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    Pure Land Buddhism in China:Pure Land Buddhism in China:Pure Land Buddhism in China:Pure Land Buddhism in China:Pure Land Buddhism in China:A Doctrinal HistoryA Doctrinal HistoryA Doctrinal HistoryA Doctrinal HistoryA Doctrinal HistoryChapter Seven: Tan-luanChapter Seven: Tan-luanChapter Seven: Tan-luanChapter Seven: Tan-luanChapter Seven: Tan-luan

    Shink MochizukiShink MochizukiShink MochizukiShink MochizukiShink Mochizuki

    Translated by

    Leo M. Pruden

    Edited by

    Richard K. PayneInstitute of Buddhist Studies

    IN THIS ISSUE WE continue with the publication of selections from LeoPrudens translation of Shink Mochizukis Pure Land Buddhism in China:

    A Doctrinal History. Given the theme of this issue, we have chosen topublish chapter seven, on Tan-luan, out of order. As mentioned in theprevious issue, editing of Prudens typescript has been limited to improve-ments in the readability and updating some of the terminology employed.

    We again wish to express our appreciation to everyone who contrib-uted to initiating this project, especially the Pruden estate for their permis-sion to publish the work.

    CHAPTER VII: TAN-LUAN

    1. Tan-luans Life and Writings

    Tan-luan was counted by Tao-cho as one of the Six Pure LandWorthies. His influence over later generations of Pure Land thinkers wasconsiderable, due to his commentary on the Wang-sheng lunof Vasubandhu,

    his Wang-sheng lun chu, and his teaching in this work with respect to theother-power of the Fundamental Vows of Amitbha.

    Hnen, in his Senchaku-sh (the Senchaku-hongan-nembutsu sh),divides the Chinese Pure Land movement into three major traditions. Firstis the tradition founded by Hui-yuan of Mt. Lu, second is the traditionrepresented by the Tripiaka Master Tzu-min, and third is the traditionrepresented by the two masters, Tao-cho and Shan-tao. The first patriar-chal master of this third tradition was the master Tan-luan.

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    As we have mentioned earlier, Hui-yuans tradition centered on thecultivation of the visualization, in meditation, of the form of Amitbha, ameditation based upon the teachings of the Pan-shou san-mei ching. Inopposition to this practice, Tan-luan stressed rebirth in the Pure Land afterones death, that one attained this rebirth by means of the powers inherentin the Fundamental Vows of the Tathgata, and that once there, one couldspeedily attain to the state of non-regression.

    In later years, these three traditions came to merge with one another inChina, but in Japan, largely through the influence of Hnen, the thirdtradition (that of Tao-cho and Shan-tao) came to be the mainstreamtradition of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism. It is due to this that the masterTan-luan has come to be esteemed in Japan as the first of the five ChinesePure Land patriarchs, whereas in China itself the master Hui-yuan isregarded as the first Pure Land patriarchal master.

    According to his biography in the sixth volume of the Hs Kao-sengchuan, Tan-luan was a native of Ying-men (present-day Tai-chou, Shansi).Another source states that he was a native of Wen-sui, in Ping-chou. Hisfamily home was located close by the sacred mountain of Wu-tai shan(located in present-day Wu-tai hsien, Shansi), and when he was a littleover ten years of age he climbed this mountain and there visited itsmonasteries and holy sites. This left a lasting impression on him, and soonthereafter he left the householders life and joined the Sangha. He readwidely in both Buddhist and non-Buddhist writings, specializing in theSsu-lun(the Madhyamaka Tradition) and the Fo-hsing lun(The Treatise onBuddha-nature by Vasubandhu). Subsequently, he planned to write acommentary on the Ta-chi ching(the Mah-sanipata corpus), but becamegravely ill in the middle of his work. He recovered, but had now becomeintensely aware of the transience of human life. He then began to search outand study various Taoist formulas for long life. In this search he traveledto the south, to the capital city of Chien-kang, where he is reported to have

    had an audience with the Liang Dynasty Emperor Wu. He departed thecapital city and traveled to Mt. Ch-yung, where he met the adept TaoHung-ching, from whom he received instruction in ten volumes of Taoisttexts. He then left the company of Tao Hung-ching and visited a numberof other famous mountains, visiting the masters there and cultivating thedifferent Taoist arts of prolonging life.

    While traveling home, he passed through the city of Loyang, where hemet the Indian master Bodhiruci. He is reported to have told Bodhiruci of

    his Taoist studies, to which Bodhiruci responded that the deathless statecould not be attained in China, and then presented Tan-luan with a copyof the Kuan Wu-liang-shou ching, as being a scripture of the Greatest Sage,the Buddha. Reading this scripture, Tan-luan became suddenly awak-ened, and burned his Taoist texts. He subsequently returned home, where

    he began to cultivate the Pure Land teachings, converting many clergy and

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    laity. His fame spread, and he came to the attention of the Emperor of theWei Dynasty, who bestowed the title of shen-Luan (the divine Luan)upon him. The Emperor gave over the Ta-yen ssu Monastery, in Ping-chou,to Tan-luan. Later, Tan-luan moved to the Hsan-chung ssu Monastery,at the foot of the Pei-shan cliffs, in Fen-chou (present-day Chiao-chenghsien, Shansi). Here he gathered around him a group of disciples, and togetherthey cultivated the Nien-fo practice. Tan-luan is reported to have died in theyear 542, at the age of sixty-six, in a mountain monastery in Ping-yao.

