psychometric testing

A PROJECT REPORT ON

THE PSYCHOMETRIC TOOL KIT OF HUMAN

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Arpita Srivastava, MBA (2005-07)1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introductory page

Acknowledgement

Chapter 1

1.1 Executive summary 1

1.2 Objectives of study 3

1.3 Literature review 4

1.4 Research Methodology 16

Chapter 2

2.1 Psychometric testing: Myths and Realities 18

2.2 The big five personality dimensions 20

2.3 Firo-B: Fundamental Interpersonal Relationship Orientation-Behavior 27

2.4 MBTI: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 34

2 . 5 T h e D i S C p e r s o n a l i t y m o d e l 5 1

2.6 16PF® 60

2.7 Johari window 80

2.8 The Belbin team roles inventory 92

2.9 Aptitude and Ability Tests 99

2.10 Speed and Power Tests 102

2.11 Verbal Ability Tests 105

2.12 Verbal Reasoning Questions 114

2.13 Numerical Ability Tests 116

2.14 Numerical Critical Reasoning 121

Chapter 3


3.1 Data Analysis & Interpretation 122

3.2 Findings 133 3.3 Conclusion 135

3.4 Limitations

136

Chapter 4

4.1 References

4.2 Annexure

(A) Questionnaire used

(B) Some filled questionnaires

(C) MBTI questionnaire


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Psychometric testing today is employed in a wide variety of setting, from

educational to industrial organizations, for a diverse range of purposes.

Especially from the HR point of view, its uses have increased manifold over

the last few years.

The term “Psychometric Testing” evokes different reactions in different

people. Some people think of it as an enigmatic thing, some other treat it as

recent fade and still others tend to think of it as something fearsome. By and

large, a negative perception has been woven around psychometric tests.

A psychological test in reality is essentially an objective and standardized

measure of a sample of behavior. Psychological tests are like the tests in any

other science, insofar as observations are made on a small but carefully

chosen sample of an individual's behavior. An important point to notice here

is that psychometric tests include both personality tests as well as the

aptitude tests like verbal ability, numerical reasoning etc.

Keeping in mind the growing use of these psychometric tests by HR

professionals all over the world, this topic for the project was chosen The

scope of the project and the activities carried out were divided into the

following four stages:

STAGE-I: Readings for having a basic understanding of the project

The first stage involved extensive reading of various magazines, books,

internet websites etc. to have an idea about the chosen topic of interest that

is ‘the psychometric tools used by the organizations.’ Various magazines like

HRM Review, books on psychological testing etc. were read for the asid

purpose.


STAGE-II: Collecting data relating to psychometric testing

This stage involved a collecting data with respect to the chosen topic of

interest. Secondary data for this purpose was collected from various sources

such as Human resource books, books on psychometric testing, magazines,

journals, internet etc.

STAGE-III: Questionnaire designing and primary data collection

In this stage a questionnaire was under the guidance of our faculty, to collect

data relating to the topic from human resource personnel working in different

organizations. This questionnaire was then circulated through internet and

was uploaded at citehr.com so that relevant data could be collected.

STAGE-IV: Data analysis and conclusions.

In the final stage of the project the data so gathered was interpreted and

analyzed. Upon analysis of data conclusions were drawn and the findings

were finally added to the project report.


OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The objectives of this project report have been manifolds. In general the

purpose of the project is to have in-depth analysis and knowledge about the

chosen topic of interest. In a larger perspective the project aimed at finding

out and studying the various psychometric tools that are being used today by

the human resource managers and department all the world. A number of

psychometric tools are being used by companies across industries. The

project aims at studying these psychometric tools and their importance in the

current scenario. The following have been the main objectives behind this

study:

To understand what is psychometric testing and study the various

types of tests.

To understand Principles of psychometric testing

To study some of the most commonly used psychometric tools in the

tool kit of human resource managers and departments.

To study the application and use of these psychometric tools in

various processes of human resources.

To understand the ethical issues involved in the use of these

psychometric tools by the human resources department.

To have an idea of how many companies in India are actually using

these tests/tools.

To find out in what all areas of HR are the human resource

professionals using these psychometric tests


LITERATURE REVIEW

What is a psychological test?

A psychological test is essentially an objective and standardized measure of

a sample of behavior. Psychological tests are like the tests in any other

science, insofar as observations are made on a small but carefully chosen

sample of an individual's behavior. In this respect, the psychologist proceeds

in much the same way as the biochemist that tests a patient's blood or a

community’s water supply by analyzing one or more samples of it.

The diagnostic or predictive value of a psychological test depends on the

degree to which it serves as an indicator of a relatively broad and significant

area of behavior.

Measurement of the behavior sample directly covered by the test is rarely, if

ever, the goal of psychological testing. The child's knowledge of the word list

of 50 words is not, in itself, of great interest. Nor is the job applicant's

performance on a specific set of 20 arithmetic problems of much importance.

If, however, it can be demonstrated that there is a close correspondence

between and his total mastery of vocabulary, or between the applicant's

score on the arithmetic problems and her computational performance on the

job then the tests are serving their purpose.

The degree of similarity between the test sample and the predicted behavior

may vary widely. At one extreme, the test may coincide completely with a

part of the behavior to be predicted.

Rorschach inkblot test, in which an attempt is made to predict from the

respondent's associate’s to inkblots how he or she will react to other people,

to emotionally toned stimuli, and to other complex, everyday-life situations.


Despite their superficial differences, all these tests consist of samples of the

individual's behavior. And each must prove its worth by an empirically

demonstrated correspondence between the examinee’s performance on the

test and in other situations.

Psychometric tests aim to measure aspects of your mental ability or your

personality.

They have been used since the early part of the 20th century and were

originally developed for use in educational psychology. These days, outside

of education, you are most likely to encounter psychometric testing as part of

the recruitment or selection process. Tests of this sort are devised by

occupational psychologists and their aim is to provide employers with a

reliable method of selecting the most suitable job applicants or candidates for

promotion.

Psychometric tests aim to measure attributes like intelligence, aptitude and

personality, providing a potential employer with an insight into how well you

work with other people, how well you handle stress, and whether you will be

able to cope with the intellectual demands of the job. Most of the established

psychometric tests used in recruitment and selection make no attempt to

analyze your emotional or psychological stability.


90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

% age of companies using Psychometric testing

Psychometric testing is now used by over 80% of the Fortune 500 companies

in the USA and by over 75% of the Times Top 100 companies in the UK.

Information technology' companies, financial institutions, management

consultancies, local authorities, the civil service, police forces, fire services

and the armed forces all make extensive use of use psychometric testing.


US Fortune 500 UK

Times Top 100

As an indicator of your personality, preferences and abilities, psychometric

tests can help prospective employers to find the best match of individual to

occupation and working environment. As a recruitment and selection tool,

these tests can be applied in a straightforward way at the early stages of

selection to screen-out candidates who are likely to be unsuitable for the job

or, using a more sophisticated approach, to provide guidance on career

progression to existing employees. Because the results of psychometric tests

are used to influence such important personnel decisions it is vital that the

tests themselves are known to produce accurate results based on

standardized methods and statistical principles.

A psychometric test should be:

• Objective: The score must not affected by the testers' beliefs or values

• Standardized: It must be administered under controlled conditions

• Reliable: It must minimize and quantify any intrinsic errors

• Predictive: It must make an accurate prediction of performance

• Non Discriminatory: It must not disadvantage any group on the basis of

gender, culture, ethnicity, etc.


Psychometric tests

Selection & Recruitment

Career Progression

PRINCIPLES OF PSYCOMETRIC TEST

Standardization

Standardization implies uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring

the test. If the scores obtained by different persons are to be comparable,

testing conditions must obviously be the same for all.

In order to secure uniformity of testing conditions, the test constructor

provides detailed directions for administering each newly developed test. The

formulation of directions is a major part of the standardization of a new test.

Such standardization extends to the exact materials employed, time limits,

oral instructions, preliminary demonstrations, ways of handling queries from

test takers, and every other detail of the testing situation.

Objective measurement

Some aspects of the objectivity of psychological tests have already been

touched on in the discussion of standardization. Thus, the administration,

scoring, and interpretation of scores are objective insofar as they are

independent of the subjective judgment of the particular examiner. Anyone

test taker should theoretically obtain the identical score on a test regardless

of who happens to be the examiner. This is not entirely so, of course,

because perfect standardization and objectivity have not been attained in

practice. But at least such objectivity is the goal of test construction and has

been achieved to a reasonably high degree in most tests.

There are other major ways in which psychological tests can be properly

described as objective. The determination of the difficulty level of an item or

of a whole test is based on objective, empirical procedures.


Reliability

How good is this test? Does it really work? These questions could-and

occasionally do-result in long hours of futile discussion. Subjective opinions,

hunches, and personal biases may lead, on the one hand, to extravagant

claims regarding what a particular test can accomplish and, on the other

hand, to stubborn rejection. The only way questions such as these can be

conclusively answered are by empirical trial. The objective evaluation of

psychological tests involves primarily the determination of the reliability and

the validity of the test in specified situations.

As used in psychometrics, the term "reliability" basically means consistency.

Test reliability is the consistency of scores obtained by the same persons

when retested with the identical test or with an equivalent form of the test.

Reliability may be checked by comparing the scores obtained by the same

test takers at different times, with different sets of items, with different

examiners or scorers, or under any other relevant testing condition.

Types of reliability

Test retest reliability: The most obvious method for finding the reliability of

test scores is by repeating the identical test on a second occasion. The

reliability

Alternate-form reliability: One way of avoiding the difficulties encountered

in test-retest reliability is through the use of alternate forms of the test. The

same persons can thus be tested with one form on the first occasion and with

another, equivalent form on the second. The correlation between the scores

obtained on the two forms represents the reliability coefficient of the test.


Split half reliability: From a single administration of one form of a test it is

possible to arrive at a measure of reliability by various split-half procedures.

In such a way, two scores are obtained for each person by dividing the test

into equivalent halves. It is apparent that split-half reliability provides a

measure of consistency with regard to content sampling. Temporal stability of

the scores does not enter into such reliability, because only one test session

is involved. This type of reliability coefficient is sometimes called a coefficient

of internal consistency, since only a single administration of a single form is

required.

Validity

The degree to which the test actually measures what it purports to measure.

Validity provides a direct check on how well the test fulfills its function. The

determination of validity usually requires independent, external criteria of

whatever the test is designed to measure. For example, if a medical aptitude

test is to be used in selecting promising applicants for medical school,

ultimate success in medical school would be a criterion.

Such a composite measure constitutes the criterion with which each

student’s initial test-score is to be correlated. A high correlation, or validity

coefficient, would signify that those individuals who scored high on the test

had been relatively successful in medical schools, whereas those scoring low

on the test had done poorly in medical school.

The validity coefficient enables us to determine how closely the criterion

performance could have been predicted from the test scores.

In a similar manner, tests designed for other purposes can be validated

against appropriate criteria. A vocational aptitude test, for example, can be

validated against on-the-job success of a trial group of new employees. A

pilot aptitude battery can be validated against achievement in flight training.


Tests designed for broader and more varied uses are validated against a

number of independently obtained behavioral indices; and their validity can

be established only by the gradual accumulation of data from many different

kinds of investigations.

The scores of these persons are not themselves employed for operational

purposes but serve only in the process of testing the test. If the test proves

valid by this method, it can then be used on other samples in absence of

criterion measures. Validity tells us more than the degree to which the test is

fulfilling its function. It actually tells us what the test is measuring. By studying

the validation data, we can objectively determine what the test is measuring.

It would thus be more accurate to define validity as the extent to which we

know what the test measures.


Ethical and Social Considerations in Testing

In both their research and the practical applications of their procedures,

psychologists have long been concerned with questions of professional

ethics. A concrete example of this concern is the systematic empirical

program followed in the early 1950s to develop the first formal code of ethics

for the profession. This extensive undertaking resulted in the preparation of a

set of standards that was officially adopted by the American Psychological

Association (APA) and first published in 1953. These standards undergo

continual review and refinement, leading to the periodic publication of revised

editions. The current version, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of

Conduct (APA, 1992), 1 comprises preamble and six general principles

designed to guide psychologists toward the highest ideals of the profession.

It also provides eight ethical standards with enforceable rules for

psychologists functioning within diverse contexts.

User qualification and professional competence

The Ethics Code principle on competence states that psychologists "provide

those services and use only those techniques for which they are qualified by

education, training, or experience." Thus, a relatively long period of intensive

training and supervised experience is required for the proper of individual

intelligence tests and most personality tests.

This is important because well-trained examiners choose tests that are

appropriate for both the particular purpose for which they are testing and the

persons to be examined. They are also cognizant of the available research

literature on the chosen test and able to evaluate its technical merits with

regard to such characteristics as norms, reliability, and validity. In

administering the test, they are sensitive to the many conditions that may

affect test performance.


Responsibilities of test publishers

The purchase of tests is generally restricted to persons who meet certain

minimal qualifications. The catalogs of major test publishers specify

requirements that ill be met by purchasers. Usually, individuals with a

master's degree in psychologist equivalent qualify. Some publishers classify

their tests into levels with reference to user qualifications, ranging from

educational achievement and vocational proficiency tests, through group

intelligence tests and interest inventories, to such clinical instruments as

individual intelligence tests and most personality .Distinctions are also made

between individual purchasers and authorized intuitional purchasers of

appropriate tests.

Efforts to restrict the distribution of tests have a dual objective: security of the

test materials and prevention of misuse.

Another professional responsibility pertains to the marketing of psychological

tests by authors and publishers. Tests should not be released prematurely

for general use. Nor should any claims be made regarding the merits of a

test in the absence of sufficient objective evidence. When a test is distributed

early for research purposes only, this condition should be clearly specified

and the distribution of the test restricted accordingly. The test manual should

provide adequate data to permit an evaluation of the test itself as well as full

information regarding administration, scoring, and norms.

Protection of privacy

A question arising particularly in connection with personality tests is that of

invasion of privacy. In a report entitled Privacy and Behavioral Research

(1967), the right to privacy is defined as the right to decide for oneself how

much one will share with others one's thoughts, feelings, and facts about

one's personal life; this right is further characterized as "essential to insure

freedom and self-determination." Insofar as some tests of emotional,

motivational, or attitudinal traits are necessarily disguised, the examinee may


reveal characteristics in the course of such a test without realizing that he or

she is so doing. For purposes of testing effectiveness, it may be necessary to

keep the examinee in ignorance of the specific ways in which the responses

to anyone test are to be interpreted. Nevertheless, a person should not be

subjected to any testing program under false pretenses. Of primary

importance in this connection is the obligation to have a clear understanding

with the examinee regarding the use that will be made of test results.

Confidentiality

Like the protection of privacy, to which it is related, the problem of

confidentiality of test data is multifaceted. The fundamental question is: Who

shall have access to test results? Several considerations influence the

answer in particular situations. Among them are the security of test content,

the hazards of misunderstanding test scores, and the need for various

persons to know the results.

There has been a growing awareness of the right of individuals to have

access to the findings in their own test reports. The test taker should also

have the opportunity to comment on the contents of the report and, if

necessary, to clarify or correct factual information. Counselors are now trying

more and more to involve clients as active participants in their own

assessment. For these purposes, test results should be presented in a form

that is readily understandable, free from technological jargon or labels, and

oriented toward the immediate objective of the testing. Proper safeguards

must be observed against misuse and misinterpretation of findings.

Discussions of the confidentiality of test records have usually dealt with

accessibility to a third person, other than the individual tested (or parent of a

minor) and the examiner. The underlying principle is that such records should

not be released without the knowledge and consent of the test taker, unless

such a release is mandated by law or permitted by law for valid purposes.


Another problem pertains to the retention of records in institutions. On the

one hand, longitudinal records on individuals can be very valuable.

On the other hand, the availability of old records opens the way for such

misuses as incorrect inferences from obsolete data and unauthorized access

for other than the original testing purpose. Similarly, when records are

retained for many years, there is danger that they may be used for purposes

that the test taker (or the test taker's parents) never anticipated and would

not have approved. To prevent such misuses, when records are retained

either for legitimate longitudinal use in the interest of the individual or for

acceptable research purposes, access to them should be subject to

unusually stringent controls.

Communicating test results

In recent years, psychologists have begun to give more thought to the

communication of test results in a form that will be meaningful and useful to

the recipient. Certainly, the information should not be transmitted routinely,

but should provide appropriate interpretive explanations. Broad levels of

performance and qualitative descriptions in simple terms are to be preferred

over specific numerical scores, except when communicating with adequately

trained professionals.

In all test-related communication, it is desirable to take into account the

characteristics of the person who is to receive the information. This applies

not only to that person's general education and her or his knowledge about

psychology and testing, but also to her or his anticipated emotional response

to the information. The consideration of emotional reactions to test

information is especially important when persons are learning about their

own assets and shortcomings. When an individual is given her or his test

results, not only should the data be interpreted by a properly qualified

person, but facilities should also be available for counseling anyone who may

become emotionally disturbed by such information.


RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In order to understand and achieve the objectives of the project

and to have an in-depth knowledge about the chosen topic of

interest i t was important to gather the relevant data from various

sources.

To accomplish the objective of any research project, data can be

collected from two main sources:

DATA COLLECTION SOURCES

1) Primary Sources of Data

Primary data are those that are collected by the researcher himself.

Primary data collection is necessary when a researcher cannot find the data

needed in secondary sources. Market researchers are interested in primary

data about demographic / socioeconomic characteristics,

attitudes/opinions/interests, awareness/knowledge, intentions, motivation,

and behavior. Three basic means of obtaining primary data are observation,

surveys, and experiments. The choice is influenced by the nature of the

problem and by the availability of time and money.

2) Secondary Sources of Data

Secondary data are the data that are collected by others and is to be "re-

used" by the researcher. The most common sources of secondary data today

are books, research journals, internet etc.


To accomplish the objectives of this research work , both

primary as well as secondary sources of data collection were

used .

For the purpose of this project some primary data was collected by using

questionnaires. This eleven questions long questionnaire was designed with

the help of expertise of our human resource and marketing faculty.

