Rate of force developmentHigher rate of force development in lower body actions is generally correlated with faster sprint speeds and greater jumping heights. This may indicate that increasing rate of force development isvaluable for enhancing sprinting and jumping abilities.Rate of force development can be improved through long-term resistance training and may be further enhanced by heavy loads and faster bar speeds. It does not appear to be affected by muscle action, training volume, or periodization model. However, concurrent training may be detrimental.Rate of force development can be improved through long-termballistictraining, Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics, balance training and combined programs. Ballistic training appears to be superior to balance training but the other methods seem equally effective.Surprisingly, shifts in muscle fiber type or type area (from type IIX totype IIA) and increases in fascicle length (causing reduced muscle stiffness) resulting from trainingverylikely causereduced rate of force development.Increases in muscle stiffness, increases intendon stiffness,changesin proportional muscle fiber type area (from type I totype IIA), and increases in neural drive in the early phase (50ms) likelyall contribute to increases in rate of force development with training. 279Share 26Share 35Share 2Share ShareCONTENTSClick on the links below to jump down to the relevant section of the page:SummaryBackgroundEffects of resistance trainingEffects of ballistic trainingEffects of Olympic weightliftingEffects of plyometricsEffects of balance trainingEffects of combined trainingComparisons between methodsMechanismsReferences

SUMMARYPURPOSEThis section provides a summary of the current evidence regarding the importance of improving rate of force development for sports performance.CONTRIBUTORSTo see the authorship and review status of this page, clickHERE. To provide comments and improve this resource, please clickHERE.SUMMARYFINDINGS FOR RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTCorrelations with performance Higher rate of force development in lower body actions is generally correlated with faster sprint speeds and greater jumping heights. This may indicate that increasing rate of force development may be valuable for enhancing sprinting and jumping abilitiesEffects of resistance training Rate of force development can be improved through long-term resistance training and may be further enhanced by heavy loads and faster bar speeds. It does not appear to be affected by muscle action, training volume, or periodization model. However, concurrent training may be detrimentalEffects of othertraining modalities Rate of force development can be improved through long-term ballistictraining, Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics, balance training and combined programs. Ballistic training appears to be superior to balance training but the other methods seem equally effectiveMechanisms of action Rate of force development is likely adversely affected by theshifts in muscle fiber type or type area (to type IIA from type IIX) and the increases in fascicle length (causing reduced muscle stiffness) that result from training. Equally, it is likely beneficially affected by increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type area (to type IIA from type I), and increases in neural drive in the early phase (50ms).To open a new window and view detailedinformation inalarge table, clickHERE(not recommended for small screens)CONCLUSIONSREGARDING RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTRate of force development is critical for speed and power sports, possibly more so than strength. It can be developed using a range of methods and is likely affected by both central and peripheral mechanisms.Back to topDown to references

279Share 26Share 35Share 2Share ShareBACKGROUNDPURPOSEThis section provides a background torate of force development. It includes a precise definition of the term, details of the various measurements that have been used to quantify it, and an assessment of the research showing correlations between higher athletic performance and greater rates of force development.BACKGROUNDIntroductionRate of force development is thought to be critical for sports performance for one very simple reason: most sports movements happen within a shorter period of time than human muscles take to reach maximum force production (see review byHernndez-Dav and Sabido, 2014). Although peak force is typically achieved withinaround 250ms (see data reported by Haff et al. 2007), sports movements often occur within a period of timemuch shorterthan this. For example, theground contact phase during sprint running lasts2 groups using types of periodizationwithin a long-term resistance training interventionComparisonthe othergroupOutcomerate of force development measurementResultsApplying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being identified:Hartmann (2009), Painter (2012). The twostudies compared linear and block periodization models with non-linear (daily undulating) periodization. Neither found anyeffect of training with different periodization modelson rate of force development, implying that this training variable has minimal effect. However, both studies reported a non-significant trend that daily undulating periodization was inferior to both linear and block periodization which may imply that this type of periodization model is disadvantageous but since the literature is very limited and the findings not significant, this conclusion is very uncertain.To open a new window and view detailedinformation inalarge table, clickHERE(not recommended for small screens)EFFECTS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING ON RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT DURING CONCURRENT TRAININGStudy selectionPopulation any healthy, adult groupInterventionlong-term resistance training intervention performed simultaneously with aerobic training (i.e. concurrent training)Comparisonbaseline or non-training control groupOutcomerate of force development measurementResultsApplying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being identified: Hkkinen (2003), Stren (2008), Santtila (2009), Sunde (2010), Rnnestad (2012), Cadore (2013). These studies showed that concurrent training can still improve rate of force development in comparison with an endurance-only training group but that strength-only groups tend to improve rate of force development to a greater extent. This suggests that aninterference effect from endurance traininglikelyexists in relation to rate of force development.To open a new window and view detailedinformation inalarge table, clickHERE(not recommended for small screens)CONCLUSIONSREGARDINGRATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTRate of force development can be improved through long-term resistance training and may be further enhanced by heavy loads and faster bar speeds. It does not appear to be affected by muscle action, training volume, or periodization model. However, concurrent training may be detrimental.Back to topDown to references