    As we have mentioned above, the account of Tan-luan meetingBodhiruci and receiving a copy of the Kuan Wu-liang-shou ching from

    him, is highly doubtful. Furthermore, in his composition, the Wang-shenglun chu, Tan-luan criticizes the choice of words used by the translator ofthe Wang-sheng lun(i.e., Bodhiruci). Especially, in a note to the passageone searching out in the Wang-sheng lun, Tan-luan says, The translatoruses the word to search out. How obscure this meaning is! Now ifBodhiruci were Tan-luans master, who introduced him to the Pure Landteachings, then these words would have been extremely rude. In a word,we do not know who the teacher was, who introduced Tan-luan to thePure Land teachings and their practice.

    However, it is recorded in his biography that Tan-luan was a studentof the Ssu-lun Tradition (the Madhyamaka Tradition), which was based onfour treatises: the Chung-lun, the Pai-lunand the Shih-erh lun, plus the Ta-chih-tu lun. Also, among the Six Pure Land Worthies listed in the An-lochi, the order Tao-chang and Tan-luan is given, so perhaps Tan-luanstudied under the master Tao-chang, who was the leading authority on theTa-chih-tu lunof his day. We have also mentioned above that Tao-chang

    had received a copy of the Maala of the Five Bodhisattvas of Supernor-mal Powers, so perhaps Tan-luan may have received his introduction intothe Pure Land faith from this master.

    The Hs Kao-seng chuanplaces Tan-luans date of death in the year542 (the fourth year of Hsing-ho, of the Eastern Wei Dynasty). However thename of a bhiku Seng Tan-luan appears among some twenty-sevennames listed on an inscription carved in the second month of 554 (the fifthyear of Tien-pao, of the Northern Chi Dynasty). Assuming that this SengTan-luan is this same Tan-luan, then his death must be placed some timeafter the year 554.

    Furthermore, the last volume of Chia-tsais Ching-tulungives thebiography of Tan-luan, and mentions that he was still alive at the end ofthe Wei, and at the beginning of the Kao-Chi Dynasties. The biographyof Tao-cho in the twentieth volume of the Hs Kao-seng chuan, as well asthe Wang-sheng Hsi-fang Ching-tu shui-ying shan-chuan, lists him asthe Dharma Master Tan-luan of the Chi era. It is clear from the abovethat Tan-luan did not die any time during the Eastern Wei Dynasty, butwas alive well into the Chi Dynasty.

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    Only three works have come down to us from the hand of Tan-luan:the two-volume Wang-sheng lun chu, the one volume Tsan O-mi-to Fochieh, and the one-volume Leh-lun An-lo Ching-tu i.

    The first work, the Wang-sheng lun chu, is a commentary onVasubandhus Wang-sheng lun. The first volume of his work comments onthe twenty-four lines of gth in this work, and the second volumecomments on the prose section. In various places throughout this workTan-luan presents his Pure Land philosophy.

    The Tsan O-mi-to Fo chieh (Gths in Praise of the Buddha Amitbha)is a short work, consisting of 195 seven character lines. This work is acollection of praises of the various qualities of Amitbha and his Pure Land,

    based largely on the Wu-liang-shou ching. This work is also variouslyentitled the Wu-liang-shou ching feng-tsan(Praises Offered to the Wu-Liang-shou ching) or simply the Ta-ching feng-tsan(Praises Offered to theGreater Stra).

    The Leh-lun An-lo Ching-tu iraises, and answers, several questionswith respect to the Pure Land:

    whether it is within the three dhtus or not, how many adornments it has, what are the various types of capacities of devotees who can be

    reborn therein, the nature of womb birth in the peripheral areas of the Pure Land, the doubts and delusions of the Five Wisdoms, and the problem of ten continuous recitations.

    This works authenticity has been called into question by a number ofwriters. In his Yanggwn Muryang-gyng jongyo, the scholar-monkWnhyfrom the Silla dynasty in Koreaclaims that the simile ofcrossing the river employed in the Leh-lun can be traced back toKumrajva. The Japanese Tendai scholar-monk Shshin, in the sixthvolume of his Hokke-gengi shiki, claims that Kumrajva composed thiswork. However, the Leh-lunquotes a number of works, specifically theKuanWu-liang-shou ching, and the Wang-sheng lun, which were trans-lated into Chinese only after the death of Kumrajva, so the work cannotpossibly be his work.

    In the Edo period the scholar-monk Reik Kken composed a workentitled The Leh-lun An-lo Ching-tu i is not a Work by Tan-luan(Ryaku-ron Anraku Jdo-gi Donran-sen ni arazu). In this he claimed that the Leh-lunwas composed in Japan by someone very uneducated, and that it wasnot really from the hand of Tan-luan. However, in the last volume of hisChing-tu lun, Chia-tsai mentions, in addition to the Wang-sheng lun chuand the Wu-liang-shou ching feng-tsan, one volume of Questions andAnswers, and here refers to the Leh-lun, which is written in a catechical

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    form. The Leh-lunis also quoted many times in Tao-chos An-lo chi. Inaddition to this, an old manuscript copy of the Leh-lunhas been discov-ered among the finds in Tun-huang, so it is clear that the Leh-lunis not a

    Japanese composition.Besides the above three works ascribed to Tan-luan, his biography in

    the Hs Kao-seng chuanalso mentions a work entitled the Tiao-chi lun(An Essay on Regulating the Breath). Additionally, The Monograph onBibliography(the Ching-chi chih) in the Sui Shu mentions two other works

    by Tan-luan, the Liao pai-ping tsa-wan fang(Prescriptions for Mixing Pillsfor the Cure of All Illnesses), and the Lun liao-fang(A Discussion of theRole of Breath in the Curing of Illnesses). Finally, the Monograph on theArts and Literature (the I-wen chih) of the Sung Shu mentions a workentitled the Fu chi yao-chueh (Essentials for Regulating the Breath). Wecan see from this that Tan-luan was considered to have been very learnedin the homeopathic sciences. These works are probably the result of hisown studies in recuperative techniques, carried out in the period early in

    his life when he was gravely ill.