To collect the data, these questionnaires were then circulated on internet,

sent to various companies by e-mails and were uploaded on citehr.com a

community of HR practioners and professionals. The purpose was to f ind

the practical application, use and satisfaction derived by the

organizations from using these psychometric tools.

Apart from that it was important to collect data from various

secondary sources as well. The various sources from which

secondary data was gathered included various books by eminent

authors of human resource and psychology, a number of

journals, research papers and the internet search engines,

magazines etc.


PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING

Myths and Realities

Psychometric testing today is employed in a wide variety of setting, from

educational to industrial organizations, for a diverse range of purposes.

Especially from the HR point of view, its uses have increased manifold over

the last few years.

The term “Psychometric Testing” evokes different reactions in different

people. Some people think of it as an enigmatic thing, some other treat it as

recent fade and still others tend to think of it as something fearsome. By and

large, a negative perception has been woven around psychometric tests.

In reality, it’s none of the thing mentioned above. Psychometric testing is

simply standardized, objective measure of a sample of behavior. It is

standardized because the procedure of administrating the test, the

environment in which the test is taken, and the method of calculating the

individual score are uniformly applied. It is called objective because a good

test measures the individual differences in an unbiased, scientific manner

without the interference of extraneous factors.

A psychometric test typically is designed to produce a quantitative

assessment of one or more psychological attributes. It includes ability tests

that measure achievement, aptitude, intelligence, etc; and personality tests

that measure different dimensions of an individual’s personality.

Some of the popular psychometric tests being used today by corporates the

world over are 16 PF, MBTI. OPQ32, Thomas Personal Profiling system,

Gordon’s Personal Profile Inventory, Rorschach Ink-Blot Test, FIRO-B,

Picture Frustration Test and TAT


One particular problem with many of the psychometric tests has been that

they are too lengthy and it requires a lot of time to administer, score, interpret

and analyze the same. This particular problem has been reduced to a great

extent with advances in computer science and information technology.

Now, it’s possible to obtain the software versions of most of the popular and

standardized tests. Besides, several impendent testing agencies also offer

online testing services where assessment can be done online and report sent

through e-mail.

All said and done, now there are no two opinions about the fact that

psychometric testing can really be a very powerful tool for a variety of HR

functions such as selection, placement, potential appraisal, career planning

and counseling.

From the industry perspective, it is to be borne in mind that psychometric

tests can only aid and inform a decision, they cannot provide a definitive

answer. There cannot be a substitute for experience. Therefore, the

psychometric tests should ideally be used in conjunction with a thorough

interview by experienced and trained individuals.


Advantages of psychometric testing

Properly developed psychometric tests and questionnaires, when

used by competent and appropriately qualified individuals, have the

following advantages:

They lead to judgments that are likely to be more valid than judgments

made by other means. This is the most important advantage of

psychometric assessment.

They are relatively cheap and easy to administer when compared to

other approaches. For example, although it may seem relatively

expensive for a company to pay for its staff to become qualified in

psychometric assessment and then on top of this to pay for the cost of

the testing itself, these costs pale into insignificance when one

considers just how long it would take to obtain the same information

about a person. At the risk of putting it simplistically, it could be argued

that the information obtained from a good personality questionnaire

might take several months of knowing and working with a person to

obtain by other means.

They are likely to lead to considerable cost-benefits in the long term.

Whether it is for selection of new staff or development of existing staff,

the expenses involved in psychometric assessment are minimal when

compared with the costs of high-turn over, under-performance or

misemployment of staff.


Disadvantages of psychometric testing

There are numerous tests and questionnaires on the market which

purport to be 'psychometric instruments' but which are not.

Unfortunately, it is very difficult for untrained people to distinguish

these from good psychometric instruments. In many cases, these

tests and questionnaires have been put together by people with no

background in psychometrics and they have very little actual utility and

value for the purposes for which they are marketed.

Lack of correct training is also a significant danger in the use of

psychometric testing. Although there exists in the UK a training

qualification system developed by the British Psychological Society, it

is not uncommon for tests to be used by people who are not

adequately trained to use them. Indeed, even attendance at a

recognized training course is no guarantee that a person will at all

times use tests and questionnaires correctly since some instruments,

particularly personality questionnaires, require considerable

experience and the possibility of misinterpretation or inappropriate

interpretation of results is ever-present.

It is the use of personality questionnaires to try to assess a person's

ability or skill in a particular area. eg, if a person scores highly on a

personality dimension called 'Leadership', this does not mean that he

or she will actually possess a high level of leadership skill. Rather it

means that the person has the basic personality characteristics that

are commonly found amongst effective leaders and, with sufficient

experience and given the development of certain necessary skills, has

the potential to become an effective leader. Unfortunately however,

scores on scales such as this are often taken to imply that the person


already has all the necessary skills and is already capable of

performing at a high level in the area in question.

THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS

Introduction

Since the days of Plato, scholars have been trying to develop lists of

personality traits. About 100 years ago, a few personality experts tried to

catalogue and condense the many personality traits that had been described

over the years. They found thousands of words in Roget’s Thesaurus and

Webster’s Dictionary that represented personality traits. They aggregated

these words into 171 clusters, and then further shrunk them down to five

abstract personality dimensions. Using more sophist acted techniques,

recent investigations identified the same five dimensions known as BIG FIVE

PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS.

Some scholarly works refer to the Big Five as the Five-Factor Model. These

factors are also referred to as the OCEAN or CANOE models of personality

because of the acronym composed of their initial letters. When scored for

individual feedback, they are frequently presented as percentile scores, with

the median at 50%. For example, a Conscientiousness rating in the 80th

percentile indicates a relatively strong sense of responsibility and orderliness,

whereas an Extraversion rating in the 5th percentile indicates an exceptional

need for solitude and quiet.

The personality traits used in the 5 factor model are Extraversion,

Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness to

experience. It is important to ignore the positive or negative associations that

these words have in everyday language. For example, Agreeableness is

obviously advantageous for achieving and maintaining popularity. Agreeable

people are better liked than disagreeable people. On the other hand,


agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough or totally objective

decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists, critics, or

soldiers.

None of the five traits is in themselves positive or negative; they are simply

characteristics that individuals exhibit to a greater or lesser extent.

Each of these 5 personality traits describes, relative to other people, the

frequency or intensity of a person's feelings, thoughts, or behaviors.

Everyone possesses all 5 of these traits to a greater or lesser degree. For

example, two individuals could be described as 'agreeable' (agreeable

people value getting along with others). But there could be significant

variation in the degree to which they are both agreeable. In other words, all 5

personality traits exist on a continuum (see diagram) rather than as attributes

that a person does or does not have.

-ve +ve

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Neuroticism

Openness to

experience

Extraversion

Extraversion is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world.

Extraverts enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often experience

positive emotions. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented, individuals

who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for excitement. In

groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves.

Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts. They


tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and disengaged from the social world.

Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or

depression; the introvert simply needs less stimulation than an extravert and

prefers to be alone. The independence and reserve of the introvert is

sometimes mistaken as unfriendliness or arrogance. In reality, an introvert

who scores high on the agreeableness dimension will not seek others out but

will be quite pleasant when approached.

Agreeableness

Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation and

social harmony. Agreeable individual’s value getting along with others. They

are therefore considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to

compromise their interests with others'. Agreeable people also have an

optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest,

decent, and trustworthy. Disagreeable individuals place self interest above

getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others' well-

being, and therefore are unlikely to extend themselves for other people.

Sometimes their skepticism about others' motives causes them to be

suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative. Agreeableness is obviously

advantageous for attaining and maintaining popularity. Agreeable people are

better liked than disagreeable people. On the other hand, agreeableness is

not useful in situations that require tough or absolute objective decisions.

Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists, critics, or soldiers.

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and

direct our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time

constraints require a snap decision, and acting on our first impulse can be an

effective response. Also, in times of play rather than work, acting

spontaneously and. impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals can be

seen by others as colorful, fun-to-be-with, and zany. Nonetheless, acting on


impulse can lead to trouble in a number of ways. Some impulses are

antisocial. Uncontrolled antisocial acts not only harm other members of

society, but also can result in retribution toward the perpetrator of such

impulsive acts. Another problem with impulsive acts is that they often

produce immediate rewards but undesirable, long-term consequences.

Examples include excessive socializing that leads to being fired from one's

job, hurling an insult that causes the break up of an important relationship, or

using pleasure inducing drugs that eventually destroy one's health. Impulsive

behavior, even when not seriously destructive, diminishes a person's

effectiveness in significant ways. Acting impulsively disallows contemplating

alternative courses of action, some of which would have been wiser than the

impulsive choice. Impulsivity also sidetracks people during projects that

require organized sequences of steps or stages. Accomplishments of an

impulsive person are therefore small, scattered, and inconsistent.

A hallmark of intelligence, what potentially separates human beings from

earlier life forms, is the ability to think about future consequences before

acting on an impulse. Intelligent activity involves contemplation of long-range

goals, organizing and planning routes to these goals, and persisting toward

one's goals in the face of short-lived impulses to the contrary. The idea that

intelligence involves impulse control is nicely captured by the term prudence,

an alternative label for the Conscientiousness domain. Prudent means both

wise and cautious. Persons who score high on the Conscientiousness scale

are in fact, perceived by others as intelligent the benefits of high

conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious individuals avoid trouble and

achieve high levels of success through purposeful planning and persistence.

They are also positively regarded by others as intelligent and reliable. On the

negative side, they can be compulsive perfectionists and workaholics.

Furthermore, extremely conscientious individuals might be regarded as stuffy

and boring. Unconscientiously people may be criticized for their unreliability,

lack of ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but they will experience

many short-lived pleasures and they will never be called stuffy.


Neuroticism

Freud originally used the term neurosis to describe a condition marked by

mental distress, emotional suffering, and an inability to cope effectively with

the normal demands of life. He suggested that everyone shows some signs

of neurosis, but that we differ in our degree of suffering and our specific

symptoms of distress. Today neuroticism refers to the tendency to

experience negative feelings. Those who score high on Neuroticism may

experience primarily one specific negative feeling such as anxiety, anger, or

depression, but are likely to experience several of these emotions. People

high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive. They respond emotionally to

events that would not affect most people, and their reactions tend to be more

intense than normal. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as

threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative

emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which

means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation

can diminish a neurotic's ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope

effectively with stress. At the other end of the scale, individuals who score

low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive.

They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative

feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low scorers

experience a lot of positive feelings; frequency of positive emotions is a

component of the Extraversion domain.

Openness to experience

Openness to Experience describes a dimension of cognitive style that

distinguishes imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional

people. Open people are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and


sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more aware

of their feelings. They tend to think and act in individualistic and

nonconforming ways. Intellectuals typically score high on Openness to

Experience; consequently, this factor has also been called Culture or

Intellect. Nonetheless, Intellect is probably best regarded as one aspect of

openness to experience. Scores on Openness to Experience are only

modestly related to years of education and scores on standard intelligent

tests. Another characteristic of the open cognitive style is a facility for

thinking in symbols and abstractions far removed from concrete experience.

Depending on the individual's specific intellectual abilities, this symbolic

cognition may take the form of mathematical, logical, or geometric thinking,

artistic and metaphorical use of language, music composition, or

performance, or one of the many visual or performing arts.

People with low scores on openness to experience tend to have narrow,

common interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over

the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard the arts and sciences

with suspicion, regarding these endeavors as abstruse or of no practical use.

Closed people prefer familiarity over novelty; they are conservative and

resistant to change.

Openness is often presented as healthier or more mature by psychologists,

who are often themselves open to experience. However, open and closed

styles of thinking are useful in different environments. The intellectual style of

the open person may serve a professor well, but research has shown that

closed thinking is related to superior job performance in police work, sales,

and a number of service occupations.


Subordinate Personality Traits or Facets

Each of the big 5 personality traits is made up of 6 facets or sub traits. These

can be assessed independently of the trait that they belong to.

Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism Openness to

experience

Friendliness Trust Self efficacy Anxiety Imagination

Gregariousness Morality Orderliness Anger Artistic

interest

Assertiveness Altruism Dutifulness Depression Emotionality

Activity level Cooperation Achievement

striving

Self

consciousness

Adventures

ness

Excitement

seeking

modesty Self discipline immoderation Intellect

cheerfulness sympathy cautiousness vulnerability liberalism

It is possible, although unusual, to score high in one or more facets of a

personality trait and low in other facets of the same trait. For example, you

could score highly in Imagination, Artistic Interests, Emotionality and

Adventurousness, but score low in Intellect and Liberalism. It is important to

understand that personality questionnaires which measure more than five


traits or factors are not measuring the big 5 traits plus others. They are

simply choosing to classify one or more of the 30 facets shown above as a

trait or factor.

FIRO-B: FUNDAMENTAL INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP ORIENTATION-BEHAVIOUR

About the instrument

FIRO-B is a unique, world-leading indicator of interpersonal style. Developed

in the 1950s it is now one of the most widely used tools for helping people to

understand themselves and their relationships with others better. It is a

personality inventory that measures interpersonal style - how you behave

toward others, and what you expect from others in their behavior toward you.

The FIRO-B questionnaire was devised by American psychologist, Will

Schutz, in the 1950's when he studied the relationships within small teams of

submariners. This research was then extended to look at how people in

general interact with one another and what the drivers is that generate or

inhibit certain behaviors.

The Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior (FIRO-B) is a

highly valid and reliable tool that assesses how an individual's personal

needs affect that person's behavior towards other individuals. This highly

valid and reliable self-report instrument offers insight into an individual's

compatibility with other people, as well as providing insight into that person's

own individual characteristics.

The FIRO-B questionnaire is based on Will Schutzs wish to provide an

understanding of the fundamental differences between people and how these

impact on relationships. It can dramatically increase an individual's

understanding of areas such as how they come across to others, how and

why conflict can develop and how to understand and manage their own


needs when interacting with others. It measures how a person typically

behaves towards others and how that person would like others to behave

towards them.

Underlying FIRO is the assumption that preferences, as well as behavior,

can be changed (at will). Thus FIRO is not a theory of inherent, immutable

personality traits. Rather, it provides material for development efforts.

Individuals should be allowed around 2 hours in total to complete the 54

questions long questionnaire and discuss the results. For teams, the FIRO-

B questionnaire is best used within a half-day or full-day team-building event.

FIRO describes interpersonal behavior in terms of three primary

dimensions:

1. Need for Inclusion: This relates to whether one wants to be "in" or

"out" of a particular group. A person's need for recognition,

belongingness, and participation. Someone with high need for

inclusion will make an effort to include others in his/her activities.

He/she will try to belong to or join social groups; basically will try to

be with people as much as possible (expressed behavior). Such a

person would also expect or want others to invite him join them

and would like people to notice him/her (wanted behavior).

2. Need for Control: need for control relates to whether one wants to

be "up" or "down", super ordinate, subordinate while working with

others or in a group. It relates to a person's desire for influencing

others, leading others and responsibility. Such a person shall try to

exert control and influence over things. He/she would enjoy

organizing things and directing others (expressed behavior). Such

a person will feel most comfortable working in well defined

situations and would like to get clear expectations and instructions

from others (wanted behavior).


3. Need for Affection: need for affection relates to whether a person

wants to be "close" or "distant" to/from others. Closeness, warmth,

and sensitiveness characterize such people. This person shall

make an effort to get close to people and would be comfortable

expressing his/her personal feelings and will try to be supportive of

others (expressed behavior). This person would also want others

to act warmly towards him/her and will enjoy when people share

their feelings with them and would love it when people encourage

him and appreciate his efforts (wanted behavior).

These dimensions are fundamental to all human social organisms, whether

an infant in the early stages of child development, small groups, or

organizations.

FIRO-B measures these three dimensions from two perspectives:

1. Expressed behavior: It is the behavior one feels most comfortable

showing, what a person prefers to do, and how much that person

wants to initiate action.

2. Wanted behavior: It is the behavior one wants to be shown by others,

how much a person wants others to initiate action, and how much that

person wants to be the recipient.


APPLICATION OF FIRO-B

FIRO-B is a highly reliable self-report instrument that offers insight into an

individual's compatibility with other people, as well as providing insight into

that person's own individual characteristics. The underlying assumption of

FIRO-B is that preferences, as well as behavior, can be changed at will. The

instrument can be used in one-to-one, team or group situations. The qualified

user has a range of applications at their disposal, providing the versatility

demanded in contemporary workplace environments. This highly reliable and

practical instrument has vast applications such as:

Team building and team development

FIRO-B can help in Identifying likely sources of compatibility or tension

between people working in a group or team. By improved communication,

openness and trust it can help to resolve conflicts and create better

understanding amongst team players. The instrument can hence be

effectively used in team building and team development.

Individual development and executive coaching

FIRO-B is a powerful tool and can be used in executive coaching or self

development. It helps individuals to increase their self-awareness and

interpersonal effectiveness, by identifying and understanding their

interpersonal style. Since the instrument increase self-awareness and

interpersonal effectiveness it can surely assist in individual development. It

can also be used for identifying leadership style. It can be used as part of a

coaching process, or for career development or personal growth of people.


Conflict resolution

Identifying the real cause of conflict is pre-requisite to effective management

of conflict. By effectively assisting in Identifying the likely causes of conflict

between people this instrument can help in effectively dealing with various

types of conflicts that may be present in a group.

Selection and placement

FIRO-B can also be used in combination with other assessment techniques.

This can help to structure interviews and assess likely team roles or

interpersonal behavior.

Management and leadership development

The instrument is ideal to use with new and experienced managers; it will

enable them to understand their natural style and what impact this has on the

way they communicate, to involve others in decision-making and to delegate

responsibility.

Relationship counseling

These days FIRO-B instrument is also being used in relationship counseling

by identifying possible sources of incompatibility and dissatisfaction between

partners.


Others

The FIRO-B is an ideal tool to use for interpersonal behavior measurement

and assessment, including:

Management and supervisor development

Leadership development (used with MBTI as part of the Leadership

report )

Identifying leadership preferred operating styles

Employee development

Team building and explaining team roles

Improving team effectiveness

Sensitivity training

Advancing career development

BENEFITS OF USING FIRO-B

FIRO-B is a unique instrument especially because most personality

instruments examine individual characteristics but not relationship

styles.

