“Race” Relations in the

United States

Not everything that is faced can be changed, but nothing can be

changed until it is faced.

- James Baldwin

Big Picture Questions:1. What do we mean by the word “race”?2. Does the definition of “race” change over time,

(e.g., 1910 vs. 2010), or from place-to-place, (e.g., Louisiana vs. California, or U.S. vs. Brazil)?

3. Who has power to enforce definitions of “race,” and what consequences does this have for “racialized” minorities and members of the dominant group?

4. How is “race” different from, or similar to, ethnicity?

5. Where do we stand today? Are “race relations” better, than, say, in the 1960s, or just different?

US Constitution15th Amendment

Passed by Congress February 26, 1869.Ratified February 3, 1870. Section 1.The right of citizens of the United

States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude--

Section 2.The Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

What “race” am I?• Lena Horne(June 30, 1917 - May

9, 2010)Brooklyn, New York

• Naveen Andrews(Jan 7, 1969 -

)London, England.

d

In the middle, NAACP president Walter Francis White. To his left, ___ and to his right, Thurgood Marshall.

Wayne Joseph of LA.

• Charles Drew

• Steve Martin These uncertainties raise the

basic question of how a person comes to be defined as white or not white, and, therefore, raise further questions of “racial” (in-)equalities in the United States.

1(a). What is “race”?• Race is not a biological category.

2000 Human Genome Project.

• Race has no scientific validity as a concept.

• Because “race” is not real in any biological sense, it is an example of a social construction.

• In the U.S., “race” remains a way of referring to phenotypes so it is still based (incorrectly) on biological assumptions of difference.

• If “race” isn’t biologically real, why do we still use categories of “race” in our daily lives?

Answer: Because it is socially meaningful.

1(b). We may ask, what does “race” do? What are social consequences of organizing

society along “racial” lines, groups, or categories?

Like social class and gender, “race” shapes a person’s “life opportunities.” These social consequences are very real. Consequences include:

A. B.

C. D.

E. F.

3(b) What consequences does this have for “racialized” minorities and, therefore, members of the dominant

group? What is socially meaningful about “race”?

Relative to those in the dominant group, minority group members experience:

1. Differential (less) power in access to economic and political resources, e.g., __

2. Physical and/or cultural visibility, e.g., __ 3. Ascribed status, e.g., ___ (a lack of “ethnic

options”) 4. Solidarity and Group Awareness, e.g., Leimart

Park festivities

2. Definitions of “race” change over time and from

place to place. U.S. Census “race” categories:* 1930 - ten “races” are distinguished* 1940 - only native White and immigrant

White are distinguished!* 2000 - a multitude of phenotypes and

nationalities are offered

Cross-cultural comparisons: Brazil & FranceWhat do the differences suggest about the

concept of “race”?

Further complications: Biraciality and Multiraciality, or mixed ancestry

• Approx. 30-70% of North American Blacks have some White European ancestors

• Approx. 30-50% of North American Whites have some Native American ancestry.

• 2006 - 2.1% of the U.S. population identified as bi- or multi-racial.

• What percent of U.S. married couples are “inter-racial”?

• 1967 Loving vs. State of VirginiaConclusion: “Race” is a fluid, arbitrary, biologically

meaningless, yet, socially meaningful concept.

3(a). Who has the power to re-enforce definitions of “race”?

Individuals & Organizations

For example,(a) Caucasians as a

“race” ideology

(b) Jackie Robinson in baseball

(c) Media(d) Citizens

State InstitutionsFor example,

(a) Jews as a “race” ideology

(b) Susie Phipps in Louisiana

(c) Public Education

(d) Government

Question 4: Ethnicity - distinct from “race”?:

• There is no consensus about how and under what conditions to employ, or distinguish, or compare the concepts of “race” and ethnicity, or newer terms like “ethno-nationality.”

• We might say that ethnicity emphasizes cultural heritage rather than skin color per se (if that is how “race” is being understood), but the two may overlap. For example, a Mexican American, or Chicano/a, may be bilingual, Catholic, and phenotypically very light-skinned, or very dark-skinned.

How will she self-identify? How will the government and its institutions “officially” label her? What does a “bi-racial” person do in this situation?

Question 5: Where do we stand today? Thinking about people’s life opportunities, how do the so-called “race” and ethnic groups fare in comparison to each other today? In the news: Solicitor General Elena Kagan - a case of progressArizona and immigration law - a case of regression

Government Statistics:Labor/EconomyEducationHealthCriminal JusticePolitics

A case of ethnic and gender progress (social opening): Elena Kagan

• If confirmed, the US Supreme Court will have six Catholics and three Jews serving as “leaders” of the federal judiciary.

• Three will be women.• One African American

presides. • One Hispanic presides.• *Zero* white Protestants -

a historic first!

In a country of immigrants, a case of regression (social closing).

Arizona Senate Bill 1070Signed into law April 23, 2010: It is the 1st state todemand that immigrants meetfederal requirements to carryidentity documents legitimizingtheir presence on American soil.

An example of prejudice, discrimination, and xenophobia. Why? (hint: social class)