279Share 26Share 35Share 2Share ShareEFFECTS OF BALLISTIC TRAININGPURPOSEThis section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-term effects of ballistic training on rate of force development.BACKGROUNDIntroductionDefinitionsBallistic traininghas traditionally been thought to be very beneficial for improvingrate of force development. Ballistic training differs from high-velocity resistance training in that there is no deceleration phase to the exercise. The term ballistic means that the load is projected from the lifter or from the ground. Common ballistic exercises used by athletes include the jump squat and bench press throw. These differ from their non-ballistic power-training equivalents the low-load-high-speed squat and low-load-high-speed bench press. In the jump squat, the athlete leaves the ground but inthe low-load-high-speed squat they remain on the ground. In the bench press throw,the bar leaves the athletes hands but in the low-load-high-speed bench press it remains in their grip. Consequently, in the ballistic exercises, the load is accelerated right the way through the end of the exercise andis released and returned by gravity. In the light-load resistance training exercises, the athlete must decelerate the bar before completing the movement. This changes the biomechanics of the exercise and potentially makes ballistic exercises superior. Despite this clear difference, ballistic trainingand non-ballistic explosiveresistance training exercisesare often confused (e.g. Behm and Sale, 1993; Van Cutsem et al. 2005).Neural drive during explosivemovementsThere are indications that the pattern of neural drive duringexplosive movements may differ from the pattern of neural drive during controlled movements.Researchers have observed thatduringisometric muscle actions with steadily increasing force, the rate of increase in force appears to be related to the rate of increase in motor unit firing frequency, with both increasing over time (MilnerBrown et al. 1973; Desmedt and Godaux, 1977). However, during explosive (ballistic or non-ballistic) muscle actions, there is an initial burst of neural activity with a very high motor unit firing frequency that then reduces thereafter (Desmedt and Godaux, 1977; Van Cutsem et al. 1998; Van Cutsem et al. 2005). In an interesting trial, Van Cutsem et al. (2005) compared the effects of reducing the motor unit firing frequency in this initial burst by introducing a pre-existing isometric muscle action before a explosive muscle action. They found that the reduction in motor unit firing frequency was associated with a reduction in rate of force development. This suggests that motor unit firing frequency is at least partially responsible for the change in rate of force development during explosive muscle actions, such as ballistic training.Relationship between ballistic resistance training abilityand rate of force developmentOnly a very small small number ofstudies have assessed the relationship betweenballistic resistance training abilityand rate of force development, excluding Olympic weightlifting. Kraska et al. (2009) compared the relationship between isometric mid-thigh clean pull rate of force development and the heights of bothweighted squat and countermovement jumps with 20kg and found moderately-good (r = 0.66 and r = 0.62) relationships for both the squat and countermovement jumps, respectively.Effective mechanisms[See more about mechanisms]There are several mechanisms by which ballistictraining might increase the rate of force development, including changes in central and peripheral factors. Shifts in muscle fiber type or proportional fiber type area (to type IIA from type IIX) and increases in fascicle length (causing reduced muscle stiffness) that canresult from ballistic training very likely contribute reduce rate of force development. However, increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type area (to type IIA from type I), and increases in neural drive in the early phase (50ms)that can alsoresult from ballistic trainingare all thought tocontribute positively to increases in rate of force development.EFFECTS OF BALLISTICTRAINING ON RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTStudy selectionPopulation anyhealthy, adult groupInterventionlong-term ballistictraining interventionComparisonbaseline or non-training control groupOutcomerate of force development measurementResultsApplying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being identified: Van Cutsem (1998), Newton (1999), Gruber (2007), Schubert (2008), Cormie (2010), De Villarreal (2011), Kramer (2012). Allstudies reported that ballistic training significantly improved rate of force development. This suggests that ballistic training is valuable for improving rate of force development.To open a new window and view detailedinformation inalarge table, clickHERE(not recommended for small screens)CONCLUSIONSREGARDINGRATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTRate of force development can be successfully improved using ballistic training.Back to topDown to references