It is a practical tool that offers insights into interpersonal needs and

behaviors, the FIRO-B questionnaire gives practical suggestions for

improving relationships or increasing effectiveness

This tool can be easily combined with others, such as the MBTI ®

instrument, to present a comprehensive view of personal style for use

in self- and group development.


It is based on a comprehensive and powerful theory of interpersonal

behavior

The instrument has been revised, rewritten and redesigned so that all

materials are now clearer, more comprehensive and easier to use.

The current edition is based on British norms, increasing its relevance

to European English users

It has more detailed norms. These are subdivided by gender, age,

educational level, occupational level and industry sector and enable

precise comparison with individual scores.

The tool can be introduced easily to existing HR practices for greater

effectiveness. For example, when used in coaching, the FIRO-B

instrument will help an individual to understand their motivation,

choices and flexibility in working with others. When used as part of a

team program, undertaking the FIRO-B assessment enables the team

to open up, giving them an objective, practical framework that can be

used to overcome barriers to effective team operation and

communication.


MBTI: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

About the Instrument

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-report questionnaire and is

the world's leading personality assessment instrument. The authors of the

MBTI, Katherine Cook Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, were

astute observers of human personality differences. They studied and

elaborated on the theories of Swiss psychiatrist Carl G. Jung (a

contemporary of Sigmund Freud and a leading exponent of Gestalt

personality theory) and applied these theories to acquiring a better

understanding of people and their preferences for communicating with

others. The waste of human potential in World War II sparked the

development of the MBTI by Myers, and gave rise to her desire to give a

wide range of individual's access to the benefits found in understanding

human differences as they relate to various psychological types. The MBTI

provides information about people's preferences for communicating and

dealing with information.

The MBTI personality instrument, which evolved from Jung's personality

types, was developed among non-clinical populations to assess normal

individual differences, unlike inventories of psychological adjustment (or

maladjustment).

In her studies of people and extensive reading of Jung's theories, Myers

concluded there were four primary ways people differed from one another.

She labeled these differences "preferences" - drawing a similarity to "hand

preferences" to illustrate that although we all use both of our hands, most of

us have a preference for one over the other and "it" takes the lead in many of

the activities in which we use our hands.


The MBTI personality instrument consists of four bipolar dimensions.

Sensing –Intuition (SN)

Thinking – Feeling (TF)

Extraversion-Introversion (E-I)

Judging-Perceiving (J-P)

Myers Briggs Type Indicator is based on a personality framework that helps

individuals explore:

Where they prefer to focus their attention (Extraversion or Introversion)

The way they prefer to take in information (Sensing or Intuition)

The way they prefer to make decisions (Thinking or Feeling)

How they orientate themselves to the external world (Judging or

Perceiving.

It provides information about individuals preferred style of working and

interacting with others. There is no right or wrong answers and a key feature

of the MBTI is its focus on likely strengths and positive qualities of different

personality styles and thus the feedback people receive is always

constructive.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) describes an individual's personality

preferences. The MBTI questionnaire is the most widely used personality

questionnaire worldwide. More than 3.5m questionnaires are completed

worldwide every year and there are over 13,000 qualified users in Europe. It

is based on over 50 years research and development and is available in 19

languages. Over 600 dissertations have been written on the MBTI and there

are well over 1,000 articles and dozens of books. An average of 2 million


people in the United States takes the MBTI each year and it has been

translated into more than 30 languages.

The MBTI is a registered trademark of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust and

is published by CPP, Inc (formerly Consulting Psychologist Press) who also

distributes the Inventory. The MBTI is available from CPP and its licensees in

approximately 20 foreign languages. In addition, alternate versions of the

inventory have been scientifically customized and validated for other

languages and cultures for which a straight translation of English language

terms would yield inaccurate results.

The Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT) is a non-profit

educational organization founded by Myers and psychologist Mary

McCaulley to promote continued research into psychological type and

application of psychological type to foster enhanced personal development,

increased human understanding, and improved management of human

conflict. Another non-profit organization, The Association for Psychological

Type (APT) is an international member education and certifying organization

for professionals who use type in their occupations and professional

practices. Membership is also open to lay persons who want to enrich their

understanding and application of type.

The Basic Model of MBTI proposes two kinds of Mental Processes and

two kinds of Mental Orientations.

TWO KINDS OF MENTAL PROCESSES ARE

1. Sensing –Intuition (SN)

2. Thinking – Feeling (TF)

TWO KINDS OF MENTAL ORIENTATIONS ARE


http://www.capt.org/

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1. Extraversion-Introversion (E-I)

2. Judging-Perceiving (J-P)

THE TWO KINDS OF MENTAL PROCESSES ARE

SENSING - INTUITUION

The first set of mental preferences relates to how people "Perceive" or take

in information. It distinguishes a predisposition for gathering data directly

through the senses as facts, details, and precedents (Sensing) versus

indirectly as relationships, patterns, and possibilities (Intuition).

A sensing personality prefers to focus on information gained from the five

senses and on practical applications whereas intuition prefers to focus on

patterns, connections and possible meanings. Hence those who prefer

Sensing Perception favor clear, tangible data and information that fits in well

with their direct here-and-now experience. In contrast, those who prefer

Intuition Perception are drawn to information that is more abstract,

conceptual, big-picture, and represents imaginative possibilities for the

future.

THINKING – FEELING

The second set of mental preferences identifies how people form

"Judgments" or make decisions. It distinguishes a preference for deciding via

objective, impersonal logic (Thinking) versus subjective, person-centered

values (Feeling).

A thinking personality prefers to base decisions on logic and objective

analysis of cause and effect on the other hand feeling prefers to base


decisions on a valuing process, considering what is important to people.

Those who prefer Thinking Judgment have a natural preference for making

decisions in an objective, logical, and analytical manner with an emphasis on

tasks and results to be accomplished. Those whose preference is for Feeling

Judgment make their decisions in a somewhat global, visceral, harmony and

value-oriented way, paying particular attention to the impact of decisions and

actions on other people. Judging likes a planned, organized approach to life,

and prefers to have things decided but perceiving likes a flexible,

spontaneous approach and prefers to keep options open.

One of the practical applications of the MBTI and understanding these

preferences is in supporting better Teamwork. Differences in these mental

preferences lead to quite different value structures and communication

styles, which can hamper mutual understanding and cooperation.

For example, people who share Sensing and Thinking preferences find they

are naturally on the same wavelength; they easily understand one another,

making good teammates and partners. Likewise, people who share Intuition

and Feeling have a similar kinship among them. However, in the "real" world,

it is more likely that you'll find a mixed bag of people, a variety of types, in the

same work group. While this diversity can be a useful strength, contributing

to greater depth and breadth of team competence, there will be natural

communication barriers within the team due to their natural mental language

differences.

Such differences can be overcome, and the communication gap bridged, with

mutual respect and practice learning to "talk" and "think" in a second or third

language. A MBTI workshop can be seen as an introduction to learning the

language, habits and culture of other types.


TWO KINDS OF MENTAL ORIENTATIONS ARE

1. Extraversion-Introversion (E-I)

2. Judging-Perceiving (J-P)

There are two other mental preferences that are part of the Myers-Briggs

model: Energy Orientation and Outer World Orientation. The first one is the

dimension of personality discovered by Carl Jung that became widely

adopted by general psychology: Extraversion-Introversion. The second is the

dimension of personality that is Myers' unique contribution to Jung's theory,

an element she inferred from Jung's work but was not clearly addressed as

an essential component of his theory of types. This is the style or orientation

one uses in dealing with the external world: Judging or Perceiving. Energy

Orientation pertains to the two forms of Energy Consciousness each of us

experiences on a daily basis. We occupy two mental worlds: one is inwardly

turned, the other is outward. One of these worlds is our elemental source of

energy; the other secondary.

EXTROVERSION-INTROVERSION

It distinguishes a preference for focusing attention on, and drawing energy

from, the outer world of people and things versus the inner world of ideas

and impressions. Those who prefer Introversion draw their primary energy

from the inner world of information, thoughts, ideas, and other reflections.

When circumstances require an excessive amount of attention spent in the

"outside" world, those preferring Introversion find the need to retreat to a

more private setting as if to recharge their drained batteries. In contrast,

those who prefer Extraversion are drawn to the outside world as their

elemental source of energy. Rarely, if ever, do extraverted preference people


feel their energy batteries are "drained" by excessive amounts of interaction

with the outside world. They must engage the things, people, places and

activities going on in the outside world for their life force. Hence an introvert

prefers to draw energy from the outer world of activity, people and things; an

extrovert on the other hand prefers to draw energy from the inner world of

reflections, feelings and ideas.

While the E-I dimension was Jung's gift to general psychology, unfortunately

it has been widely distorted into a well-unwell scale with characteristics of

Introversion being cast in a negative light and conversely characteristics of

Extraversion cast in a positive light. This cultural bias frequently leads natural

introverted types to mis-identify their primary preference as Extraversion.

Extraverted Orientation relates to which mental preference one relies upon in

dealing with/relating with the Outside World. It is the mental function that

takes the lead in the extraverted portion of a person's personality. When this

leading function is one of the two Judging mental preferences, then this

orientation is called Judging. When this leading function is one of the two

Perceiving mental preferences, then this orientation is called Perceiving

JUDGING – PERCEIVING

It distinguishes an outward preference for having things planned and

organized (Judging) versus a flexible style based more on staying open to

options than deciding (Perceiving). Those who prefer Judging rely upon

either their T or F preference to manage their outer life. This typically leads to

a style oriented towards closure, organization, planning, or in some fashion

managing the things and or people found in the external environment. The

drive is to order the outside world. While some people employ an assertive

manner, others "ordering touches" - with respect to people - may be light.


Those who prefer Perceiving rely upon either their S or N preference to run

their outer life. This typically results in an open, adaptable, flexible style of

relating to the things and people found in the outside world. The drive is to

experience the outside world rather than order it; in general lack of closure is

easily tolerated.

For person's whose Energy Orientation preference is E, the Extraverted

Orientation (J or P) points to their dominant function, ergo "what you see is

what you get." But for those whose Energy Orientation favors I, their

Extraverted Orientation (J or P) is opposite their dominant function. Thus the

four IxxJ types - whose extraverted style is judging - are actually Perceiving

types on the inside! Thus their extraverted "personality" can mask their

primary nature. Likewise the four IxxP types - whose extraverted style is

Perceiving and thus tend to have an open style - are actually on the inside

Judging oriented.

Differences in Energy Orientation and/or Extraverted Orientation can

produce conflicts for people and life management problems.

Extraverted types who work best by thinking out loud and considering

matters in dialogue can be frustrated by introverted types whose best work

on thinking and considering is done internally and detached from active

interaction. "Why doesn't she want to tell me what she is thinking; why won't

she shares her concerns; what is he hiding?" Likewise introverted types can

be harassed by the natural style of extraverted types. "If he'd just shut up, I'd

be able to think about what he said; Why do we have to decide right now; I

can’t give you a good answer unless I have some time to reflect on it!"

Introverted types used to reflecting before they speak are frustrated by

extraverted types who frequently seem to change their mind and change

course (because they reflect out loud, may think or talk about it later, and

then finally conclude - something different).


Types with an extraverted Judging orientation are frequently put off by

extraverted Perceiving types disorderly attention to things and people around

them - their failures to properly plan, organize, manage, and finish affairs.

Perceiving types can be seen as "flakes" who constantly put things off til the

absolute last minute. Types with an extraverted Perceiving orientation often

see their opposite number as control freaks and imperceptive draft horses

with blinders on - and even then they sometimes miss things that are right in

front of their noses! Extraverted Judging types are naturally drawn to

management positions; Extraverted Perceiving types naturally resist being

managed!

The mellowing process of aging sometimes produces similar mellowing of

the J and P orientations. Extraverted Perceiving types discover a need and

an appreciation for a greater degree of order in their external affairs and

Extraverted Judging types discover a need and an appreciation for a greater

degree of openness and discovery in their external life.

The Type Code for the 16 Types

The permutations of these four preference dichotomies result in the 16

personality types that form the basis of Myers' model and the MBTI

inventory.

E or I Which is your most favored Energy Source?

S or N Which your most favored Perceiving Mental Process?

T or F Which is your most favored Judging Mental Process?

J or PWhich kind of mental process leads your Outside World

Orientation?

The sixteen personality types of MBTI result from the cross-products of these

four dimensions and are shown in the following figure. Each of these is

associated with a unique set of behavioral characteristics and values. These


provide a useful starting point for individual feedback, self-exploration and

group discussion.

The Sixteen Types at a Glance ( By Charles Martin, Ph.D.)

ISTJ

For ISTJs the dominant quality in their lives is an abiding sense of

responsibility for doing what needs to be done in the here-and-now. Their

realism, organizing abilities, and command of the facts lead to their

completing tasks thoroughly and with great attention to detail. Logical

pragmatists at heart, ISTJs make decisions based on their experience and

with an eye to efficiency in all things. ISTJs are intensely committed to

people and to the organizations of which they are a part; they take their work

seriously and believe others should do so as well.

ISFJ

For ISFJs the dominant quality in their lives is an abiding respect and sense

of personal responsibility for doing what needs to be done in the here-and-

now. Actions that are of practical help to others are of particular importance

to ISFJs. Their realism, organizing abilities, and command of the facts lead to

their thorough attention in completing tasks. ISFJs bring an aura of quiet

warmth, caring, and dependability to all that they do; they take their work


INFJ

For INFJs the dominant quality in their lives is their attention to the inner

world of possibilities, ideas, and symbols. Knowing by way of insight is

paramount for INFJs, and they often manifest a deep concern for people and

relationships as well. INFJs often have deep interests in creative expression

as well as issues of spirituality and human development. While the energy

and attention of INFJs are naturally drawn to the inner world of ideas and


insights, what people often first encounter with INFJs is their drive for closure

and for the application of their ideas to people's concerns.

INTJ

For INTJs the dominant force in their lives is their attention to the inner world

of possibilities, symbols, abstractions, images, and thoughts. Insight in

conjunction with logical analysis is the essence of their approach to the

world; they think systemically. Ideas are the substance of life for INTJs and

they have a driving need to understand, to know, and to demonstrate

competence in their areas of interest. INTJs inherently trust their insights,

and with their task-orientation will work intensely to make their visions into

realities.

ISTP

For ISTPs the driving force in their lives is to understand how things and

phenomena in the real world work so they can make the best and most

effective use of them. ISTPs are logical and realistic people, and they are

natural troubleshooters. When not actively solving a problem, ISTPs are

quiet and analytical observers of their environment, and they naturally look

for the underlying sense to any facts they have gathered. ISTPs do often

pursue variety and even excitement in their hands-on experiences. Although

they do have a spontaneous, even playful side, what people often first

encounter with them is their detached pragmatism.

ISFP

For ISFPs the dominant quality in their lives is a deep-felt caring for living

things, combined with a quietly playful and sometimes adventurous approach

to life and all its experiences. ISFPs typically show their caring in very


practical ways, since they often prefer action to words. Their warmth and

concern are generally not expressed openly, and what people often first

encounter with ISFPs is their quiet adaptability, realism, and "free spirit"

spontaneity.

INFP

For INFPs the dominant quality in their lives is a deep-felt caring and

idealism about people. They experience this intense caring most often in

their relationships with others, but they may also experience it around ideas,

projects, or any involvement they see as important. INFPs are often skilled

communicators, and they are naturally drawn to ideas that embody a concern

for human potential. INFPs live in the inner world of values and ideals, but

what people often first encounter with the INFP in the outer world is their

adaptability and concern for possibilities.

INTP

For INTPs the driving force in their lives is to understand whatever

phenomenon is the focus of their attention. They want to make sense of the

world -- as a concept -- and they often enjoy opportunities to be creative.

INTPs are logical, analytical, and detached in their approach to the world;

they naturally question and critique ideas and events as they strive for

understanding. INTPs usually have little need to control the outer world, or to

bring order to it, and they often appear very flexible and adaptable in their

lifestyle.

ESTP

For ESTPs the dominant quality in their lives is their enthusiastic attention to

the outer world of hands-on and real-life experiences. ESTPs are excited by


continuous involvement in new activities and in the pursuit of new

challenges. ESTPs tend to be logical and analytical in their approach to life,

and they have an acute sense of how objects, events, and people in the

world work. ESTPs are typically energetic and adaptable realists, who prefer

to experience and accept life rather than to judge or organize it.

ESFP

For ESFPs the dominant quality in their lives is their enthusiastic attention to

the outer world of hands-on and real-life experiences. ESFPs are excited by

continuous involvement in new activities and new relationships. ESFPs also

have a deep concern for people, and they show their caring in warm and

pragmatic gestures of helping. ESFPs are typically energetic and adaptable

realists, who prefer to experience and accept life rather than to judge or

organize it.

ENFP

For ENFPs the dominant quality in their lives is their attention to the outer

world of possibilities; they are excited by continuous involvement in anything

new, whether it be new ideas, new people, or new activities. Though ENFPs

thrive on what is possible and what is new, they also experience a deep

concern for people as well. Thus, they are especially interested in

possibilities for people. ENFPs are typically energetic, enthusiastic people

who lead spontaneous and adaptable lives.

ENTP

For ENTPs the driving quality in their lives is their attention to the outer world

of possibilities; they are excited by continuous involvement in anything new,

whether it be new ideas, new people, or new activities. They look for patterns


and meaning in the world, and they often have a deep need to analyze, to

understand, and to know the nature of things. ENTPs are typically energetic,

enthusiastic people who lead spontaneous and adaptable lives.

ESTJ

For ESTJs the driving force in their lives is their need to analyze and bring

into logical order the outer world of events, people, and things. ESTJs like to

organize anything that comes into their domain, and they will work

energetically to complete tasks so they can quickly move from one to the

next. Sensing orients their thinking to current facts and realities, and thus

gives their thinking a pragmatic quality. ESTJs take their responsibilities


ESFJ

For ESFJs the dominant quality in their lives is an active and intense caring

about people and a strong desire to bring harmony into their relationships.