    2. The Two Paths

    Tan-luans major teachings are to be found in his Wang-sheng lun chu.At the very beginning of this work, he quotes the Chapter on EasyPractice from the Shih-chu pi-po-sha (the Daa-bhmi vibh), tradi-tionally ascribed to Ngrjuna. There are two paths by which the Bodhisattvacan search out the stage of non-regression (Skt: avaivartika), the path ofdifferent practice (nan-hsing-tao) and the path of easy practice (i-hsing-tao). To search out the stage of non-regression in this world, which is fullof the five defilements, and in this present age, which is without the livingpresence of a Buddha, is regarded as the path of difficult practice. But to be

    born in the Pure Land due to ones faith in the Buddha (lit.: by means of thecauses and conditions of believing in the Buddha), to be empowered by theBuddha and so enter into the Mahyna assembly of those definitivelyassured [of such a rebirth] is termed the path of easy practice.

    In a world full of the five defilements and without a Buddha, the non-Buddhists propagate doctrines of tangible, existent characteristics. Theseteachings disturb the characteristic-less cultivation of the Bodhisattvas,and the self-centered discipline and the self-benefitting teachings of theHnayna rvakas cause the Bodhisattva to turn away from his ownpractice of great compassion and benevolence. Also, evil and unreflective

    beings destroy the distinguished qualities of the Bodhisattva, and, seeingthe perverted, defiled results of these beings disturbs the mind of theBodhisattvas, and so brings about a disruption of their religious cultiva-tion.

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    Furthermore, in a world without a Buddha, one cannot rely on thepower of the Buddha, and one must cultivate religious practices through

    his own powers. For these reasons, then, it is extremely difficult to attainthe state of non-regression. Therefore, the author likens this path towalking on land, and so terms it the path of difficult practice.

    In opposition to this, however, the path of easy practice takes advan-tage of (lit.: rides on) the power inherent in the Buddhas FundamentalVows, and leads to rebirth in the Pure Land. Furthermore, by beingempowered by the Buddha, the devotee enters into the Mahyna assem-

    bly of those whose rebirth is assured, and thus abides in the stage of non-regression. That is to say, he attains the stage ofavaivartika by means ofanother power, a power that is not his own, and this is likened to ridinga ship over the water (and not walking on land). This is termed the pathof easy practice.

    The theory of the two paths, the difficult and the easy path, is originallyborrowed from Ngrjuna. Ngrjuna holds that to strenuously cultivatereligious practices in this world for a long time, and to thus attain the stageof non-regression, constitutes the path of difficult practice. However,calling upon the Names of the various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas willallow the devotee to speedily attain the stage of non-regression. Thesewould include the Names of the Buddhas of the ten directions, such as theBuddha Sugua (Fine Qualities) in the East, etc., and the Names of otherBuddhas and Bodhisattvas, such as Amitbha and Lokevararja. Thus,this path is called the path of easy practice. In other words, according toNgrjuna, both paths allow the devotee to attain the stage of non-regression, the only difference being in the time that it takes to reach thegoal. However, Tan-luan modified this teaching slightly, and taught thatthe attainment stage of non-regression in this world is the path of difficultpractice, whereas attaining the stage of non-regression through rebirth inthe Pure Land constitutes the path of easy practice. In other words, hediscusses the differences in these two paths by virtue of the difference

    between this world and the Pure Land. To Ngrjuna, the problem of theattainment of the stage of non-regression did not especially give rise to thenecessity for rebirth in the Pure Land. For Tan-luan, however, the attain-ment of the stage of non-regression within the path of easy practice wasconsidered to be one of the benefits (teh-i) attained after one had beenreborn in the Pure Land. According to his teaching, then, in order to attainthe stage of non-regression, one must first be reborn in the Pure Land, andrebirth in the Pure Land became a necessary condition for the attainmentof the stage of non-regression.

    Also, Ngrjuna held that calling on the Names of the various Buddhasand Bodhisattvas constituted, in its totality, the easy practice, whereasTan-luan, in opposition to this, held that faith in one Buddha, the BuddhaAmitbha, constituted the path of easy practice. Furthermore, Tan-luan

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    strongly stressed the power inherent in the Fundamental Vows of Amitbha,and that such attainments as rebirth in the Pure Land, and the attainment

    of the stage of non-regression once one is reborn in the Pure Land, were alldue to the empowerment (chu-chih) derived from these vows. It is in thesepoints, then, the teachings of Tan-luan differed greatly from those ofNgrjuna. Tan-luan drew these teachings from both the Wu-liang shouchingand the Wang-sheng lun, and it was he who first introduced thistheory of the two paths into the Pure Land faith. From that time onward,this theory came to be used very frequently in subsequent Pure Landwritings.

    Tan-luan deeply revered Ngrjuna, for we find in his Tsan O-mi-to

    Fo chieh the phrases:

    The Great Master Ngrjuna, the Mahsattva,was born at the beginning of the period of the Counterfeit Dharma,

    and served as a model of Truth.He closed and locked the doors of error, and opened the pathway

    of Truth. For this reason, all eyes in Jambudvpalook to him in reverence, he who is enlightened in the Stage of Joy.I go to Amitbha for Refuge, that I may be reborn in Sukhvat.