279Share 26Share 35Share 2Share ShareEFFECTS OF OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTINGPURPOSEThis section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-term effects of Olympic weightlifting on rate of force development.BACKGROUNDIntroductionOlympic weightliftinghas been suggested as a valuable method for increasing rate of force development. However, its technique requirements make it challenging for use with athletes who are not Olympic weightlifters. Nevertheless, there are many valuable Olympic lift variations that can be used that have lower technique requirements. For example, the hang variations can be used where athletes lack the mobility to pull from the floor; the power variations can be used where athletes lack the stability or mobility to attain a very deep squat or lack the desire to learn to move quickly under the bar; and the pull variations can be used where catching the bar on the shoulders is problematic either for reasons relating to the wrist or shoulder girdle.Relationship between Olympic weightlifting abilityand rate of force developmentA small number ofstudies have assessed the relationship betweenOlympic weightlifting ability or force generated during Olympic weightlifting exercises or variations and rate of force development (Haff et al. 2005;Khamoui et al. 2011). Khamoui et al. (2011) found that isometric mid-thigh pull rate of force development (50ms and 100ms) was significantly associated with dynamic high pull peak velocity (r = 0.56 and r = 0.56). However, Haff et al. (2005) found thatisometric mid-thigh pull rate of force development (peak) was only non-significantly associated with dynamic mid-thighpull peak velocity (r = 0.51).Effective mechanisms[See more about mechanisms]There are several mechanisms by which Olympic weightliftingmight increase the rate of force development, including changes in central and peripheral factors. Shifts in muscle fiber type or proportional fiber type area (to type IIA from type IIX) and increases in fascicle length (causing reduced muscle stiffness) that canresult from ballistic training like Olympic weightliftingvery likely contribute reduce rate of force development. However, increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type area (to type IIA from type I), and increases in neural drive in the early phase (50ms)that can alsoresult from Olympic weightlifting are all thought tocontribute positively to increases in rate of force development.EFFECTS OF OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTINGON RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTStudy selectionPopulation anyhealthy, adult groupInterventionlong-term Olympic weightliftinginterventionComparisonbaseline or non-training control groupOutcomerate of force development measurementResultsApplying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being identified: Haff (2008). This trial found that Olympic weightlifting can improve rate of force development. This is unsurprising, as Olympic weightlifting is a form of ballistic training and the literature also indicates that ballistic training is valuable for increasing rate of force development.To open a new window and view detailedinformation inalarge table, clickHERE(not recommended for small screens)CONCLUSIONSREGARDINGRATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTRate of force development can likely be enhanced using programs involving Olympic weightlifting.Back to topDown to references

279Share 26Share 35Share 2Share ShareEFFECTS OFPLYOMETRICSPURPOSEThis section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-term effects of plyometrics on rate of force development.BACKGROUNDIntroductionPlyometrics were originally developed for athletes who had already successfully improved their strength and speed using resistance training and required further challenge. They werepopularised by the Soviet jumping coach, Verkoshansky. Verkoshansky wanted to findways to develop the jumping ability of athletes who had already attained high performance levels fromjumping practice and resistance-training. Verkoshansky reasoned that since there seemed to be a correlation between short ground contact times and better performances in triple jumpers, this could imply that a greater muscle-tendon stiffness wasthe key to improving jumping performance. He beganusing depth jumps (plyometrics) with his athletes to enhance muscle-tendon stiffness andreduce ground contact times (see review by Faccioni, 2001). Interestingly, plyometrics actually involvevery high acute rates of force development, which may imply that they could be particularly useful for developing this quality. Ebben et al. (2010) compared rate of force development between the depth jump (a plyometrics exercise), the jump squat (a ballistic training exercise), and the back squat (a resistance training exercise) and reported that rate of force development was highest in the order: depth jump > jump squat > back squat. Whether these acute measurements imply a superior ability to develop the quality long-term, however, is unclear.Effective mechanisms[See more about mechanisms]There are several mechanisms by which plyometricsmight increase the rate of force development, including changes in central and peripheral factors. Shifts in muscle fiber type or proportional fiber type area (to type IIA from type IIX) and increases in fascicle length (causing reduced muscle stiffness) that canresult from plyometricsvery likely contribute reduce rate of force development. However, increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type area (to type IIA from type I), and increases in neural drive in the early phase (50ms)that can alsoresult from plyometricsare all thought tocontribute positively to increases in rate of force development.EFFECTS OF PLYOMETRICSON RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTStudy selectionPopulation anyhealthy, adult groupInterventionlong-term plyometricsinterventionComparisonbaseline or non-training control groupOutcomerate of force development measurementResultsApplying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being identified: Spurrs (2003), Kyrlinen (2005), Burgess (2007), De Villarreal (2011), Correa (2012), Behrens (2014). Most of thesestudies found increases in rate of force development with long-term plyometrics training, suggesting that this training modality is effective for this purpose.To open a new window and view detailedinformation inalarge table, clickHERE(not recommended for small screens)CONCLUSIONSREGARDINGRATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTRate of force developmentcan likely be enhanced using programs involving plyometrics.Back to topDown to references