ESFJs bring an aura of warmth to all that they do, and they naturally move

into action to help others, to organize the world around them, and to get

things done. Sensing orients their feeling to current facts and realities, and

thus gives their feeling a hands-on pragmatic quality. ESFJs take their work

seriously and believe others should as well.

ENFJ

For ENFJs the dominant quality in their lives is an active and intense caring

about people and a strong desire to bring harmony into their relationships.


ENFJs are openly expressive and empathic people who bring an aura of

warmth to all that they do. Intuition orients their feeling to the new and to the

possible, thus ENFJs often enjoy working to manifest a humanitarian vision,

or helping others develop their potential. ENFJs naturally and conscientiously

move into action to care for others, to organize the world around them, and to

get things done.

ENTJ

For ENTJs the driving force in their lives is their need to analyze and bring

into logical order the outer world of events, people, and things. ENTJs are

natural leaders who build conceptual models that serve as plans for strategic

action. Intuition orients their thinking to the future, and gives their thinking an

abstract quality. ENTJs will actively pursue and direct others in the pursuit of

goals they have set, and they prefer a world that is structured and organized.

APPLICTAION

Many people believe trait instrumentation, such as the MBTI, provides

leverage in predicting behavior in social groups. MBTI's four dimensions

were found to be correlated with four of the Big Five robust personality

dimensions.

Organizational consultants may use the MBTI to encourage a better fit

between personalities and roles. Because the basic assumption under-

girding the MBTI is that the types it identifies are immutable in nature, the

consultant's mission has more to do with enhanced articulation of individual

differences and organizational responsibilities than with behavior change.

Some research has indicated that the distribution of MBTI types is highly

skewed in the working population. Sundstrom and associates found that

nearly three-quarters of their sample of managers in business were Thinking-


Judging types. Perhaps business settings are self-selecting in this regard,

hiring Thinking-Judging types over other types (Thinking-Perceiving

personalities and all Feeling types). Or, it may be that Feeling types, in

general, are less inclined to seek managerial positions.

Individual development

Understand preferred working style and how to develop this to be more

effective.

Management and leadership development

Help managers and leaders to appreciate the impact of their personal style

on others. Identify their strengths and any areas which they may need to

develop to become more effective. Can be used as part of an executive

coaching programme

Team building and development

Increase awareness of the team's working style. Through this, improve team

communication, enhance problem solving, encourage appreciation of

diversity and resolve conflict

Organizational change

Understand why people react differently to change and how to support them

though the process

Improving communication

Help people to understand how to communicate effectively with different

people and develop influencing and persuading skills

It is also used for: Education and career counseling


Identify learning styles and motivations, improve teaching and training

methods and provide career guidance.

Relationship counseling

Improve the quality of relationships and interactions by understanding and

valuing differences.

Benefits of Using the MBTI

Benefits to the Individual

Increased self-awareness and better self-management

Develop and appreciation and value for differences

Improved communication § Increased interpersonal skills

Can lead to motivated behavior

Provides a guideline of how to be a more effective leader, manager,

teacher, learner, and team member

Help discover how your individual personality can help you be

successful or how your personality can get in your way

Benefits to the Team

Improved communication

Can provide an effective avenue for conflict resolution

Increased problem resolution

Better understanding of the decision making process

Facilitates team building

Assists in diagnosing cultural and organizational issues.

Identify leadership style

Other benefits

Easy to use, score and explain plus Short and quick to complete.


http://www.step-up-to-success.org/#Sales%23Sales

People enjoy working with the questionnaire and find the results

helpful

Revised and updated in 1998, increasing its accuracy, ease of use

and relevance to European English users.

Provides a powerful conceptual framework, allowing you to deepen

your knowledge and apply it in many situations.

Promotes a constructive approach to individual differences.

The D ISC Persona l i ty Mode l


DISC is an acronym for Direct, Influencing, Steady and Compliant

behaviors.

DISC is the four quadrant behavioral model based on the work of William

Moulton Marston Ph.D. (1893 - 1947) to examine the behavior of individuals

in their environment or within a specific situation. DISC looks at behavioral

styles and behavioral preferences. Marston, the father of the DISC, was a

graduate of Harvard University.

DiSC is a model of human behavior that helps to understand "why people do

what they do." The dimensions of Dominance, influencing, Steadiness, and

Conscientiousness make up the model and interact with other factors to

describe human behavior.

It was Marston’s 1928 “Emotions of Normal People”, which introduced DISC

theory to the public. He defined four categories of human behavioral styles,

types or temperament, now know as "D" for Dominance-Drive-Direct, "I" for

Influence (Marston chose the term inducement, "S" for Steadiness or Stability

(Marston used submission) and "C" for Compliant, Conscientious, or

Cautious, (Marston used compliance). Interestingly enough Marston never

developed his D.I.S.C. theory into the present four quadrant model, yet now


a days DISC has become one of the most popular and user friendly four

quadrant models for understanding behavioral styles and personality types,

with various companies offering models with quadrants, circles, wheels, and

diamonds to graphically represent the positioning of these behavioral and

personality styles and types.

A DISC Profile is a personality testing technique that uses a simple

questionnaire as a basis for revealing insights into a person's behavior.

Recruiters around the world have been using this personality test technique

for decades

DISC lies somewhere between two poles. While it isn't a full 'personality test'

in the strict technical sense, it provides an insight into an individual style that

is more than adequate to predict the likely trends of their behavior in the

future. It does this by evaluating four key factors in an individual style, rather

than the sixteen or more that are often seen in full personality tests (for

example, DISC makes no attempt to measure such factors as intelligence).

This confers the advantage of greater accessibility: while a full test battery

will often contain literally hundreds of questions, and take hours to complete,

a DISC personality profile questionnaire contains only twenty-four, and can

be usually be performed in fifteen minutes or less. This also provides

advantages in the area of interpretation; while the interpretation of results

from a full test remains in the province of experts, DISC results are

sufficiently well-defined that their interpretation can be almost completely

automated.

At its most basic level, DISC measures four factors of an individual's

behavior: Dominance, Influence, Steadiness and Compliance. These are

fairly complex constructs, and aren't easily expressed in single words, but

they can be characterized as assertiveness, communication, patience and

structure.

The real power of DISC, though, comes from its ability to interpret the


relations between these factors. For example where a highly Dominant

person has an equally high level of Influence, they will behave quite

differently to an equally Dominant individual without that Influence. The

factors combine like this to provide (theoretically) around one million different

'profiles' (that is, combinations of the four factors).

Using this information, a DISC profile can be used to describe a person's

general approach, including their motivations and dislikes, strengths and

weaknesses, and some of the basic assumptions they make about other

people. It can also go far in helping to predict how a person will react to a

specific set of circumstances.

The D.I.S.C. personality model was developed by William Moulton Marston

and influenced by Carl Jung, profiles four primary behavioral styles, each

with a very distinct and predictable pattern of observable behavior. Applied in

corporate, business and personal situations the DISC inventory can lead to

professional and personal insights.

Understanding the DISC patterns has empowered millions internationally

to better understand themselves and others. The results of the online disc

profile report are designed to provide targeted insights and strategies for

interpersonal success through more effective communication, understanding

and tolerance. DISC is used for personal growth and development, training,

coaching and managing of individuals, groups, teams, and organizations.

The DISC Profile is a nonjudgmental tool for understanding behavioral types

and personality styles. The DISC Personality behavioral model looks at one's

behavior based on their personality and the situations one finds them in.

DiSC is a nonjudgmental assessment developed through research and

repeated validation with the purpose of helping people with the skills to their

and others' understanding behavioral styles and personality types.


DiSC describes how people behave as they respond to their environment. It

gives valuable insight into one's own behavior as well as the behavior of

others. It is one of the most successful and widely used personal and

professional development instruments providing the leading edge approach

to improve self-awareness, relationships, performance, productivity,

communication, teamwork, and leadership.

DiSC Profile Products and the DiSC Personality Tests are based on the 1928

publication of psychologist William Moulton Marston, The Emotions of

Normal People.

He classified four categories of human behavioral type, style or

temperament-- Dominance, Influence (Marston chose the term inducement),

Steadiness or Stability (originally submission) and Compliant, Conscientious,

or Cautious, (originally compliance). It should be noted that Marston never

developed his D.I.S.C. model into a four quadrant model though now a days

DISC has become one of the modest popular four quadrant models, with

various companies using quadrants, circles, wheels, and diamonds to

graphically represent the positioning of behavioral and personality styles and

types. The D.I.S.C. model looks at behavioral styles and behavioral

preferences

DiSC uses a four quadrant model that looks at your primary

dimensions:

Dominance

Influence

Steadiness

Conscientiousness


Dominance: Direct and Decisive

These people tend to be independent and results driven. They are strong-

willed people who enjoy challenges, taking action, and immediate results.

The bottom line is their focus tends to be on the bottom line and results.

Dominance: People who score high in the intensity of the 'D' styles factor are

very active in dealing with problems and challenges, while low D scores are

people who want to do more research before committing to a decision. High

"D" people are described as demanding, forceful, egocentric, strong willed,

driving, determined, ambitious, aggressive, and pioneering. Low D scores

describe those who are conservative, low keyed, cooperative, calculating,

undemanding, cautious, mild, agreeable, modest and peaceful.


Influence: Outgoing and Optimistic. These individuals tend to be very social

and out going. They prefer participating on teams, sharing thoughts, and

entertaining and energizing others. People with High I scores influence

others through talking and activity and tend to be emotional. They are

described as convincing, magnetic, political, enthusiastic, persuasive, warm,

demonstrative, trusting, and optimistic. Those with Low I scores influence

more by data and facts, and not with feelings. They are described as

reflective, factual, calculating, skeptical, logical, suspicious, matter of fact,

pessimistic, and critical.

Steadiness: Stability and Status Quo. These people tend to be your team

players and are supportive, cooperative and helpful to others. They prefer

being behind the scene, working in consistent and predictable ways. They

are often good listeners and avoid change and conflict. People with High S

styles scores want a steady pace, security, and don't like sudden change.

Low S intensity scores are those who like change and variety. High S

persons are calm, relaxed, patient, possessive, predictable, deliberate,

stable, consistent, and tend to be unemotional and poker faced. People with

Low S scores are described as restless, demonstrative, impatient, eager, or

even impulsive.

Conscientiousness: Cautious. These people are often focused on details

and quality. They plan ahead; constantly check for accuracy, and what to

know "how" and "why". Persons with High C styles adhere to rules,

regulations, and structure. They like to do quality work and do it right the first

time. High C people are careful, cautious, exacting, neat, systematic,

diplomatic, accurate, and tactful. Those with Low C scores challenge the

rules and want independence and are described as self-willed, stubborn,

opinionated, unsystematic, arbitrary, and careless with details.


DISC applications

The DISC Profile: a learning tool

The DISC Profile, as a learning tool can be used to create rapid rapport and

connection with people is fundamental in selling, managing, and leadership.

Understanding behavioral styles benefits personal and professional

relationships by improving communication skills and reducing

conflict. Imagine being able to better understand what motivates people and

being able to recognize how to effectively deal with others.

Career Development

In its simplest terms, using personality testing for career development is a

very similar process to that seen in recruitment or assessment scenarios. A

person's DISC profile series is compared against an ideal Job Profile for a

particular career, and the closeness of the match between the two styles will

give an indication of how well that individual's style is suited to the career

area in question. However it must be noted that there are a multitude of

factors that must affect the decisions a person takes about their career. DISC

personality testing alone cannot provide a definitive conclusion, but it is able

to provide guidance in deciding whether a particular career path is suited to

an individual or not. We should also point out that DISC personality profile

results tend to be less reliable for young people under the age of twenty or

so, because before this age the personal style tends to be in something of a

state of flux. The precise age at which the behavioral type reaches a stable

form will vary from individual to individual, of course.

Once a career decision has been made, DISC personality testing can also

help in preparing application letters and curricula vitæ or resumés. DISC

personality profiles help to highlight the particular areas of strength within a

person's behavior, and these can be included in applications. Because so


many organizations use DISC personality tests, it may even be plausible to

include a full printed DISC personality profile with a job application.

Training and employee development, coaching and mentoring

The DISC personality assessment is available to individuals, business,

organizations and corporations. DISC personality behavioral profiles are

research based and designed to help you understanding behavioral styles

and personality types. Applied in corporate, business and personal situations

"DISC" can lead to understanding, better communication and heightened

positive attitude.

The DISC is most often used for training and employee development,

coaching and mentoring or employees and sometimes as a part of a hiring

process (though it is not designed as a hiring tool). The DISC personality

assessment is available to individuals, business, organizations and

corporations. DISC personality behavioral profiles are research based and

designed to help you understanding behavioral styles and personality types

through our online disc questionnaire format. The D.I.S.C. model, developed

by William Moulton Marston and influence by Carl Jung, profiles four primary

behavioral styles, each with a distinct and predictable pattern of observable

behavior. Applied in corporate, business and personal situations "DISC" can

lead to understanding, better communication and heightened positive

attitude. Insights into the DISC patterns have empowered millions

internationally to better understand themselves and others. This online disc

profile report is designed to provide targeted strategies and insights for

interpersonal success through effective communication, understanding and

tolerance. These insights have been utilized for personal growth and

development, training, coaching and managing of individuals, groups, teams,

and organizations.

Understanding your DISC profile gives you insight for rapid rapport and

connection with people a fundamental skill in selling, managing, and

leadership. Understanding behavioral styles benefits personal and


professional relationships by improving communication skills, attitude, thus

reducing conflict and stress. Imagine being able to better understand what

motivates people and being able to recognize how to effectively deal with.

Individuals and organizations worldwide have used DiSC Profile test for

organizational development and performance that deliver results by:

improving internal communication

job interview/hiring process enhancement

helping sales and customer service professionals:

o create and maintain relationship based sales and customer

service

o identify customers' DiSC styles and how to adapt their sales

or support styles accordingly

o stay focused on customer needs

o manage difficult customer situations

enhancing individual and team performance

reducing workplace tension, conflict, and violence

promoting a greater understanding of one's own behavior and the

behavior of others

promoting understanding and appreciation of differences

improving management effectiveness

Irony Marston developed the D.I.S.C. model but he never copyrighted his

disc profile test. Yet, today, 75 years after the publication of his book, over 5

million people have taken various forms of the DISC profile throughout the

world. Marston's original work continues to be enhanced by ongoing

behavioral research and profiles can be found in than 50 languages by

various publishers of the disc assessment. With this evolution of various

versions of the DISC of varying quantity and validity.


16PF®


16 PF is the standard abbreviation for the 16 Personality Factors

multivariate-derived by psychologist Raymond Cattell. The Cattell 16PF (16

Personality Factor) model is probably the most-widely used system for

categorizing and defining personality.

The 16 PF is based on the 16 "source traits" put forth by Raymond B. Cattell

in the 1940's. Cattell was what we call a trait theorist. Using a fancy statistical

technique called Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis (MAVA), Cattell

identified clusters of "surface traits," consistent behavioral responses, and

"temperament and ability source traits," underlying variables that determine

the surface traits. The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire based on

Cattell's theories was first published in 1949 and is now in its fifth edition; it is

published in 40 languages.

In 1946 Raymond Cattell used the emerging technology of computers to

analyse the Allport-Odbert list. He organized the list into 181 clusters and

asked subjects to rate people whom they knew by the adjectives on the list.

Using factor analysis Cattell generated twelve factors, and then included four

factors which he thought ought to appear. The result was the hypothesis that

individuals describe themselves and each other according to sixteen

different, independent factors.

With these sixteen factors as a basis, Cattell went on to construct the 16PF

Personality Questionnaire, which remains in use by universities and

businesses for research, personnel selection and the like. Although

subsequent research has failed to replicate his results, and it has been

shown that he retained too many factors, the current 16PF takes these

findings into account and is considered to be a very good test.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Cattell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbreviation

In 1963, W.T. Norman replicated Cattell’s work and suggested that five

factors would be sufficient.

The 16 primary factors are each weighted and combined with other relevant

factors into global factors.

Unlike other common personal profiling tools such as Myers Briggs or Belbin,

the 16PF defines our basic, underlying personality, without regard to how we

apply it or the environment in which we apply it. A simple analogy would be

to think of the human being as a personal computer. Personality profiles

such as 16PF measure the basic features of the PC such as the size of the

hard disk, RAM, processing speed and so on. They're relatively unchanging

features of the PC that strongly influence its performance, but which we don't

normally see. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a indication of the breadth and

complexity of the software loaded on the PC, which it uses to process ideas

and information. But the way in which the PC performs is mainly influenced

by its environment - as represented by the user who gives it information and

asks it to perform tasks.

So our underlying personality is there all the time, but the way we see it is

affected by our intelligence, and by our upbringing and education, which may

have taught us either to emphasize or suppress aspects of our personality.

However, if you can understand what your personality is, you can then make

better use of the strengths it gives you, and make allowances for the

resultant weaknesses. Because personality is relatively unchanging through

adult life, this understanding will be of long-term value to you.


THE 16 PERSONALITY FACTORS

Each factor can be measured on a scale, determined by completing a questionnaire,

and the word pairs below indicate the extremes of each scale. The letter codes were

ascribed to each scale as a shorthand notation.

Factor Descriptors

AWarmth ReservedOutgoing

BReasoning Less IntelligentMore Intelligent

CEmotional

Stability

Affected by

feelings

Emotionally

stable

EDominance HumbleAssertive

FLiveliness SoberHappy-go-lucky

GRule

ConsciousnessExpedientConscientious

HSocial

BoldnessShyVenturesome

ISensitivity Tough-mindedTender-minded

LVigilance TrustingSuspicious

MAbstractedness Practical Imaginative

NPrivateness StraightforwardShrewd

OApprehension Self-AssuredApprehensive

Q1Openness to

ChangeConservativeExperimenting

Q2Self-RelianceGroup-

dependentSelf-sufficient

Q3Perfectionism Self-conflictSelf-control

Q4Tension RelaxedTense

The sixteen factors of the instrument are as follows.