    And in another passage:

    In the manner that when the dragons move, clouds must followin Jambudvpa, he gave off hundreds of rays of light.Homage to the Venerable One, the most compassionate Ngrjuna,we bow down to him in reverence.

    In the above passages, the phrase He who is enlightened in the Stage

    of Joy (Skt.pramudit-bhmi) refers to a passage in the ninth chapter, thechapter On Stanzas in the Ju Leng-chia ching, translated in 513 byBodhiruci. In this chapter, the Buddha predicts the eventual rebirth ofNgrjuna into Sukhvat. Tan-luan had studied the Ssu-lun Tradition(the Madhyamaka Tradition), and it was probably at this time that he first

    became a devotee of Ngrjuna. His faith was deepened by this referencein theJu Leng-chia ching, and it was probably based on this that his faithin the Pure Land teachings became as firm as it did. In addition, the Chapteron Easy Practice mentions the Fundamental Vows of Amitbha, and

    Amitbha and his Pure Land are praised in a gthof some thirty-two linesin this same work. Tan-luan clearly got his inspiration from these works ofNgrjuna, and so developed his theory of easy practice with respect to thisone Buddha only, as well as the teaching that the stage of non-regressionis attained only after the attainment of rebirth in the Pure Land.

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    3. The Other Power of the Fundamental Vows

    Needless to say, Tan-luans stress on the power of the FundamentalVows of Amitbha is based on the teachings of the Wu-liang-shou ching,

    but we also get some hints for this theory from the writings of Ngrjuna.The Wu-liang-shou chingcirculated early in South China and we know

    from the monastic biographies that the monk Fa-tu of the Chi-hsia ssuMonastery and the monk Pao-liang of the Ling-wei ssu Monastery lecturedfrequently on this scripture. However, we do not have any idea what theirviews on these Fundamental Vows were, since no works from their hands,or from their disciples exist. Nevertheless, it was Tan-luan who was thefirst person to employ this scripture in the north, and to stress the power ofthese vows in his teaching. It is for this reason that he exercised a greatinfluence on all later Pure Land writers and thinkers.

    Tan-luan teaches the greatness of the power of these FundamentalVows of Amitbha in the last volume of his Wang-sheng lun chu. In thispassage, he states that cultivating the practice of the five types ofnien-fo,

    benefiting oneself and others, and speedily attaining samyaksambodhi(supreme, perfect enlightenment), is due basically to the TathgataAmitbha. In this way, Amitbha is considered the predominating condi-tion (tseng-shang yuan, Skt: adhipati-pratyaya) for all these attainments.The power of the Fundamental Vows of the Tathgata Amitbha alsoconditions birth in the Pure Land, and the performance of all types of gooddeeds by bodhisattvas, humans, and devas. If these powers of the Buddhadid not exist, then his forty-eight vows would have been set up in vain.Hence, what Tan-luan teaches is that birth in the Pure Land, etc., is madepossible by means of the power of the actual attainment (cheng-chiu, Skt.:siddhi) of these forty-eight vows by Amitbha.

    Of these forty-eight, Tan-luan lays particular stress on the eleventh,eighteenth, and twenty-second vows. It is by means of these vows that onecan be reborn in the Pure Land, attain the stage of non-regression, and canspeedily attain Buddhahood.

    The eleventh vow is the fundamental vow that the devotee will abidein the assembly of those definitively determined [to be reborn in the PureLand]. Tan-luan holds that it is by means of the power of this vow thatthose reborn in the Pure Land all abide in the assembly of those definitivelydetermined, and are able to attain this stage of non-regression.

    The eighteenth vow is the fundamental vow of rebirth in the PureLand, and Tan-luan holds that it is by means of the power of this vow thatall beings in the ten directions are able to attain rebirth in the Pure Land.

    The twenty-second vow is the vow that the devotee will certainly go tothe abode just before the stage of total enlightenment. It is by means of thisvow that, when the devotee is reborn into the Pure Land, he will do so by

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    jumping over all of the various religious practices of the different bhmis,and will presently cultivate the qualities of the Universally Auspicious One(Samantabhadra). Tan-luan teaches that it is by means of the power of thisvow that the devotee who is to be born into the Pure Land does not needto gradually traverse all the different bhmis in sequence. Rather thangoing from the first bhmi to the second, from the second bhmi to thethird, and so on, the devotee is enabled to jump over all of the variouspractices of these different bhmis, and speedily attain the stage of onlyone more rebirth (i-sheng pu-chu).

    In a word then, Tan-luan borrowed heavily from the thought ofNgrjuna, taking for his point of departure the problem of non-regres-sion. Since it was his aim to attain Buddhahood as quickly as possible, helaid special emphasis on the eleventh and the twenty-second vows. But allof these benefits are benefits attained only after the devotees rebirth in thePure Land, so as a preparation for the attainment of these benefits, Tan-luan also stressed the eighteenth vow, the vow that enables the devotee toattain rebirth by calling on the name of Amitbha. Tan-luan then con-structed his theory of the other-power of these Fundamental Vows,centering on these three vows. The path of difficult practice is a pathcentered on ones own power, and the cultivation of this path is notsupported by any other power. The path of easy practice takes advantageof the power of the Buddhas Vows, and one is able to be reborn in the PureLand and, sustained by the power of the Buddha, to speedily attainBuddhahood. In this manner, Tan-luan taught what he considered to bethe true message of the Pure Land faith. In later years, the theory of theFundamental Vows propounded by Shan-tao will be seen to derive directlyfrom the theories first taught by Tan-luan.

