detail – details that go beyond what is visually depicted in the photo

Rabin et al., 2012, Frontiers in Psychology

Page 76: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Descriptive vs. Elaborative Details

Page 77: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Analyses

• Mean number of elaborative details

• Mean proportion of elaborative details/total internal details– Weight given to elaborative vs. descriptive

details

• Crawford’s t -test (Crawford & Howell, 1998)

Rabin et al., 2012, Frontiers in Psychology

Page 78: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

pToM ToM EM0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

HCControls

Mean number of elaborative details per event

*

*

Rabin et al., 2012, Frontiers in Psychology

Page 79: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Mean proportion of elaborative : total internal details

pToM ToM EM0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

HC Controls

*

*

Rabin et al., 2012, Frontiers in Psychology

Page 80: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Qualitative Nature of Responses

• H.C.– “they’re both really excited”– “he looks really happy”

• Control– “they were probably afraid but they are trying

to look cool”– “her mother was pleased that her daughter

was having so much fun”Rabin et al., 2012, Frontiers in Psychology

Page 81: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 4: Discussion

• H.C. impaired at pToM and EM

• H.C’s performance on pToM was not at floor

• Approximately 50% of H.C.’s pToM narratives were comprised of descriptive details– Relied on visual information depicted in the

photos– Compensatory strategy?

Rabin, Carson et al., 2012, Frontiers in Psychology

Page 82: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Study 4: Discussion cont.

• H.C. impaired at pToM and EM but not ToM– Therefore may need EM for pToM but not ToM

• These findings are consistent with:– Previous fMRI findings (Rabin & Rosenbaum, 2012)

– H.C.’s intact performance on standard ToM tests (Rabin et al., 2012)

• Need to replicate this finding in other amnesic cases

Page 83: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

General Conclusions

Page 84: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Common Core Network

Schacter, Addis & Buckner, 2008, Nat. Neurosci.

Page 85: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

What is Amnesia?

Impaired Abilities

• Episodic memory (EM)

• Future Thinking

• ToM involving personally known others

Spared Abilities

• General intelligence

• Semantic memory

• Procedural memory

• Working memory

• Attention

Page 86: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Future Directions

• Scanning H.C. with fMRI on the EM, pToM, and ToM paradigm

Page 87: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Future Directions

• Scanning H.C. with fMRI on the EM, pToM, and ToM paradigm

EM pToM ToM

Page 88: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Acknowledgements

• Shayna Rosenbaum

• Nicole Carson

• Cognitive Neuroscience Lab at York University

Page 89: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Thank you

Page 90: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Questions?

Page 91: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

Mean number of elaborative details per event

* p < .08, p < .05

Page 92: Re-examining episodic amnesia with patient and fMRI studies

The mean proportion of elaborative-to-total-number of internal detail

Rabin et al., 2012, Frontiers in Psychology

* p < .01, p < .001