Factor A (Warmth)

It measures a person's emotional orientation toward others - the degree to

which contact with others is sought and found rewarding as an end in it. This

is sometimes known as a person's "affinitive tendency".

High scorers like and need to be with others. They rarely like to be alone,

and may indicate that spending large amounts of time alone is very difficult or

demotivating for them. They need and want high levels of interpersonal

contact and have a "the more, the merrier" approach to life.

Low scorers are more interested in tasks or ideas than in people-interaction.

They may like and value other people, but don't enjoy "small talk" or

superficial social interactions. They are more prone to spend longer periods

of time in solitary activities and to enjoy that. They may or may not be shy,

but simply don't tend to find social interaction rewarding.

All of us have needs for both sociability and solitude, but a high A person has

a large "sociability bucket" and a small "solitude bucket"; the reverse is true

of a low A person. High A types quickly become bored or lonely when alone;

low A types tend to enjoy private or solitary activities, but can feel "lonely in a

crowd". High A types are often strongly motivated by social rewards, while

low A types tend not to respond to such rewards.

Factor B (Reasoning)

It measures a person's way of thinking and reasoning. It is correlated with

what we conventionally think of as intelligence or problem-solving ability, but

low scorers should not be thought of as lacking in intelligence. It's better to

think of them as having a different kind or style of intelligence - as being

"street smart" as opposed to "book smart".


High scorers are mentally quick and absorb new information rapidly and

efficiently. As a result, they are often easily bored by mundane or routine

tasks and often have a high need for intellectual challenge. They often enjoy

mental complexity or difficulty. They may enjoy formal or academic learning

contexts.

Low scorers are most comfortable with familiar, well-known tasks in which

they can draw heavily on past experience and can utilize a concrete style of

learning by doing. They may be very effective hands-on learners but often

need more time to assimilate and adjust to new information. They may find

mental complexity aversive or unpleasant. They may prefer practical,

experiential learning contexts.

Factor C (Emotional Stability)

It measures a person's proneness to mood swings or "ups and downs" in the

emotional life. High scorers are less likely to experience wide variations in

mood, and are more emotionally stable or "steady as she goes" in their

emotional experience. Low scorers more characteristically experience a

wider range of emotional fluctations - peaks and valleys on the "roller

coaster" of life.

As a result, high scorers are usually better able to manage stress in a

positive, proactive way - to remain solution-focused under stress or to "keep

their cool" in a crisis. However, for the same reason, some others may

experience or perceive them as unduly stoic or "above it all" in a fashion that

could be seen as either reassuring or annoying, depending on the perceiver's

own personality and needs.

Low scorers typically struggle more with stress, yet may also experience a

richer and fuller emotional life (the bitter as well as the sweet). In some

cases, low scorers can be strong advocates for others because of their


capacity to empathize with the "underdog" - they know from experience what

it means to struggle. (A high proportion of effective counselors score on the

low side of factor C for this reason.)

Factor C is sometimes called "ego strength" because it is associated with a

person's ability to tolerate stresses and difficulties without becoming

emotionally overwhelmed. However, factor C is not a measure of mental

health or neuroticism. Both high and low scores are normal variants of

personality.

Factor E (Dominance)

It measures a person's place on the "pecking order" of interpersonal

assertiveness. It is a measure of dominance versus submissiveness in an

interpersonal context. It is also a measure of the extent to which a person

likes to be in control of situations involving other people.

High scorers enjoy being in control and value power. They are often seen as

"natural leaders" by others (but may, if scores are excessive, strike others as

domineering or autocratic if their control orientation is not moderated by other

factors). It is common for high scorers to use competitive terms like

"mastering" a subject or "conquering" a problem; a positive correlate is

tenacity and force of will. High scorers tend to like competition and to think of

interpersonal situations in primarily competitive terms.

Low scorers make few demands on others and instead like to accommodate

the needs and wishes of other people, sometimes making insufficient room

for their own to be expressed. They dislike conflict, enjoy pleasing others,

and like cooperativeness and harmony-seeking. They may not enjoy or seek

leadership roles, and if placed in such roles, may not be seen as

"conventional" or "strong" leaders; they lead, not by the force of their will or

personality, but by other traits such as positional authority and responsibility.


While high scorers need to be careful not to overwhelm others with excessive

assertiveness (or aggressiveness), low scorers can profit from learning how

to be more direct and assertive. High scorers can benefit from learning how

to be more cooperative and conciliatory, while low scorers can productively

gain by learning how to be more competitive and positively confronting.

Factor F (Liveliness)

It measures a person's natural exuberance or energy level. Thinking of the

same factor in a different way, it provides a measure of deliberateness and

caution (low scores) versus impulsivity and lack of inhibition (high scores).

High scorers are usually uninhibited, playful, adventurous types who enjoy

being the center of attention. They may become bored easily and like to

jump from one thing to another. As a result, they are at their best in

"generalist" work roles that allow them to wear many different hats and to

move from one activity to another without investing too deeply in any one of

them. As a result, they need to watch their tendency to overgeneralize

("jack of all trades, master of none") and may need to strengthen their ability

to maintain interest and attention in the face of difficulty or complexity.

"Variety is the spice of life" is a high F slogan. In extreme cases, high F

types can be seen as rather fickle, self-focused, or superficial by others who

have a different pattern of traits.

Low scorers are usually deliberate, cautious, careful, focused, and serious-

minded types. Their sense of humor is more of the wry, subtle form, and

even if they have a dry wit, others are likely to perceive them as sober,

serious, even perhaps rather dour people. They usually like to "dig deep"

into what interests them, having longer attention spans than high F types,

and so are at their best in "specialist" work roles that allow them to become

technical experts in a chosen field of endeavor. However, they need to

watch their tendency to overspecialize ("learning more and more about less


and less") and may need to strengthen their ability to deal well with more

casual, superficial interactions and roles. In extreme cases, low F cases can

be seen as rather dull, plodding, or one-sided (monomanically devoted to a

single cause, issue, value, or role) by others who have a different pattern of

traits.

Factor G (Rule Consciousness)

It measures a person's orientation to rules, procedures, and social

expectations. To a considerable extent, it is a measure of ethical and moral

responsibility and dutifulness. High scorers are usually highly ethically driven

and responsible, although the reverse is not always the case: low scorers

are not necessarily irresponsible or unethical, but are, at a minimum, prone

to think of ethics in unconventional terms. High scorers are more rule- or

principle-governed, while low scorers are more results-governed.

Thus, a high scorer is likely to stick to the rules even if this means that a

desired result cannot be obtained. "I'd rather be right than President" is a

high G dictum. High scorers' dutifulness and moral conventionality make

them desirable in the eyes of most employers, which is why factor G

correlates with employer ratings of workers to a stronger degree than any

other personality factor. However, very high scorers may become

unnecessarily rigid or unbending about the rules - a "Regulation Charlie" (or

Charlene).

Low scorers are prone to think that rules are made to be broken (or at least

bent) if this is what it takes to achieve a desired result. This does not

necessarily translate into unethical behavior (though very low scorers are

statistically likely to strike others as ethically challenged or, in the extreme

case, even rather conscienceless), but it does suggest a different kind of

focus - on in which outcomes, not rules, are the major emphasis.


Factor H (Social Boldness)

It measures social initiative taking and, to a lesser extent, a general

orientation toward risk taking of any sort. "Shyness" versus "social boldness"

is one way to think of this factor. However, other kinds of risks besides social

risks are also in view in this factor.

High scorers are social initiative takers who are comfortable with such

activities as networking, self-marketing, introducing themselves to others,

small talk, and "schmoozing". As a result, nearly all sales and marketing

professionals are high H types. High H types show more "courage", social

and otherwise, and in the extreme show a high need for thrill seeking or

"living on the edge". Most people who engage in "extreme sports", for

instance, are high H types.

Low scorers are more likely to be shy and to find social initiative taking

aversive and difficult. They prefer a small number of close relationships to a

large number of more superficial ones and probably do not enjoy meeting

new people in large group contexts. They may show a more general pattern

of risk aversion and timidity, and probably enjoy quieter, "safe" pursuits.

Factor I (Sensitivity)

It is a complex factor that is difficult to summarize in a single phrase. It has

to do with two related qualities: objectivity versus subjectivity, and tough-

mindedness versus tender-mindedness.

High scorers are generally emotionally sensitive, empathic, aware of feelings,

and prone to make decisions on a more personal or subjective basis

(focused on personal values or the needs of others). As a result, they do

well in roles that call for interpersonal sensitivities and an emphasis on


"feeling" issues. However, they may, especially in the extreme, lack

objectivity, and may have a difficult time seeing the dark side of something

about which they care deeply. Others may see them as "thin-skinned" or

"wearing their heart on their sleeve."

Low scorers are generally objective, analytical, logical, and prone to make

decisions on a more impersonal basis (focused on cause and effect or

rational consequences). As a result, they do well in roles that call for

analytical logic or impersonal objective reasoning (which are more likely to

involve working with things, ideas, or data rather than with human beings and

their needs and problems). However, they may, especially in the extreme,

lack sensitivity, and may seem to have an "emotional blind spot" - lacking an

emotional vocabulary or the ability to sense their own needs and feelings as

well as those of others. Others may see them as "armor-plated" or "having

ice in their veins".

Factor L (Vigilance)

It has to do with the balance between trust and skepticism.

High scorers are more careful, vigilant, wary, or skeptical about trusting

others and are less likely to assume that others' motivations are trustworthy

or benign. They are more likely to "read between the lines" in evaluating

others - which means that they are less likely to be taken in by those who

have a hidden agenda, but also that they are more likely to imagine a hidden

agenda when, in fact, none exists. Very high scores are associated with a

tendency to blame or suspect others in unnecessary ways. However,

moderately high scores simply mean a cautious stance that says, “I will trust

those who earn my trust.”

Low scorers are more prone to take others at face value and to trust others'

motivations, sometimes in excessive or unrealistic ways. The positive side of


low scores is a natural tendency to feel a sense of "connectedness" with

others and to "give others the benefit of the doubt" in dealings with them.

The negative side, especially with extreme scores, is a certain naivete or

gullibility in dealing with others - a tendency to be taken in by those who are

not worthy of trust.

Some professions require higher L scores than others: those which require

skepticism or an ability to read between the lines. Examples of professions

that reward higher than average L scores are IRS auditors, police detectives,

and insurance underwriters.

Factor M (Abstractedness)

It has to do with practicality versus creativity, or a literal detail orientation

versus an imaginative big picture orientation. Think of a camera with two

different lenses: a close-up lens that reveals fine details, and a telephoto lens

that shows how elements in a scene are associated with one another. Low

scores are like the close-up view, high scores are like the wide-angle view.

High scorers are generally creative, imaginative, and insightful. Often, they

are abstract or theoretical in orientation (focused on ideas, not their practical

implementation). Their focus is generally strategic (the "thousand-year

view"). However, in their ideophoria, they can miss or underattend to details

and can lack practicality. The absent-minded professor is that of a very high

M person.

Low scorers are very much in touch with practical realities, live by them,

make decisions on a literal and factual basis. They tend to be focused on

here-and-now results and outcomes, and ask "how", not "why". Their focus

is generally tactical (this hour, this day, this week). However, they can be

blind to wider meanings and implications, can be overly literal or even

nitpicky about details, and generally can miss the forest for the trees.


According to psychiatrist David Keirsey, this factor is the biggest

"psychological divide" between persons, especially in the workplace: those

who focus on what is (low M) tend not to understand those who focus on

what could or might be (high M), and vice versa. As a result, the world of

work is strongly segregated along these lines: people seek work that

provides them either with a steady stream of facts and details (low M) or a

steady stream of ideas and possibilities (high M). Neither would be happy in

the other role. In the extreme, low M people can see high M types as having

their head in the clouds, and high M types can see low M people as having

their feet stuck in the mud.

Factor N (Privateness)

It has to do with self-disclosure, and consequently, how easy a person is to

get to know, as well as how well s/he keeps private matters confidential. Low

scorers are more forthright; high scorers are more discreet.

High scorers are careful and selective about self-disclosure (when, where,

and with whom they share information). They are slower to open up to

others and, as a result, may strike others as hard to get to know. "I respect

her/him, but I really don't know her/him" is something that others may often

say about high N types. These people tend to do well in roles that require

caution about the disclosure of information (such as a diplomat, a payroll

clerk, or a human resource professional) or that require political "savvy".

Low scorers are "what you see is what you get" or "shoot from the lip" types

who are quick to disclose information and are much less selective about

when, where, and with whom they share. They strike others as more open

and forthright, but may be more politically naïve or may not keep secrets

well. People usually know exactly where they stand, but may not trust them

with confidential or private information.


Note that low scorers strike others as more "artless" while high scorers can

come across as "shrewd", although high N types are not inherently

manipulative; they are simply careful about sharing information. "Loose lips

sink ships" is a high N motto.

Factor O (Apprehension)

It has to do with apprehension in two senses. One is a general proneness to

worry. The other is a propensity to self-doubt and self-blame

(intrapunitiveness): being hard on oneself, selling oneself short, treating

oneself stringently or harshly.

High O persons tend to be merciless self-critics. While this suggests high

performance standards (and, indeed, high O types are often also high on

factor G and, to a lesser extent, Q3), it also suggests a general tendency

toward self-blame that is not necessarily productive. High scorers are also

prone to experience such states as worry and guilt.

Low O persons are self-assured, self-confident, and rarely worry about

themselves. They are certain of their capabilities and invest little energy in

introspection of a self-evaluative sort. However, with very low scores, these

positive traits can turn into complacency, blindness to areas of needful self-

improvement, arrogance, or even denial of one's true faults (so-called

"anxiety binding").

In general, low O persons might profitably learn to be a bit harder on them,

and high O persons might learn to cut themselves some slack.

Factor Q1 (Openness to Change)

It has to do with a person's orientation to change, novelty, and innovation.

The Chinese word for change literally means "dangerous opportunity" - low

scorers are more attuned to the danger side (and hence tend to resist


change), while high scorers are more oriented to the side of opportunity (and

hence tend to seek out change).

High scorers like change, respond positively to change, seek change, and

want to "boldly go where no one has gone before". They are quick to jump

on the change bandwagon and tend to become bored, frustrated, or

demoralized by situations that provide insufficient change. In the extreme,

they can be "change junkies" who see change for change's sake, who

needlessly reinvent the wheel, or who are intolerant or dismissive of tradition,

convention, and stability.

Low scorers like the known, the tried and true, and the time-tested. At least

initially, they tend to be skeptical of change or to respond negatively to it,

avoid needless change, like things as they are, and say, "if it ain't broke,

don't fix it". They are guardians of stability and constancy and tend to be

threatened, frustrated, or demoralized by situations that provide excessive

change. In the extreme, they can drag their feet about change or can seem

reactionary to others.

Factor Q2 (Self Reliance)

It has to do with a propensity to seek group support - or to strike out on one's

own. Nicholas Lore divides the vocational world into "tribals" (those who like

to be "a bee in the hive") and "lone wolves" (those who like to do be a one-

man or one-woman show). This captures factor Q2 well.

High scorers like to solve problems on their own - in the extreme, they "ask

for help when the request is pried out from between their cold, dead fingers" -

and prize self-reliance. They like to act independently and may be attracted

to entrepreneurial roles or to individual contributor roles for this reason. They

may find it hard to delegate or may run the risk of overly isolating


themselves, being seen as "not a team player" in a culture that may consist

of more low Q2 types.

Low scorers like group support and group consensus, think in terms of

collaborative, team-based action, and may have a hard time acting alone or

independently. They may be attracted to "corporate" roles in which there are

high levels of social support for what they do and in which team outcomes,

not individual outcomes, are emphasized.

There is some evidence that high scorers gravitate to smaller companies

(including the ultimate in smallness, solo practitiones roles as self-employed

individuals), while low scorers gravitate to larger companies. Cultures that

emphasize individual activity and achievement attract high Q2 types; those

that emphasize teamwork and collaboration, low Q2 people.

Factor Q3 (Perfectionism)

It is another complex factor that encompasses more than one core element.

Part of the factor has to do with "task orientation" versus "process

orientation". Another has to do with a "structure seeking" versus "structure

avoidant" tendency. A third has to do with image management.

Think of a person driving cross-country. One person might have a goal of

getting to the destination as quickly and efficiently as possible (the high Q3

style). Another might have a goal of enjoying the trip, taking the scenic route,

stopping along the way whenever the mood struck them (the low Q3 style).

Thus, the idea of "the destination versus the journey" is one way to

differentiate high versus low scorers.

High scorers are more organized, systematic, methodical, goal oriented,

focused on conventional achievement (including outward status markers of

success and image), like high levels of structure, and tend to have steady

work habits oriented around starting tasks promptly, working first and playing


second, and taking deadlines seriously. When taken to excess, these traits

may degenerate into rigidity, inflexibility, and an inability to handle the

unexpected or to stop and smell the roses. High scorers lose efficiency as

the amount of environmental structure decreases.

Low scorers are more flexible, adaptable, spontaneous, emergent, and

process oriented. They are often less focused on achievement as an end in

itself, and may care less about what "the Joneses" think. They are better

starters than finishers and tend to work in "feast or famine" spurts, mixing

work and play and treating deadlines flexibly. When taken to excess, these

traits may degenerate into procrastinating, drifting, waffling, and an inability

to hold oneself accountable. Low scorers lose efficiency as the amount of

environmental structure decreases.

Factor Q4 (Tension)

It is about patience or impatience in response to environmental delays,

stresses, and demands. A good informal test for a person's Q4 score is to

watch their behavior in a crowded grocery store when the "express lane" is

crawling along at molasses-in-February speed.

High scorers are "always on the go", "fidgety", constantly busy, efficiency-

minded, and driven to make things happen. Delays frustrate them, producing

impatience, tension, and irritability. However, they also get things done.

Low scorers are patient, relaxed, placid - "don't worry, be happy". They take

life in stride, which means less stress, but also less of a sense of internal

urgency, hence less done.