    4. The Five Teachings of Nien-fo

    In his teachings, Tan-luan stressed the power of the vows of theBuddha, and centered his theories on the concepts of birth, non-regression,and the speedy attainment of Buddhahood. Of these three, non-regressionand the attainment of Buddhahood were automatically realized by virtueof the power of the vows of the Buddha. However, in order to attain rebirth,a specific type of religious practice was demanded of the devotee: thesewere the Five Nien-fo Teachings (wu nien-fo men), which were ultimately

    based on the Wang-sheng lunof Vasubandhu.These five are: Prostrations (li-pai men), Singing Praises (tsan-tan

    men), Making Vows (tso-yuan men), Insight Meditation (kuan-tsamen), and the Transfer of Merits (hui-hsiang men). The treatise attrib-uted to Vasubandhu explains these practices, but Tan-luan explains themin greater detail, and gives many of his own opinions in these explanations.

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    Prostrations means that one should always turn his thoughts to thedesire for rebirth and make prostrations to the Tathgata Amitbha. Tan-luans understanding of this item does not differ from that of Vasubandhu.

    Singing Praises means to recite the names of the Tathgata ofUnhindered Light in all the Ten Directions (chin-shih-fang wu-ai-kuang

    ju-lai: Amitbha). In explanation of this practice, the Wang-sheng lunstates: Ones verbal actions sing the praises of, and recite the Name of theTathgata. / The wisdom and glory of the Tathgata / are the meaning of

    his Name; one should want to truly cultivate its aspects. Tan-luanunderstands this passage as saying that light (the glory, Skt.: bha) is themark of the Buddhas wisdom, so he is called the mark of wisdom andglory. This light illumines all the worlds in the ten directions. It removesthe darkness of ignorance from all beings, and fulfills all the vows andaspirations of all creatures. Thus, if one truly cultivates this practice, and ifone is in union (hsiang-yin, yogic union) with the meaning of the Name ofthe Tathgata, the darkness of ignorance will be destroyed, and all aspira-tions will be satisfied. However, if beings should call on the Name, andtheir ignorance is not destroyed and their aspirations remain unsatisfied,this is only because they are not in union with the significance of the Namein their practice. They do not know that the Tathgata is the true aspect

    body (shih-hsing shen), and that he is a form for the benefit of living beings(wei-wu shen). Furthermore, it is because their faith is not honest, some-times being there and sometimes not: their faith is not one-pointed anddefinitive, and is not continuous, being interrupted by other thoughts. Forthese reasons, then, their practice is not correct, and they are unable toattain a yogic union with the significance of the Name of the Buddha. If,

    however, the devotees faith is sincere, if it is definitive and continuous, hewill be able to attain a yogic union with the significance of the Buddhasname, and will be able to fulfill his every aspiration.

    This theory owes much to the Ta-chih-tu lun. In the thirty-fourthvolume of the Ta-chih-tu lun, it is taught that the Buddha has two bodiesor modes of appearance. First, there is the body arisen from Dharmat (fa-hsing sheng-shen fo). Second, there the transformation body manifested, ineither a superior or an inferior manner, in accord with the world in whichit arises (sui-shih chien-y lieh hsien-hua fo). The first type of Buddha, the

    body arisen from Dharmat, is without limits, and is able to fulfill allaspirations. It is taught that if one but hears the Name of this Buddha, onewill be able to attain enlightenment. Since the Buddha Amitbha is theBuddha whose body has arisen from Dharmat, when one truly (correctly)cultivates these practices, all of ones aspirations should be fulfilled.

    The Wang-sheng lunalso has the passage: With oneness of mind I gofor refuge to the Tathgata of Unhindered Light, which fills all the tendirections. If ones faith is definitive and continuous, one will be in a yogic

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    union with the significance (the light) of the Name of Amitbha, and willbe able to destroy the darkness of ignorance.

    Of these various theories, the teaching that ones faith must be defini-tive and continuous (hsin-hsincheh-ting hsiang-hsu) was later elabo-rated by Shan-tao, and came to be regarded by him as the primary cause(cheng-yin) for ones rebirth into the Pure Land. Nevertheless, this portionof the explanation is Tan-luans own understanding of the problem, andwe would do well not to consider this theory as part of the originalintention of the Wang-sheng lun. In any case, the phrase in the section onSinging Praisesone should want to truly cultivate its aspectsisparallel to similar phrases in other sections. For example, in the sectionMaking Vows, we have one should want to truly cultivate amatha,and in the section Insight Meditation, we have one should want to trulycultivate vipayana. From these remarks we can clearly see that, accord-ing to Tan-luan, the purport of these passages is that one should want tocorrectly cultivate the religious practice of yogic union. If this is the case,then the Chinese phrase hsiang-yingmust be considered a translation ofthe Sanskrit wordyoga. The sense of this section, then, is that singing thepraises of Amitbha is for the purpose of correctly cultivating the religiouspractice of a type of yoga.

    There are four types of yoga (union): yoga with respect to the externalsphere of sense perception (viaya), yoga with respect to the religiouspractice (crya), yoga with respect to the resultant state (phala), and yogawith respect to the Teaching (dean). Singing the praises of Amitbhasqualities corresponds to the yoga of the resultant state. The practice ofamatha and vipayana is the yoga with respect to religious practice. Thepassage describing the ornaments of the Pure Land corresponds to theyoga with the viaya. The whole of the five nien-fo teachings is largelyarranged as the yoga with respect to the teaching. We have alreadydiscussed this in detail in the thirteenth chapter of myJdo-ky gairon(AnOutline of the Pure Land Teachings), and so will not go into it here. Wemust conclude in any case, that Tan-luan devised the teaching of the yogiccorrespondence of the significance of the Name (light) because he wasdissatisfied with the explanation given by Vasubandhu.