279Share 26Share 35Share 2Share ShareEFFECTS OFBALANCE TRAININGPURPOSEThis section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-term effects of balance training on rate of force development.BACKGROUNDIntroductionBalance, or sensorimotor trainingwasdeveloped for elderly peoplein order to help them avoid falls. It has been suggested that rate of force development is a key component in avoiding falls, which typically occur in periods of time 2 groups engaged in long-term training involving different training methodsComparisonthe other training groupOutcomerate of force development measurementResultsApplying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being identified:Newton (1999), Gruber (2007), Taube (2007),Burgess (2007), Correa (2012),Schubert (2008), De Villarreal (2011). Both Gruber et al. (2007) and Schubert et al. (2008) compared the effects of balance training and ballistic training on rate of force development.Gruber et al. (2007) found that ballistic training was significantly superior to balance training and Schubert et al. (2008)reported a strong non-signficant trend in the same direction.To open a new window and view detailedinformation inalarge table, clickHERE(not recommended for small screens)CONCLUSIONSREGARDINGRATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTRate of force development can be improved through long-termballistictraining, Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics, balance training and combined programs. Ballistic training appears to be superior to balance training but the other methods seem equally effective.Back to topDown to references

279Share 26Share 35Share 2Share ShareMECHANISMSPURPOSEThis section reviews the literature exploring the central and peripheral mechanisms by which different training methods might increase the rate of force development.CONTENTSRelationship between strength and rate of force developmentCentral: introductionCentral: agonist muscle activityPeripheral: introductionPeripheral: muscle fiber typePeripheral: muscle fascicle lengthPeripheral: tendon stiffnessPeripheral: extracellular lateral force transmissionPeripheral: muscle fiber conduction velocity

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRENGTH AND RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENTIntroductionThe ability to produce a high level of maximum forceisthought to be a key determinant of rate of force development. But there are strong indications that there are other factors that also contribute to rate of force development as well.Studies havereportedonlymoderaterelationships between maximum strength and rate of force development. For example,Haff et al. (1997) reported non-significant and low-to-moderate correlations between dynamicpeak force and isometric rate of force development (r = 0.30 to 0.45). Driss et al. (2002) reportedstrong significant correlations between theoretical maximum voluntary isometric force and peak rate of force development during isometric knee extension r = 0.81).Mirkov et al. (2004) reported a significant but only moderately-strong correlation (r = 0.62) between maximal force production and rate of force development during dynamic elbow flexion and extension movements.Most famously,Andersen et al. (2006)reported a moderate-to-strong relationship between rate of force developmentand maximum voluntary isometric force production. They reported that the size of the correlation coefficient between these two factorsincreased as the time from the onset of contraction increased. That is, the correlation between RFD (50ms) was moderate (r = 0.50)but the correlation between RFD (200ms) was strong (r = 0.90). More interestingly,Holtermann et al. (2007b) found that specific instructions to produce force quickly during a short-term resistance training program led to superior increases in rate of force development without superior increases in maximum strength. These findings suggest that simply developing strength may not be sufficient for improving athletic performance that is dependent upon explosive movements.Strength and different phases rate of force developmentRate of force development can be divided intoearly and late phases of maximal force production. Early phases are regarded as being 200ms. There are some indications that maximum strength may be more closely related to late phases and less closely associated with early phases. WhenAndersen and Aagaard (2006) performed a cross-sectional investigation of the relationship between strength and rate of force development in 10ms increments up to 250ms, they found that strength was a key determinant of rate of force development for all increments >90ms (range = 52 81%). On the other hand, they found that strength was less closely related to rate of force development in early time increments