High scorers (especially if also high on Q3) tend to "somatize" stress (ulcers,

migraine headaches, and hypertension). Low scorers are less likely to

express stress in physiological ways.


Using all 16 Factors, and a more comprehensive set of descriptions than

we've given here, you can create a pretty accurate picture of someone's

personality. Combinations of factors also give a more detailed picture, and

with the help of a competent adviser, you can begin to recognize the "real

you" that lies beneath the outward self created by your upbringing and

environment.

However, absorbing the data from all 16 factors can get complicated, and in

recent years a variation of 16PF called 16PF5 has become more

commonplace.

THE 16PF5 MODEL

16PF5 takes the 16 Factors of 16PF and groups them together into 5 overall

themes (hence the name). Clearly there is some overlap between the 16

Factors, but narrowing them down to 5 Factors give a much sharper picture

of the underlying personality. If you want to know what's behind any one of

the 5 Factors you can "zoom in" on the relevant 16 Factors to see what the

drivers are. Some of the 16 appear in more than one of the 5 themes, by the

way. The Five Global Factors are

Extraversion

Anxiety

Will

Independence

Self control


5 Factors Descriptors

EXTRAVERSIONIntroverted, socially

inhibited

Extroverted, socially

participative

ANXIETYLow anxiety,

unperturbed

Easily worried and

generally tense

WILLOpen minded,

receptive to ideas

Resolute and

determined

INDEPENDENCEAccommodating and

selfless

Independent and

persuasive

SELF CONTROLFree-thinking and

impulsive

Structured and

inhibited


Business applications

Selection

The 16PF factors can be mapped against the competencies required to be

successful in a particular role. When used as part of a structured selection

process, the questionnaire results can highlight areas to explore further

during interview, eliciting a more comprehensive picture of each candidate’s

strengths and development needs. This makes the selection process more

effective. For successful candidates, the 16PF questionnaire can be used to

create individual development plans.

Development

The questionnaire can assess the management/leadership potential and

style of an individual, which can then be used to formulate an effective

development plan.

Executive coaching

The questionnaire can be used in combination with additional tools (such as

the 360 degree feedback tool, Benchmarks®) to provide senior-level

management with an essential understanding of their own behavior and an

objective assessment of how their style impacts on others. The individual can

then be coached, building on this platform to establish clear development

objectives.

Teambuilding

Building a team profile using the 16PF instrument will highlight areas that

may add to or detract from team effectiveness, allowing key areas for team

development to be identified. Each individual will also be able to build an

appreciation of other team members’ strengths, promoting increased

productivity and understanding.


Other applications include career guidance and counseling.

Other uses of the 16PF include:

Facilitating self-understanding and an appreciation of diversity

Providing a platform for career planning and career self-management

Enhancing effective communication, conflict resolution, problem

solving, and decision making

BENEFITS

Quick and easy to complete

Can be completed on paper, or electronically

Available in UK English and many European languages

Easy to score, interpret and feed back

Proven reliability and validity

Norm data is available for the UK population

The fifth edition is based on over 50 years of research and testing


JOHARI WONDOW


A Johari window is a metaphorical tool created by Joseph Luft and Harry

Ingham in 1955 in the United States, as a model for mapping personality

awareness, used to help people better understand their interpersonal

communication and relationships. It is used primarily in self-help groups and

corporate settings as a heuristic exercise.

When performing the exercise, the subject is given a list of 55 adjectives and

picks five or six that they feel describe their own personality. Peers of the

subject are then given the same list, and each pick five or six adjectives that

describe the subject.

Adjectives selected by both the participant and his or her peers are placed

into the Arena quadrant. This quadrant represents traits of the participant of

which both they and their peers are aware.

Adjectives selected only by the participant, but not by any of their peers, are

placed into the Façade quadrant, representing information about the

participant of which their peers are unaware. It is then up to the participant

whether or not to disclose this information.

Adjectives that are not selected by the participant but only by their peers are

placed into the Blind Spot quadrant. These represent information of which

the participant is not aware, but others are, and they can decide whether and

how to inform the individual about these "blind spots".

Adjectives which were not selected by either the participant or their peers

remain in the Unknown quadrant, representing the participant's behaviors or

motives which were not recognized by anyone participating. This may be


because they do not apply, or because there is collective ignorance of the

existence of that trait.

The 55adjectives are as follows:

Able Accepting Adaptable Bold Brave

CalmCaring

Cheerful Clever Complex

Confident Dependable Dignified Energetic Extroverted

Friendly Giving Happy Helpful Idealistic

Independent Ingenious Intelligent Introverted Kind

Knowledgeable Logical LovingMature

Modest

Nervous Observant Organised Patient Powerful

Proud Quiet Reflective Relaxed Religious

Responsive SearchingSelf-

assertive

Self-

consciousSensible

Sentimental Shy Silly Spontaneous Sympathetic

Tense Trustworthy Warm Wise Witty


A JOHARI WINDOW

The Johari Window, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph Luft

and Harry Ingham, is one of the most useful models describing the process

of human interaction. A four paned "window," as illustrated above, divides

personal awareness into four different types, as represented by its four

quadrants: open, hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines dividing the four

panes are like window shades, which can move as an interaction progresses.

In this model, each person is represented by their own window


JOHARI QUADRANT 1 - 'OPEN SELF/AREA' OR 'FREE AREA'

OR 'PUBLIC AREA', OR 'ARENA'

Johari region 1 is also known as the 'area of free activity'. This is the

information about the person - behavior, attitude, feelings, emotion,

knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc - known by the person ('the self')

and known by the group ('others').

For example in my case the "open" quadrant represents things that both I

know about myself, and that you know about me. For example, I know my

name. The knowledge that the window represents, can include not only

factual information, but my feelings, motives, behaviors, wants, needs and

desires... indeed, any information describing who I am. When I first meet a

new person, the size of the opening of this first quadrant is not very large,

since there has been little time to exchange information.

The aim in any group should always be to develop the 'open area' for every

person, because when we work in this area with others we are at our most

effective and productive and the group is at its most productive too. The open

free area, or 'the arena', can be seen as the space where good

communications and cooperation occur, free from distractions, mistrust,

confusion, conflict and misunderstanding.

Established team members logically tend to have larger open areas than new

team members. New team members start with relatively small open areas

because relatively little knowledge about the new team member is shared.

The size of the open area can be expanded horizontally into the blind space,

by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other group members.

This process is known as 'feedback solicitation'. Also, other group members

can help a team member expand their open area by offering feedback,

sensitively of course. The size of the open area can also be expanded

vertically downwards into the hidden or avoided space by the person's

disclosure of information, feelings, etc about him/herself to the group and


group members. Also, group members can help a person expand their open

area into the hidden area by asking the person about him/herself. Managers

and team leaders can play an important role in facilitating feedback and

disclosure among group members, and in directly giving feedback to

individuals about their own blind areas. Leaders also have a big responsibility

to promote a culture and expectation for open, honest, positive, helpful,

constructive, sensitive communications, and the sharing of knowledge

throughout their organization. Top performing groups, departments,

companies and organizations always tend to have a culture of open positive

communication, so encouraging the positive development of the 'open area'

or 'open self' for everyone is a simple yet fundamental aspect of effective

leadership

JOHARI QUADRANT 2 - 'BLIND SELF' OR 'BLIND AREA' OR

'BLIND SPOT'

Johari region 2 is what is known about a person by others in the group, but is

unknown by the person him/herself. For example in my case the "blind"

quadrant represents things that you know about me, but that I am unaware

of. For example, perhaps in our ongoing conversation, you may notice that

eye contact seems to be lacking. You may not say anything, since you may

not want to embarrass me, or you may draw your own inferences that

perhaps I am being insincere. Then the problem is how I can get this

information out in the open.

By seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should be to reduce

this area and thereby to increase the open area ie, to increase self-

awareness. This blind area is not an effective or productive space for

individuals or groups. This blind area could also be referred to as ignorance

about oneself, or issues in which one is deluded. A blind area could also

include issues that others are deliberately withholding from a person. We all


know how difficult it is to work well when kept in the dark. No-one works well

when subject to 'mushroom management'. People who are 'thick-skinned'

tend to have a large 'blind area'.

Group members and managers can take some responsibility for helping an

individual to reduce their blind area - in turn increasing the open area - by

giving sensitive feedback and encouraging disclosure. Managers should

promote a climate of non-judgmental feedback, and group response to

individual disclosure, which reduces fear and therefore encourages both

processes to happen. The extent to which an individual seeks feedback, and

the issues on which feedback is sought, must always be at the individual's

own discretion. Some people are more resilient than others - care needs to

be taken to avoid causing emotional upset.

JOHARI QUADRANT 3 - 'HIDDEN SELF' OR 'HIDDEN AREA'

OR 'AVOIDED SELF/AREA' OR 'FACADE'

Johari region 3 is what is known to us but kept hidden from, and therefore

unknown, to others. This hidden or avoided self represents information,

feelings, etc, anything that a person knows about him/self, but which is not

revealed or is kept hidden from others. The hidden area could also include

sensitivities, fears, hidden agendas, manipulative intentions, and secrets -

anything that a person knows but does not reveal, for whatever reason. It's

natural for very personal and private information and feelings to remain

hidden, indeed, certain information, feelings and experiences have no

bearing on work, and so can and should remain hidden. However, typically, a

lot of hidden information is not very personal, it is work- or performance-

related, and so is better positioned in the open area.

Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved into the

open area through the process of 'disclosure'. The aim should be to disclose

and expose relevant information and feelings - hence the Johari Window


terminology 'self-disclosure' and 'exposure process', thereby increasing the

open area. By telling others how we feel and other information about

ourselves we reduce the hidden area, and increase the open area, which

enables better understanding, cooperation, trust, team-working effectiveness

and productivity. Reducing hidden areas also reduces the potential for

confusion, misunderstanding, poor communication, etc, which all distract

from and undermine team effectiveness.

Organizational culture and working atmosphere have a major influence on

group members' preparedness to disclose their hidden selves. Most people

fear judgment or vulnerability and therefore hold back hidden information and

feelings, etc, that if moved into the open area, ie known by the group as well,

would enhance mutual understanding, and thereby improve group

awareness, enabling better individual performance and group effectiveness.

The extent to which an individual discloses personal feelings and information,

and the issues which are disclosed, and to whom, must always be at the

individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than others

to disclose. People should disclose at a pace and depth that they find

personally comfortable. As with feedback, some people are more resilient

than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset.

JOHARI QUADRANT 4 - 'UNKNOWN SELF' OR 'AREA OF

UNKNOWN ACTIVITY' OR 'UNKNOWN AREA'

Johari region 4 contains information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes,

experiences etc, that are unknown to the person him/herself and unknown to

others in the group. These unknown issues take a variety of forms: they can

be feelings, behaviors, attitudes, capabilities, aptitudes, which can be quite

close to the surface, and which can be positive and useful, or they can be

deeper aspects of a person's personality, influencing his/her behavior to


various degrees. Large unknown areas would typically be expected in

younger people, and people who lack experience or self-belief.

Examples of unknown factors are as follows, and the first example is

particularly relevant and common, especially in typical organizations and

teams:

an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of

opportunity, encouragement, confidence or training

a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realize they possess

a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have

an unknown illness

repressed or subconscious feelings

conditioned behavior or attitudes from childhood

The processes by which this information and knowledge can be uncovered

are various, and can be prompted through self-discovery or observation by

others, or in certain situations through collective or mutual discovery, of the

sort of discovery experienced on outward bound courses or other deep or

intensive group work. Counseling can also uncover unknown issues, but this

would then be known to the person and by one other, rather than by a group.

Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind or

open area depends on who discovers it and what they do with the

knowledge, notably whether it is then given as feedback, or disclosed.

Again as with disclosure and soliciting feedback, the process of self

discovery is a sensitive one. The extent and depth to which an individual is

able to seek out discover their unknown feelings must always be at the

individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than others

to do this.


Uncovering 'hidden talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to be

confused with developing the Johari 'hidden area' - is another aspect of

developing the unknown area, and is not so sensitive as unknown feelings.

Providing people with the opportunity to try new things, with no great

pressure to succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown abilities, and

thereby reduce the unknown area.

Managers and leaders can help by creating an environment that encourages

self-discovery, and to promote the processes of self discovery, constructive

observation and feedback among team members. It is a widely accepted

industrial fact that the majority of staff in any organization are at any time

working well within their potential. Creating a culture, climate and expectation

for self-discovery helps people to fulfil more of their potential and thereby to

achieve more, and to contribute more to organizational performance.

A note of caution about Johari region 4: The unknown area could also

include repressed or subconscious feelings rooted in formative events and

traumatic past experiences, which can stay unknown for a lifetime. In a work

or organizational context the Johari Window should not be used to address

issues of a clinical nature.

Much, much more has been written on the Johari window model of human

interaction. The process of enlarging the open quadrant is called self-

disclosure, a give and take process between me and the people I interact

with. Typically, as I share something about myself (moving information from

my hidden quadrant into the open) and if the other party is interested in

getting to know me, they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosing information in

their hidden quadrant. Thus, an interaction between two parties can be

modeled dynamically as two active Johari windows. For example, you may

respond to my disclosure that I like "Cherry Garcia" by letting me know what

your favorite ice cream is, or where a new ice cream shop is being built,

kinds of information in your hidden quadrant. Incidentally, it is fattening, so be

careful on how much you eat!


We believe disclosure to be healthy, at least that's the impression one gets

after reading Freud. However, Anita Kelly recently wrote that self-disclosure

of personal secrets has its dangers. We are often better off not telling secrets

regarding our sexual behavior, mental health problems or large-scale

failures. "If you give people information about yourself, you give them power

over you," she says. Monica Lewinsky's disclosure to Linda Tripp and the

ensuing scandal that enveloped President Clinton is a case in point. Be

forewarned that most secrets get passed along to at least two more parties.

People also misjudge how others respond to secrets. Sometimes you get

negative feedback. For example, women who reveal that she was raped may

be seen in the future as a victim or by men as damaged goods. Now, if you

must tell your secret to someone, chose that person very carefully. Chose

someone whose response will give you some insight into your problem.

Unfortunately, such a person is often hard to find. So if you cannot find

anyone appropriate, consider this: that keeping secrets is healthy and

tasteful, because it is a way of managing your identity, and indicates you are

secure and have self-control. But it takes energy, because you have to be on

constant guard not to accidentally reveal something that is potentially

damaging.

As ones level of confidence and self esteem develops, one may actively

invite others to comment on one's blind spots. A teacher may seek feedback

from students on the quality of a particular lecture, with the desire of

improving the presentation. Active listening skills are helpful in this endeavor.

On the other hand, we all have defenses, protecting the parts of ourselves

that we feel vulnerable. Remember, the blind quadrant contains behavior,

feelings and motivations not accessible to the person, but which others can

see. Feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, impotence, unworthiness,

rejection, guilt, dependency, ambivalence for loved ones, needs to control

and manipulate, are all difficult to face, and yet can be seen by others. To

forcibly reveal what another wishes not to see, is "psychological rape," and

can be traumatic. Fortunately, nature has provided us with a variety of

defense mechanisms to cope with such events, such as denial, ignoring.


http://www.noogenesis.com/malama/listening.html

http://www.noogenesis.com/game_theory/johari/johari_window.html#ref%23ref

The Johari window, essentially being a model for communication, can also

reveal difficulties in this area. In Johari terms, two people attempt to

communicate via the open quadrants. On the simplest level, difficulties may

arise due to a lack of clarity in the interaction, such as poor grammar or

choice of words, unorganized thoughts, faulty logic etc. This induces the

receiver to criticize you, the sender, by revealing something that was in your

blind quadrant. Then, if the feedback works, you correct it immediately or

perhaps on a more long term approach take a course in reading and writing.

On a deeper level, you may be in a group meeting, and while you secretly

sympathize with the minority viewpoint, you voted with the majority. However,

blind to you, you actually may be communicating this information via body

language, in conflict with your verbal message. On an even deeper level, you

in an interaction with others may always put on a smiling, happy face, hiding

all negative feelings. By withholding negative feelings, you may be signaling

to your friends to withhold also, and keep their distance. Thus, your

communication style may seem bland or distant.


Application and Importance

A team which understands itself - that is, each person having a strong mutual

understanding with the team - is far more effective than a team which does

not understand each other- that is, whose members have large hidden, blind,

and/or unknown areas.

Team members - and leaders - should always be striving to increase their

open free areas, and to reduce their blind, hidden and unknown areas.

A person represented by the Johari Window example below will not perform

to their best potential, and the team will fail to make full use of the team's

potential and the person's potential too. Effort should generally be made by

the person to increase his/her open free area, by disclosing information

about his/her feelings, experience, views, motivation, etc, which will reduce

the size of the hidden area, and increase the open free area.

Seeking feedback about the blind area will reduce the blind area, and will

increase the open free area. Discovery through sensitive communications,

active listening and experience, will reduce the unknown area, transferring in

part to the blind, hidden areas, depending on who knows what, or better still

if known by the person and others, to the open free area.


BELBIN TEAM ROLE INVENTORY

About the instrument

The Belbin Team Inventory, also called the Belbin Self-Perception Inventory

or the Belbin Team Role Inventory, is a test used to gain insight into an

individual's personality type. It was developed by Dr. Meredith Belbin after

studying teams at Henley Management College.

During a period of over nine years, Meredith Belbin and his team of

researchers based at Henley Management College, England, studied the

behavior of managers from all over the world. Managers taking part in the

study were given a battery of psychometric tests and put into teams of

varying composition, while they were engaged in a complex management

exercise. Their different core personality traits, intellectual styles and

behaviors were assessed during the exercise. As time progressed different

clusters of behavior were identified as underlying the success of the teams.

These were named "Team Roles".

Dr Meredith Belbin defines a Team Role as "Our tendency to behave,

contribute and interrelate with others in a particular way." Although the

original research and most people's association with the Team Role model

relates to teams there is strong evidence to support the view that these

natural tendencies exist in workplace activities outside the formal team.