    The third teaching, that of Making Vows, means that the devotee,with one-pointedness of mind and a full and exclusive concentration ofthought, makes the vow to attain rebirth in the Pure Land; he correctlycultivates stilling of the mind, or amatha. Tan-luan explains this wordstilling as the stilling of evil, the ending of evil deeds. He divides thisinto three aspects. First, if one thinks only of the Buddha Amitbha withone-pointedness of mind, and so desires to be reborn in the Pure Land, theName of this Buddha and the Name of his land are able to put an end to allmanner of evil. Second, since the Pure Land of Sukhvat transcends theThree Dhtus, if one is reborn into this land, all the evils generated by his

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    body, speech, or mind, will automatically be stilled. Third, the power of theTathgata Amitbha, which is maintained through his enlightenment, willnaturally still the striving after the Two Vehicles (that is, striving for thestage of Arhat or Pratyekabuddha) on the part of those beings who arereborn in the Pure Land. These three types of stilling all arise from the trueand actual (ju-shih) meritorious qualities of the Tathgata, and so the textspeaks of the correct or true cultivation of the practice of amatha.

    The fourth teaching is that of Insight Meditation. This means thatwith right thought (cheng-nien, part of the Eightfold Path), one is tovisualize or meditate upon the twenty-nine different types of adornmentsof the Pure Land. That is, one should correctly cultivate the practice ofvipayana, or insight. Tan-luan divides this vipayana into two differenttypes. First, in this world the devotee should direct his thought to, andvisualize the qualities of the ornaments of the Pure Land. Since thesequalities are real and true (ju-shih), the person who cultivates this visual-ization will also attain (through yogic union) these true qualities, and thuswill certainly attain birth in the Pure Land. Second, when one is reborn inthe Pure Land, he will then be able to see Amitbha, and a Bodhisattva who

    has not yet been awakened to his own pure mind will be able, exactly as theBodhisattvas of pure mind, to realize his own Dharmakya. This is why theauthor speaks of the correct (ju-shih) cultivation of the practice of Vipayana.In his explanation of the word amatha as putting an end to evil, and notas mental stilling, he was clearly in opposition to the accepted understand-ing of this word. This is also the case with his understanding of the wordVipayana as meaning to see the Buddha after one had attained rebirth inthe Pure Land. Both of these explanations are at variance with the under-standing of the original author of the Wang-sheng lun, Vasubandhu.Rather, we must understand that Tan-luan is concerned primarily with theBuddha himself, and with the power inherent in the Buddha and his Name,and that he explains the whole of this text in this light. Although there arepassages which are inconsistent with the meaning of the original text, Tan-luan is himself consistent throughout the whole of his commentary.

    The fifth teaching is that of the Transfer of Merits. This means that thedevotee transfers the merits that he has accumulated through the practiceof the roots of good, his good deeds, not for the attainment of his ownpersonal enjoyment, but for the relief of the sufferings of all sentient beings.He should desire to take all beings to himself so they may be reborn into thePure Land with him.

    Tan-luan also divides the transfer of merits into two different aspects:The aspect of going (wang-hsiang), and the aspect of returning (huang-hsiang). The aspect of going means that one gives his own stock of meritsto all sentient beings, with the vow that he may, together with them, bereborn in the Pure Land. The aspect of returning means that, after he has

    been born in the Pure Land, he attains amatha and vipayana. Then, if he

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    attains success (siddhi) in the power of expedient means, he will return tothis Saha world to work for the conversion of all sentient beings, so thattogether they may follow the path of the Buddha.

    The intention to transfer these merits (the hui-hsianghsin) is noneother than the unsurpassed Bodhicitta (wu-shang pu-ti-hsin) spoken ofin the Wu-liang-shouching, in the passage describing the three types ofpersons who are reborn into the Pure Land. This unsurpassed Bodhicitta isidentical with the aspiration to attain Buddhahood (theyuan tso-fo hsin).This aspiration to attain Buddhahood is identical with the thought to saveall beings (the tu chung-sheng hsin), and the thought to save all beings isidentical to taking all beings to oneself and causing them to be reborn in aland that has a Buddha. Consequently, if one desires to be reborn in thePure Land of Sukhvat, one must generate this Bodhicitta. If one does notgenerate this Bodhicitta, but seeks rebirth in this Pure Land only in orderto enjoy the pleasures of this land, then, it is argued, he will not be able todo so. In other words, if one does not generate Bodhicitta, one will not beable to be reborn in the Pure Land. The teaching of the necessity of theBodhicitta for rebirth is termed the theory of the Bodhicitta being theprimary cause (pu-ti-hsin cheng-yin shou; Japanese: the bodai-shinshin setsu).

    In this way, then, Tan-luan taught that all of these five Nien-foteachings constitutes the means by which the devotee could attain rebirthin the Pure Land. Borrowing from the ideas of Vasubandhus Wang-shenglun, it appears that he taught that the most essential of these five teachingswas the fourth teaching, that of insight meditation (kuan-tsa). However, aswe have mentioned above, he firmly believed in and taught the importanceof the easy practice of calling on the Name (cheng-ming i-hsing), ateaching based ultimately on the Shih-chu pi-po-sha lun. Tan-luan thusstressed the recitation of the Name of the Tathgata in the second teaching,that of singing the praises of the Buddha. He laid great stress on thecalling on, or the recitation of, the Name of the Buddha, for he believed thatthe very Name itself contained a profound number of merits, and exhortedPure Land devotees to hear it frequently, and to believe in it.