These are:

Action-oriented roles Shaper, Implementer, and Completer Finisher

People-oriented roles Co-coordinator, Team worker and Resource Investigator

Cerebral roles Plant, Monitor Evaluator and Specialist


THE BELBIN TEAM ROLES

The Belbin Model is a robust and highly effective concept on teamwork that

is the product of many years of research. British psychologist Dr Meredith

Belbin has worked to achieve a coherent and accurate system that explains

individual behavior and its influence on team success. These behavioral

patterns are called "Team Roles" and these nine roles cover the types of

individual behavior at work in a team.

Developed from observations of over 200 teams, Belbin’s Team Roles have

become part of standard assessment and HR practice. Belbin’s framework

can be used both to predict the performance of existing teams and to

construct teams around desired outcomes. It also gives valuable insights for

teambuilding and conflict management.

Co-coordinator Resource Investigator Team Worker

ShaperCompany Worker/

ImplementerCompleter finisher

Plant Monitor/Evaluator Specialist

Co-coordinator

Characteristics: The co-coordinator is a person-

oriented leader. This person trusts, accepting,

dominant and is committed to team goals and

objectives. The co-coordinator is a positive thinker

who approves of goal attainment, struggle and

effort in others. The co-coordinator is someone

tolerant enough always to listen to others, but

strong enough to reject their advice.

Weakness: The co-

coordinator may not

stand out in a team

and usually does not

have a sharp intellect.


http://www.srds.co.uk/cedtraining/handouts/hand40.htm#Specialist%23Specialist

http://www.srds.co.uk/cedtraining/handouts/hand40.htm#Monitor%20evaluator%23Monitor%20evaluator

http://www.srds.co.uk/cedtraining/handouts/hand40.htm#Plant%23Plant

http://www.srds.co.uk/cedtraining/handouts/hand40.htm#Completer%20finishers%23Completer%20finishers

http://www.srds.co.uk/cedtraining/handouts/hand40.htm#Company%20worker/%20implementer%23Company%20worker/%20implementer

http://www.srds.co.uk/cedtraining/handouts/hand40.htm#Company%20worker/%20implementer%23Company%20worker/%20implementer

http://www.srds.co.uk/cedtraining/handouts/hand40.htm#Shaper%23Shaper

http://www.srds.co.uk/cedtraining/handouts/hand40.htm#Team%20worker%23Team%20worker

http://www.srds.co.uk/cedtraining/handouts/hand40.htm#Resource%20Investigator%23Resource%20Investigator

http://www.srds.co.uk/cedtraining/handouts/hand40.htm#Co-ordinator%23Co-ordinator

Shaper

Characteristics: The shaper is a task-focused leader

who abounds in nervous energy, who has a high

motivation to achieve and for whom winning is the

name of the game. The shaper is committed to

achieving ends and will ‘shape’ others into achieving

the aims of the team.

Weakness: He or she

will challenge, argue or

disagree and will

display aggression in

the pursuit of goal

achievement. Two or

three shapers in a

group, according to

Belbin, can lead to

conflict, aggravation

and in-fighting.

Resource Investigator

Characteristics: The resource investigator is the

executive who is never in his room, and if he is, he

is on the telephone. The resource investigator is

someone who explores opportunities and develops

contacts. Resource investigators are good

negotiators who probe others for information and

support and pick up other’s ideas and develop

them. They are characterized by sociability and

enthusiasm and are good at liaison work and

exploring resources outside the group.

Weakness:

Weaknesses are a

tendency to lose

interest after initial

fascination with an

idea, and they are not

usually the source of

original ideas.

Plant


Characteristics: The plant is a specialist idea maker

characterized by high IQ and introversion while also

being dominant and original. The plant tends to take

radical approaches to team functioning and problems.

Plants are more concerned with major issues than

with details.

Weakness:

Weaknesses are a

tendency to disregard

practical details and

argumentativeness.

Company worker/ implementer

Characteristics: Implementers are aware of

external obligations and are disciplined,

conscientious and have a good self-image. They

tend to be tough-minded and practical, trusting

and tolerant, respecting established traditions.

They are characterized by low anxiety and tend

to work for the team in a practical, realistic way.

Implementers figure prominently in positions of

responsibility in larger organizations. They tend

to do the jobs that others do not want to do and

do them well: for example, disciplining

employees.

Weakness:

Implementers are

conservative,

inflexible and slow to

respond to new

possibilities.

Specialist

Characteristics:The specialist provides knowledge

and technical skills which are in rare supply within

the team. They are often highly introverted and

anxious and tend to be self-starting, dedicated

and committed.

Weakness: Their

weaknesses are

single-mindedness

and a lack of interest

in other peoples’

subjects


Monitor evaluator

Characteristics: According to the model, this is a

judicious, prudent, intelligent person with a low

need to achieve. Monitor evaluators contribute

particularly at times of crucial decision making

because they are capable of evaluating competing

proposals. The monitor evaluator is not deflected

by emotional arguments, is serious minded, tends

to be slow in coming to a decision because of a

need to think things over and takes pride in never

being wrong.

Weakness:

Weaknesses are that

they may appear dry

and boring or even

over-critical. They are

not good at inspiring

others. Those in high

level appointments are

often monitor

evaluators.

Team worker

Characteristics: Team workers make helpful

interventions to avert potential friction and enable

difficult characters within the team to use their

skills to positive ends. They tend to keep team

spirit up and allow other members to contribute

effectively. Their diplomatic skills together with

their sense of humor are assets to a team. They

tend to have skills in listening, coping with

awkward people and to be sociable. Sensitive and

people oriented.

Weakness: They tend

to be indecisive in

moments of crisis and

reluctant to do things

that might hurt others.


Completer finishers

Characteristics: The completer finisher dots the

it’s and crosses the t’s. He or she gives attention

to detail, aims to complete and to do so

thoroughly. They make steady effort and are

consistent in their work. They are not so interested

in the glamour of spectacular success.

Weakness:

Weaknesses,

according to Belbin,

are that they tend to

be over anxious and

have difficulty letting

go and delegating

work.

Balanced teams

Teams work best when there is a balance of primary roles and when team

members know their roles, work to their strengths and actively manage

weaknesses.

To achieve the best balance, there should be:

One Co-coordinator or Shaper (not both) for leader

A Plant to stimulate ideas

A Monitor/evaluator to maintain honesty and clarity

One or more Implementer, Team worker, Resource investigator or

Completer/finisher to make things happen


Why use team role profiles

Individual Belbin profiles can offer tremendous insight into individual and

team operating methods.

An inventory of Team Role skills, strengths and allowable weaknesses can

be used to add value to everything from a stand-alone experiential simulation

to the composition of management and project teams.

Each individual invariably brings different skills and behaviors to a team. The

Belbin Model offers us a unique and highly effective way to blend these

elements to build the perfect team. In Belbin's words "Nobody is perfect - but

a team can be". By using the Belbin profiles people can better understand

teams and the contributions of the individuals around them.

Practical Implications

Based on Belbin's model of 9 team roles, managers or organizations building

working teams would be advised to ensure that each of the roles can be

performed by a team member. Some roles are compatible and can be more

easily fulfilled by the same person; some are less compatible and are likely to

be done well by people with different behavioral clusters. This means that a

team need not be as many as 9 people, but perhaps should be at least 3 or

4.


Aptitude and Ability Tests

Aptitude and ability tests are designed to assess ones logical reasoning or

thinking performance. They consist of multiple choice questions and are

administered under exam conditions. They are strictly timed and a typical test

might allow 30 minutes for 30 or so questions.

There are at least 5000 aptitude and ability tests on the market the most common

ones can be classified as follows:

Verbal Ability Tests - Includes spelling, grammar, and ability to understand

analogies and follow detailed written instructions.

Arpita Srivastava, MBA (2005-07)

Multiple choice

question

Exam conditions

Strictly timed

104

Aptitude and ability test

Numeric Ability Tests - Includes basic arithmetic, number sequences and

simple mathematics. In more complex numerical critical reasoning questions,

blocks of information are provided that require interpretation.

Abstract Reasoning Tests - Measures ones ability to identify the underlying

logic of a pattern and then determine the solution. They are deliberately

designed so that the visual problem-solving strategy will work better than any

other approach.

Spatial Ability Tests - Measures ones ability to manipulate shapes in two

dimensions or to visualize three-dimensional objects presented as two-

dimensional pictures.

Mechanical Aptitude Tests - Designed to assess ones knowledge of

physical and mechanical principles.

Data Checking Tests - Measure how quickly and accurately errors can be

detected in data and is used to select candidates for clerical and data input

jobs.

Work Sample Tests - Involves a sample of the work that one will be

expected do. These types of test can be very broad ranging. They may


involve exercises using a word processor or spreadsheet if the job is

administrative or they may include giving a presentation or in-tray exercises if

the job is management or supervisory level.

Question Types and Scoring

One may be asked to answer the questions either on paper or using a PCor

palm-top, as online testing is becoming increasingly popular. The advantage

of online testing is that once the test is completed, an analysis of the results

can be calculated straight away.

This means that the organization can continue with the selection process

with the results 'in hand' rather than keep one waiting or send one home and

call one back in at a later date. Another advantage is that one can take the

test at a recruitment agency or even in ones own home. Online testing is

particularly suitable for initial screening as it is very cost-effective. Some of

the advantages of online testing are:

• . Increased cost-savings - no printed material is needed.

• . Increased security - test data can be easily encrypted.

• . Increased speed - scoring and interpretation are done immediately.

• . Increased standardization - question presentation is uniform.

Whichever type of test one is given; the questions are almost always

presented in multiple-choice format and have definite correct and incorrect

answers. As one proceed through the test, the questions may become more

difficult and one will usually find that there are more questions than one can

comfortably complete in the time allowed. Very few people manage to finish

these tests and the object is simply to give as many correct answers as one

can.


Ideally, ones score should then be compared with the results of a control

group, which has taken the tests in the past. This control group could consist

of other graduates, current job holders or a sample of the population as a

whole. Ones reasoning skills can then be assessed in relation to this control

group and judgments made about ones ability. This does happen sometimes.

Often however, ones score is simply compared to the other candidates. After

all, the control group is not applying for the job.

Speed and Power Tests

The types of question one can expect will depend on which aptitudes and

abilities that are needed in the job one are applying for. Aptitude and ability

tests are classified as maximum performance tests as they test what one can

achieve when one are making maximum effort. There are two different styles

of maximum performance test; speed tests and power tests.


Aptitude and ability

test

Power test

Speed test

In a speed test, the scope of the questions is limited and the methods one

need to use to answer them clear. Taken individually, the questions appear

relatively straightforward.

Speed test are concerned with how many questions one can answer

correctly in the allotted time.

Server January February March

units value units value units value

ZXC43 32 480 40 600 48 720

ZXC53 45 585 45 585 45 585

ZXC63 12 240 14 280 18 340

For example:

Q. 139 + 235 =

A) 372 B) 374 C) 376 D) 437

A power test on the other hand will present a smaller number of more

complex questions. The methods one need to use to answer these questions

are not obvious, and working out how to answer the question is the difficult

part. Once one have determined this, arriving at the correct answer is usually

relatively straightforward.

For example:

Below are the sales figures for 3 different types of network server over 3

months.


Q. In which month was the sales value highest?

A) January B) February C) March

Q. What is the unit cost of server type ZXC53?

A) 12 B) 13 C) 14

In summary, speed tests contain more items than power tests although they

have the same approximate time limit. Speed tests tend to be used in

selection at the administrative and clerical level. Power tests tend to be used

at the graduate, professional or managerial level. Although, this is not always

the case, as speed tests do give an accurate indication of performance in

power tests. In other words, if one does well in speed tests then one will do

well in power tests.


Verbal Ability Tests

These tests usually involve grammar, analogies, and following detailed

written instructions. They can also include spelling, sentence completion and

comprehension. Because they depend on understanding the precise

meaning of words, idioms and the structure of the language they discriminate

very heavily towards native speakers of the language in which the test has

been developed. If one speaks English as a second language, even if this is

at a high standard, one will be significantly disadvantaged.

One will usually find questions on all of the following:

Spelling

• Grammar

• Sentence Completion

• Analogies

• Word Groups

• Instructions

• Critical Reasoning

• Verbal Deductions

These tests are widely used since most jobs require one either to understand

and make decisions based on verbal or written information or to pass this

type of information to others. In practice, the more straightforward types of

question (spelling, grammar and instructions) tend to be more applicable to

administrative roles and the reasoning and deduction type of questions to

management roles.


Spelling Questions

Questions where one has to identify incorrectly spelt words are common in

all levels of verbal ability tests. The test designer needs to choose words

which are fairly common and in regular usage but which are often spelt

incorrectly. There would be little point in using obscure words which only a

small percentage of candidates could be expected to know. This means that

one will almost certainly have heard of the word and know its meaning. This

requirement to use words which are in everyday use but which are commonly

miss-spelt means that the test designer has a relatively restricted list of

words to choose from. This makes improving ones performance on these

spelling questions relatively straightforward.

Example Questions

Which of the following words are incorrectly spelt?

A) separate B) ordnance C) obviously D) sucess E) none of these

2. Choose the pair of words that best completes the sentence

The --------of the timetable caused some __n _

A) rivision B) revision C) revission D) revition

A) inconvenience B) inconvenince C) inconveneince D)inconveniance


3. The following list of 20 words contains 10 that are incorrectly spelt. Write the letter

That corresponds to each incorrectly spelt word in the answer box

A) occurence I) dispair Q)

independent

B) dissipate J) irritable R) insistant

C) weird K) accidently 5) excede

0) accommodate L) liaison T) privilege

E) embarrassment M) memento Answers

F) ecstacy N) millenium 1. 0

C) repetition 0) yield 2. B 0

H) batallion P) existance 3. A E F H I K N P R 5

In most cases the longer that one have been out of the education system the

more ones spelling will have deteriorated. Most people now use word

processors with inbuilt spellchecking software and it is very easy to forget

how words are spelt as we don't physically write them down and often rely on

the software to correct them for us. Many people find it quite embarrassing

when they realize how much their spelling has deteriorated – this is one area

where remedial action is straightforward and is guaranteed to produce

positive results.


Missing Word Questions

These questions are designed to measure ones vocabulary, specifically ones

understanding of precise word meanings. One will usually be offered a

choice of four or five words, any of which could complete the sentence.

Example Questions

4. Which of these words completes the sentence in the way that makes most

sense?

A spirit-level should be used to ensure that the surface is n _

A) straight B) flat C) horizontal D) parallel E)aligned


sense?

He avoided m because he was m _

A) redundency B) indispensable C) redundancy D) indispensible


sense?

The plan must be m to make the project mm

A) feasible B) revised C) rivised D) feasible

Answers 4. C 5. C B 6. B A

These questions are relatively straightforward but because more than one of

the options will complete the sentence satisfactorily one must read it carefully

and choose the best word. Note also that some of these questions are

testing one spelling ability and some are testing one understanding of precise

word meanings.


Related Word Questions

To answer these questions one need to understanding of precise meaning of

the words in the question and establish what exactly the relationship is

between them. One should then look at the answer options and decide which

one is the most appropriate.

These questions test one reasoning ability as well as one vocabulary.

Example Questions

7. Which of these is the missing word? kick, m __ mm, walk

A) throw B) toes C) shin D) feet E)hand

8. Which of these is the missing word? key, n n_m, walk

A) lock B) stand C) board D) fob E)stone

9. Which of these is the missing word? water, m __ m , over

A) ice B) drive C) wet D) flow E)fall

Answers

7. D - Feet are used for both kicking 9and walking.

8. C - Board forms the words 'keyboard' and 'boardwalk'

. E- Fall forms 'waterfall' and 'fall over'

There will usually be more than one possible answer, so it is important to

read the question carefully and pick the best option.


Synonym and Antonym Questions

These are words which have either the same or opposite meanings. Once

again, these questions test ones vocabulary - one need to know the precise

meaning of the words given in order to select the appropriate synonym

(same meaning) or antonym (opposite meaning).

Example Questions

10. Which of two of these words are opposite in meaning?

A) lose B)winner C) victor D) loser E)vanquish

11. Which of these words is the odd one out?

A) swindle B) harass C) provoke D) annoy E) pester

12. Which of these words is the odd one out?

A) verify B) authenticate C) confirm D) ask E) substantiate

Answers

10. BD - are exact opposites.

11. A - The others are synonyms

12. D - The others are synonyms


Word Pair Questions

These questions take the form A is to Bas X is to Y. Firstly, one need to

establish the relationship between the 'A is to B' words before one can arrive

at the answer. One may find it helpful to mentally express the relationship

before one look at the answer options. This can short circuit the process of

considering and rejecting each option because one know in advance exactly

what one are looking for.

Example Questions

13. Dog is to canine as wolf is to umuu

A) vulpine B) ursine C) piscine D) bovine E) lupine

14. Sadness is to happiness as defeat is to mum_

A) joy B)victory C) tears D) victor E)none of these

15. Paper is to timber as mm is to hide

A) tree B) seek C) ox D) animal E) leather

Answers

13. E- lupine means 'relating to the characteristics of wolves'

14. B- The word pairs are opposites

15. E- Paper is made from timber, leather is made from hide


Comprehension Questions

These questions consist of a short passage and some related questions.

They will often be about a topic which is unfamiliar to one, but this is an

advantage rather than a disadvantage because one need to answer the

questions based only on the information that one are given - not using any

knowledge that YOI,I already have. Most people find that the best way to

tackle these questions is to scan the text fairly quickly to get the general idea

and then to attempt each question in turn, referring back to the appropriate

part of the text.

Example Question

16. Read the following short passage and say whether or not the statements

are true. There are seven species of deer living wild in Britain. The Red Deer

and the Roe Deer are native species. Fallow Deer were introduced by the

Romans and, since the seventeenth century, have been joined by three other

non-native species: Sika, Muntjac and Chinese Water Deer which have

escaped from parks. In addition, a herd of Reindeer was established in

Scotland in 1952. Most of the Red Deer in Britain are found in Scotland, but

there are significant wild populations in south-west and northwest England,

East Anglia and the north Midlands. Red deer can interbreed with the

introduced Japanese Sika deer and in some areas, hybrids are common.