    In the beginning of his Wang-sheng lun chu, Tan-luan says that theName of the Buddha Amitbha constitutes the nature (ti) of the Wu-liang-shou ching. He explains that the Name of the Tathgata of Unhin-dered Light possesses the function (yung) of destroying the darkness ofignorance. Also, the Name of the Tathgata and the name of his land(Sukhvat) are able to put an end to all forms of evil. Additionally, even ifthe devotee has transgressions and impurities from countless numbers of

    births and deaths, when he hears the highest, unarisen, pure and pear-likegem of the Name of the Tathgata Amitbha, and when this Name is castinto his defiled mind, his transgressions will be extinguished from thought

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    to thought, his mind will become pure, and he will attain rebirth. His Wu-liang-shouching feng-tsanalso states that

    If all who hear the meritorious Name of Amitbhabut have faith in, and take joy in what they have heard,and if for one instant of thought they have utmost sincerity,and if they transfer these merits and desire rebirth, then they shall

    attain rebirth.

    Tan-luan taught that ten continuous recitations (shih-nien hsiang-hs) constitute the cause by which one attains rebirth. He based this on twopassages. First, there are the words of the eighteenth vow in the Wu-liang-shou ching, If one is not reborn into the Pure Land with but ten recitations,then I shall not attain to Supreme Enlightenment. Second, there is thepassage describing the lowest rank of the lowest grade of rebirth in theKuan Wu-liang-shou ching. This latter states that if one recites Na-wu O-mi-to Foten times, all his transgressions will be extinguished and he willattain birth. Tan-luan interpreted this phrase as signifying that the worknecessary for birth had been accomplished.

    As he states in the first volume of his Wang-shenglun chu, the wordnien(here recitation) signifies calling to remembrance (i-nien)the Bud-dha Amitbha. This is further divided into its general aspect (tsung-hsiang) and its specific aspect (pieh-hsiang). Whichever of these two onechooses to visualize, he is not supposed to have any other thoughts in hismind. It is these ten continuous thoughts which Tan-luan terms the tenrecitations, and this is also the case for ten continuous recitations.

    In illustration of this one-pointedness of mind, Tan-luan employs, inhis Leh-lun An-lo ching-tu i, the example of taking off ones clothes incrossing the river. Suppose that there is a man walking through a desertedland, and bandits rush upon him, intent upon killing him. He begins to flee,

    but suddenly in front of him appears a river that he must cross. If he crossesthe river, he will escape the danger of the bandits: so this person isconcerned only with a way to cross the river, and no other thoughtspreoccupy him. He thinks, When I get to the bank of the river, should Ithrow myself into the river with my clothes on, or should I take them off?If I go into the river with my clothes on, I shall perhaps drown, but if I tryto take my clothes off, I probably will not have the time to do so. At thetime, this person has only the thought of how to cross the river, and he hasno other thoughts. It is in this manner, then, that the devotee should withsingleness of mind think on the Buddha Amitbha, and his mind should beinterrupted with no other thoughts: when ten such thoughts succeed oneanother, this is what is termed the ten continuous thoughts. This alsoapplies to the recitation of the Name of the Buddha, or the visualization ofthe major and minor marks of the Buddha. In both of these cases the

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    devotee should exclusively and totally concentrate his mind, and shouldhave no other thoughts in his mind, and if ten such thoughts succeed one

    another, this is termed the ten thoughts or recitations. If in this mannerhe concentrates his mind and visualizes the marks of the Buddha, etc., thedevotee will be unable to know just how many thoughts have elapsed,since he will not be concerned with any other thoughts, such as countingthe thoughts from one to ten. But if initially he remembers the Buddha, andthen thinks of something else, and then thinks on the Buddha again, andthen thinks of another thing, he will in this manner be able to know thenumber of his thoughts, but his thoughts will be interrupted, and so thesethoughts cannot be termed continuous.

    In opposition to this, however, Tan-luan holds that these full tenthoughts (ch-tsu shih-nien) signify the completion of the work or practicenecessary for rebirth, so it is not absolutely necessary for the devotee

    himself to know the number of his thoughts. The cicada is born in thesummer and dies in this same summer, so he does not know spring orautumn (the passage of time, a quotation from Chuang-tzu). However, ifsomeone who does know the passage of longer periods of time views thecicada, it becomes clear to the viewer that his lifespan is very short. In thissame way, then, we unenlightened beings are unable to know the success-

    ful completion of these ten thoughts, but when we are viewed by someonewho has attained the supernormal psychic powers (ddhi), it is clear to himwhether we have done so or not. The devotee need only recollect theBuddha with one-pointedness of mind, with a mind undisturbed by anyother thing, and he need only continuously accumulate such thoughts. If,

    however, he feels the need to know the number of thoughts that he hasaccumulated, Tan-luan teaches that there is a special method for knowingtheir number, but this method is only transmitted orally, and cannot bewritten down. Based on this, then, Tan-luan lays great stress on the

    continuation of concentrated thoughts, for this constitutes the essentialtruth of the completion of the work necessary for rebirth.

    5. Amitbha and the Pure Land

    In the period in which Tan-luan lived, there had not yet developed anyteachings or theories with respect to the classification of the Pure Lands.Drawing on the teachings of the Wang-sheng lunand the Ta-chih-tu lun,

    Tan-luan states that the Pure Land of Amitbha transcends the ThreeDhtus. The Leh-lun states that the land of Sukhvat is not includedwithin any of these Three Dhtus, for this is the teaching of the Ta-chih-tulun. And why is this the case? It is not within kmadhtu (the realm ofdesire) since there is no desire in Sukhvat. On the other hand, it is a realabode, a bhmi, so it is not included within the rpadhtu (the realm of

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    form). Finally, because there are shapes and colors in the Pure Land, it is notincluded within the rpyadhtu (the formless realm).

    The Wang-sheng luncontains a passage stating that it far transcendsthe realms of rebirth of the Three Dhtus. Tan-luan comments on thispassage in the first volume of his Wang-sheng lunchu. He states that whileviewing these Three Dhtus, the Buddha saw them all to be illusory andunsubstantial, constantly revolving and endless in and of themselves, likea caterpillar in its wanderings, and like a cocoon enmeshing itself in its own

    bonds. For this reason, the Buddha initially gave rise to these pure qualities.Taking compassion on the living beings who were bound in these ThreeDhtus and subject to perverted views and much impurity, so the Buddhawished to establish a place that was not illusory and insubstantial, nor ina constant state of Samsaric flux and endlessly cyclical. In short, he desireda place that was pleasurable (sukh) and pure, and it is for this reason that

    he gave rise to these qualities of pure adornment.Furthermore, Tan-luan does not list any names for the various bodies

    of the BuddhaSabhogakya, Nirmaakya, etc. In his Wang-sheng lunchu, Tan-luan says that the Bodhisattva Dharmkara attained the stage ofnon-regression (anutpdadharmaknti) in the presence of the BuddhaLokevararja. His stage of spiritual development at this time was that ofthe rya-gotra, the clan of the ryans (he was now bound for eventualfull enlightenment). In this rya-gotra, he set up forty-eight vows, whichin turn gave rise to the Pure Land. This land was attained while he was stillin the causal state (the state of a Bodhisattva, and not a Buddha).

    In his Leh-lun An-lo ching-tu i, Tan-luan further writes that theBodhisattva Dharmkara made these great vows in the presence of theBuddha Lokevararja, taking for his purview all the different BuddhaLands. These vows were completed during the course of numberlessasakhyeyakalpas, during which time, too, he cultivated all the Pramits,eventually perfecting good and attaining unsurpassed Bodhi. This PureLand was thus something attained by means of a specific karmic action,and for this reason, this Pure Land is not included within any of the ThreeDhtus. Based on this, then, Tan-luan without doubt holds that theBuddha Amitbha was a Sabhogakya, and that his Pure Land was aSabhoga Land.

    Chi-tsang, in his Kuan-ching i-shu, says that a master (or masters?) ofthe north holds that Amitbhas Pure Land is not included within any of theThree Dhtus. Instead, the claim is that the Bodhisattva Dharmkara made

    his vows while in the stage of Dharmakya, a stage above the eighth bhmi.It was by means of these vows that he created his Pure Land, termed aSabhoga Land. This North Chinese master may, of course, be Tan-luan.

    Tan-luan was also the first to attempt to reconcile two contradictoryteachings within the Pure Land corpus. The Wu-liang-shou chingsays thatcountless numbers of (Hnayna) rvakas dwell in Amitbhas Pure Land.

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    In apparent contradiction, the Wang-sheng lunteaches that beings in (lit.:the seeds of) the Two Vehicles (rvakas and pratyekabuddhas) are not

    born into the Pure Land. Tan-luan attempts a reconciliation on two points:first, in this world of the five impurities, the one (the One Vehicle teaching)is divided into three (the Three Vehicles). In the Pure Land, these fiveimpurities do not exist, so there is no distinction between these ThreeVehicles, and beings in the two lower vehicles therefore do not dwell in thePure Land. When the Wu-liang-shou chingsays that rvakas dwell in thePure Land, this is referring only to the Arhats (those who have reached thegoal of the rvaka path), and does not refer to realrvakas. The Arhat hascut off the defilements (fan-nao; kleas), and is no longer reborn in any ofthe Three Dhtus, but has not yetwhich is outside of the Three Dhtusand it is here that he must now continue to seek out unsurpassed Bodhi.When the Arhat is born into the Pure Land, he merely keeps his originalname of rvaka without actually being one.

    The second point that Tan-luan makes is that the seeds (chung-tzu;bjas)of the Two Vehicles do not arise in the Pure Land. Thus the Wang-sheng luncan say that the seeds of the Two Vehicles do not arise (erh-cheng chungpu-sheng)in the Pure Land. However, this does not prevent

    beings in the Two Vehicles here on earth from being reborn in the PureLand. For example, the orange tree does not produce any fruit in NorthChina, but its fruit can be seen in the market places of South China. In thisway, the seeds (beings) of the Two Vehicles do not arise in the Pure Land,

    but this does not mean that beings who are rvakas in this world cannotgo to the Pure Land. In this hypothesis, then, real rvakas are allowed todwell in the Pure Land. This problem was also examined in later years byShan-tao, as well as by various other masters. It is clearly Vasubandhusteaching in the Wang-sheng lun that the Pure Land is the abode ofMahyna Bodhisattvas only, and that there are no rvakas orpratyekabuddhas there under any guise. Despite this, a large number ofthese masters adopted this latter explanation, holding that actual rvakasdwelt in the Pure Land.

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