16a. All of the Red Deer in Britain are found in Scotland.

A) true B)false C) can't say

16b. Red Deer can interbreed with Fallow Deer.

A) true B) false C) can't say

16c. The Fallow Deer is not native to Britain.



16d. There are no Reindeer in England.


Answers

16a. B

16b.C*

16c. A

16d.C

*Note that one must answer the questions using only the information

supplied. Red Deer cannot interbreed with Fallow Deer but, because this is

not stated in the text, one must answer 'can't say' even if one know that the

statement is technically false.


Verbal Reasoning Questions

These questions are not concerned with measuring ones facility with English.

They are designed to test ones ability to take a series of facts expressed in

words and to understand and manipulate the information to solve a specific

problem. These questions are usually restricted to graduate and

management level tests.

Example Question

17. Working together, Tom, Dick and Harry need 9 hours to paint a 400-

metre long fence. Working alone, Tom could complete the task in 18 hours.

Dick can not work as fast and needs 36 hours to paint the fence by himself. If

Tom and Dick take the day off, how long will it take Harry to paint the fence

by himself?

A) 9 B) 12 C) 18 D) 36

Answer

17. 0 - In 9 hours Tom would have painted half of the fence and Dick would

have painted one quarter of it. This leaves one quarter to be painted by Harry

who must therefore work at the same speed as Dick.

SUMMARY

Verbal Ability

Verbal ability tests can be divided into tests of simple verbal ability, for

example; spelling, grammar, synonyms and antonyms etc. These tests

usually consist of 30 to 40 questions which need to be completed in 15 to 20

minutes. They are speed tests in that they don't require very much reasoning

ability. One either know the answer or one don't.


Verbal reasoning tests, on the other hand, are designed to measure ones

problem solving abilities. These questions may take the form of

comprehension exercises, which are straightforward (as long as one

remember to read the relevant part of the text carefully) or more complex

statements where the best tactic is to make notes about what one can

deduce from each part of the text.

These tests usually consist of 10 to 15 questions, which need to be

completed in 20 to 30 minutes and are designed to test one reasoning ability

rather than one facility with the language. Verbal Reasoning questions

assess one ability to use words in a logical way. The questions measure one

understanding of vocabulary, class membership and the relationships

between words. Some questions measure ones ability to perceive and

understand concepts and ideas expressed verbally. While these questions

are designed to measure reasoning ability rather than educational

achievement, it is generally recognized that one verbal reasoning test score

will be influenced by one educational and cultural background.


Numerical Ability Tests

The first type of numerical ability test covers basic arithmetic (addition,

subtraction multiplication and division), number sequences and simple

mathematics (percentages, powers, fractions, etc). This type of test can be

categorized as a speed test and is used to determine one basic numeric.

Obviously one will not be allowed to use a calculator.

Arithmetic Questions

1. 139 + 235 =

A) 372 B) 374 C) 376 D) 437

2.139 - 235 =

A) -69 B) 96 C) 98 D) -96

3.5 x 16 =

A) 80 B) 86 C) 88 D) 78

4.45/9=

A) 4.5 B) 4 C) 5 D) 6

5. 15% of 300 =

A) 20 B) 45 C) 40 D) 35 D) 35

Answers

l. B

2.0

3. A

4. C

5. B


These questions are directly applicable to many administrative and clerical

jobs but can also appear as a component of graduate and managerial tests.

The speed at which one can answer these questions is the critical measure,

as most people could achieve a high score given unlimited time in which to

answer. One can therefore expect 25-35questions in 20-30 minutes.

Number Sequences

These questions require one to find the missing number in a sequence of

numbers. This missing number may be at the beginning or middle but is

usually at the end.

7. Find the next number in the series 4 8 16 32 --

8. Find the next number in the series 4 8 12 20 --

9. Find the missing number in the series 54 49 -- 39 34

10. Find the first number in the series-- 1923 29 31-

A) 48 B) 64 C) 40 D) 46

A) 32 B) 34 C) 36 D) 38

A) 47 B) 44 C) 45 D) 46

A) 12 B) 15 C) 16 D) 17

These number sequences can be quite simple like the examples above.

However, one will often see more complex questions where it is the interval

between the numbers that is the key to the sequence.

11. Find the next number in the series 3 6 11 18 n A) 30 B) 22 C) 27 D) 29

12. Find the next number in the series 4 8 46 42 38 -- A) 32 B) 30 C) 33 D)

34

These simple number sequences usually consist of four visible numbers plus

one missing number. This is because the test designer needs to produce a

sequence into which only one number will fit. The need to avoid any

ambiguity means that if the number sequence relies on a more complex

pattern then there will need to be more visible numbers. For example;


13. Find the missing number in the series 4 3 5 9 12 17 -- A) 32 B) 30 C) 24

14. Find the missing numbers in the series 5 6 7 8 10 11 14 -- -- A) 19 B) 17

15. Find the missing numbers in the series 1 -- 4 7 7 8 10 9 -- A) 6 B) 3 C) 11

Answers

7. B - The numbers double each time

8. A - Each number is the sum of the previous two numbers

9. B - The numbers decrease by 5 each time

10. 0 - The numbers are primes (divisible only by 1 and themselves)

11. C - The interval, beginning with 3, increases by 2 each time

12. B - The interval, beginning with 2, doubles and is subtracted each time

13. 0 - Each number is the sum of the previous and the number 3 places to

the left

14. C A - There are 2 simple interleaved sequences 5, 7,10,14,19 and 6, 8,

11

15. AD - There are 2 simple interleaved sequences J, 4, 7, 10, 13 and 6,7,8,9

To solve these number sequence questions efficiently, one should first check

the relationship between the numbers themselves looking for some simple

arithmetic relationship. Then look at the intervals between the numbers and

see if there is a relationship there. If not, and particularly if there are more

than 4 numbers visible, then there may be two number sequences

interleaved. One will occasionally find multiplication, division, or powers used

in these sequences, but test designers tend to avoid them as these

operations soon lead to large numbers which are difficult to work out without

a calculator.


Letters of the Alphabet as Numbers

Another type of sequence question, which appears in these tests, involves

the substitution of letters of the alphabet for numbers. For example A=1, B=2

etc. It may seem strange to consider these as numerical reasoning questions

but they actually work in the same way once one have changed them back

into numbers.

16. Find the next letter in the series B EH K –

A) L B)M C) N D) 0

17. Find the next letter in the series A Z BY –

A) C B)X C) D D) Y

18. Find the next letter in the series T V X Z –

A) Y B) B C) A D)W

Answers

16. C - There are two letters missing between each one, so N is next 17. A -

There are 2 interleaved sequences A, B, C and Z, Y, so C is next 18. B -

Miss a letter each time and 'loop' back, so B is next because arithmetic

operations cannot be performed on letters there is less room for ambiguity in

these questions. This means that interleaved sequences can be used with

fewer visible letters than in questions that use numbers.

Question 17 for example can use 2 interleaved sequences even though only

four letters are visible. This would be very difficult to achieve with numbers.

It· is implicit in these 'alphabetic sequence' questions that the sequence

'loops' back around and starts again.


See question 18. It is important to recognize this as it is not usually stated

explicitly one are just expected to know it.

If one sees more than one of these questions in a test then it is almost

certainly worth taking the time to write out the letters of the alphabet with

their ordinal numbers underneath. One can then treat these questions in a

similar way to number sequence questions. This can save a lot of time

overall and avoids simple mistakes.

ABC D £ F G HI) K L M N 0 P Q R 5 T V V VI:Z Y Z

1 2 3 .4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26


Numerical Critical Reasoning

Information is provided that requires one to interpret it and then apply the

appropriate logic to answer the questions. Sometimes the questions are

designed to approximate the type of reasoning required in the workplace.

The questions will often use very specific illustrations, for example the

question may present financial data or use information technology jargon.

However, an understanding of these areas is not required to answer the

question.

19. Below are the sales figures for 3 different types of network server over 3

months.

19a. in which month was the sales value highest? January B) February C)

March

19b. What is the unit cost of server type ZXC53

A)12 B) 13 C) 14

19c. how many ZXC43 units could be expected to sell in April?

A)56 B) 58 C) 60

19d. Which server had its unit price changed in Mar.ch

A)ZXCA43 B)ZXC53 C) ZXC63


DATA ANANLYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

After the collection of primary data relating to the use of psychometric tools

by human resource personnel in various organizations, the data so collected

was analyzed and interpretations were drawn.

Q.No.-1) Are you aware of the use of psychometric tools / tests for

various HR functions, by HR personnel all over the world?

Analysis:

The graph clearly shows that the Human Resource professionals of all the

organizations that were surveyed are aware of the use of various

psychometric tools and tests that are being used by HR professional in

organizations all over the world. This means that whether these

organizations are using these tests and tools or not, at least there is

awareness about the existence and use of such tests by human resource

professional for various human resource functions.


Q.No.2) Is your Organization using any psychometric test for any HR

function?

Analysis:

The survey clearly indicates that only one fifth of the organizations are

actually using psychometric tools for some or the other human resource

functions. Our previous graph indicates an absolute awareness about these

tools still only 20% of the organizations are putting to use these psychometric

tests. Psychometric testing in India hence is a relatively unexplored area of

human resource.

On the basis of secondary data if we compare with the organizations in US or

UK as many as 70-80 % of the top companies are using psychometric testing

for various HR functions.

Hence it may be concluded that the use of psychometric testing in India is in

its nascent stage ie. The human resource professionals in India have just

started to use these psychometric tools.


Q.No.3) If no, do you plan to use any psychometric tool / test in future?

Analysis:

The HR professionals in the organizations which were not using any type of

psychometric tools were asked if they were planning to do so in near future.

Only as much as one third of the respondent organizations said they might

use these psychometric tools in near future. As much as 60% of the

respondents had no idea whether their organizations might be interested in

using these tests and tools. However there were 10% of the organizations

that said a clear no to a possibility of their future use. It was a BPO Genpact,

the reason provided was “The number of people being hired runs in

thousands on a monthly basis. Cannot afford the time and cost behind a

psychometric tool.”


What is interesting here is that the organizations and the human resource

personnel in only 10% of the organizations have said a clear No to the use of

psychometric tools. In the previous graph we concluded that psychometric

testing is in its nascent stage in India, in this graph hence we may conclude

that maybe the HR professionals in India have some reservations over using

these tools because they either do not have the knowledge of the benefits

derived from the use of these psychometric tools or are unsure of how well

these tests will fare in India.

Since only one respondent out of the total sample has said a clear ‘No’, it can

be said that educating the HR professionals about the benefits derived from

the use of these tools and tests may push the use of psychometric testing in

India further.

The reason may again be attributed to the fact that psychometric testing is a

relatively new concept in India and there are hardly any companies or bodies

in India which are promoting the use of these tests and tools and to whom

the whole process of psychometric testing can be outsourced.


Q.No.4) \If yes, which tool/s is/are being used by your organization?

The organizations and human resource professionals were found to be using

various psychometric tools like:

Belbin Team roles inventory,

MBTI and number of other tests

A large number of aptitude tests

Behavior tests

Personality tests

FIRO-B

Q.No.5) For which HR function is your organization using these

psychometric tests?

In the data collection exercise it was found that these psychometric tools and

tests are being used for a whole gamut of human resource functions. This

included for human resource processes like:

Recruitment and selection,

Training and development

Counseling,

Feedbacks,

Appraisals,

Behavior analysis,

Competency mapping

For building career paths of employees

Talent Development


Q.No.6) Is your organization satisfied with the result generated by using

these tools/tests?

Analysis:

Of the organizations that were surveyed and which were using psychometric

tools it was asked if they were satisfied with the use of these psychometric

tools and tests. Almost two third of the organizations surveyed said that they

were satisfied with the results generated by these psychometric tools and

tests. And there were only 33% other organizations that were unsure of the

results generated by the use of these psychometric tests. An important point

to note here is that not even a single organization that is using these tools

has shown any kind of dissatisfaction. Hence there is a general level of

satisfaction derived from the use of these psychometric tools.


Q.No.7) /Do you plan to use any other psychometric tool/test in near

future?

Analysis:

The organizations that were already using these psychometric tests and

tools were then asked if they were planning to use any other type of

psychometric tool or test. Here only thirty three percent of the human

resource professionals have said that they are open to trying more

psychometric tools and as much as 67% respondents have said that they

are not sure about it. Again no one has said no, hence it can be said that

human resource professionals in these organizations are open to trying a

few more tools, they may have some reservations though.


Q.No.8) At what level do you usually use these psychometric tests

(managerial, supervisory etc.)

Analysis:

The graph clearly indicates that the organizations that are using

psychometric tools and tests for not just top level management but also

are exploiting their use at lower levels as well. As many as 67% of the

organizations using these tests and tools said, that they use these tests

and tools at all levels of management for various human resource

functions.

In one of our previous analysis we established the fact that psychometric

testing is new to India still here we can see that the organizations that are

pioneering the use of these tests are actually trying to use these test at

various levels, this shows that the human resource professionals are

actually willing to explore new opportunities and their focus today is not

just the white collared professionals but also employees working lower

down the corporate ladder.


Q.No.9) /How do you ensure standardization and objectivity in your

tests?

Standardization implies uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring

the test. Eg. For scores to be comparable, testing conditions must be same

for all. Objectivity implies that the administration scoring and interpretation of

scores are objective insofar as they are independent of the subjective

judgment of the practical examiner.

An interesting fact found here was that the human resource professional in

the organizations using these tests did not point out any particular manner in

which they ensure standardization and objectivity in their tests. At best

organizations are trying to be objective and trying to ensure standardization

by making the use of these psychometric tools a very common phenomenon.

It may be said that concentration is more on learning by trial and error

method rather than trying to find out actual ways in which issues like

objectivity and standardization can be addressed.


Q.No.10) Is your organization aware of the various ethical issues

involved in the use of psychometric testing?

Analysis:

All the human resource professionals surveyed were asked whether they are

aware of the various ethical and social issues involved in the use of

psychometric testing.

It is interesting to know that even though only 25% of the organizations

surveyed are actually using these test still as many as 75% of the human

resources professionals in all the organization surveyed are aware of the

various ethical issues involved in the use of psychometric tools and tests.

This shows the level of interest these psychometric tools have generated in

the minds of human resource professionals and also that human resource

professionals in India are aware of the latest trends in human resource field

of study.


Q.No.12) Do you have qualified professionals for administering and

generating results from these tools or you have outsourced the

process?

Analysis:

The organizations that are using psychometric tests and tools were then

asked whether they have in-house expertise to use and generate the results

from these tools and test or have they outsourced the whole process.

The graph clearly shows that only one third of the organizations have

outsourced the whole process. It is interesting to know that two third of the

organizations using these tools actually have in-house professionals to

administer and use these tests for various human resource functions. This

shows the level of interest of these organizations in the usr of psychometric

tools.


FINDINGS

All the data that was gathered from various human resource professionals

was then analyzed and interpretations were made. On the basis of these

interpretations the following broad conclusions were drawn about the use of

psychometric tools by the organizations:

It was found that there is an enormous amount of awareness in the

human resource professionals about the presence and use of

psychometric tests and tools by the organizations all over the world for

various human resource processes.

The survey clearly indicated that approximately only one fourth of the

organizations in India are actually using psychometric tools for some

or the other human resource functions as against 70-80 %

organizations in US and UK. it was hence safely concluded that

psychometric testing in India is in its nascent stage ie. The human

resource professionals in India have just started to use these

psychometric tools.

Only one of the organizations that were surveyed and which were not

using any psychometric tools clearly denied using these psychometric

tools and tests in future. It was hence concluded that the HR

professional in India just have some reservations in using these tools

and tests because they either do not have the knowledge of the

benefits derived from the use of these psychometric tools or are

unsure of how well these tests will fare in India. It can be said that

educating the HR professionals about the benefits derived from the

use of these tools and tests may push the use of psychometric testing

in India further.


It was also found that as many as half the organizations that were

surveyed and were found to be using these tools and tests are

satisfied with the use of these psychometric tests. And are also

planning to explore and exploit more psychometric tools in the best

interest of the organizations they are working for.

The Survey results clearly indicate that the organizations are using

psychometric tools and tests for not just top level management but are

using these tools and tests at lower levels as well. As many as 75% of

the organizations using these tests and tools said, that they are using

them at all levels of management for various human resource

functions.

CONCLUSION

Keeping in mind the interpretations drawn from the survey and the findings

there from, it is concluded that use of psychometric tools by human resource

professionals in India is a relatively new phenomenon as compared to the

countries in the west like US & UK.

However what is interesting is that there is an absolute awareness among

human resource professionals in India regarding the fact that these

psychometric tools and tests can be and are being used by human resource

professionals all over the world. In fact here is a lot of awareness about the

ethical issues involved in the use of these psychometric tools and tests as

well.

Hence it maybe concluded that the human resource professionals in India do

have the theoretical knowledge about these tools and test but are either not

enough enterprising in exploring new field of study in HR or else they have


reservations over using these tools and tests because they are unsure of the

practical implications and benefits of these tests.

It is also important to mention here that there are few organizations that are

using these psychometric tools and tests and are extremely satisfied with the

result generated and are not only ready and willing to explore more

psychometric tools but are actually using these tests and tools at not just the

top managerial level but also at lower levels down the corporate hierarchy.

Use of psychometric tests in India hence remains an unexplored area of

human resource however it must also be kept in mind that the human

resource professionals are willing to use these test in future. It is hence the

responsibility of human resource academicians to explore this area of HR

and gain some expertise on use of these tests in order to further promote the

use of psychometric testing in India.

RECOMMENDATIONS

On the basis of my research I would like to recommend to the human

resource personnel in India that they must be more enterprising in exploring

the untouched and upcoming areas of human resources. Psychometric

testing in India for example is a relatively new phenomenon. The human

resource professionals must keep in constant touch with the latest trends and

fads in the human resource field of study. These professionals must also

understand that in today’s scenario; just having the theoretical knowledge is

useless if you cannot put that knowledge to practical use.

Apart from this it would be extremely beneficial for the human resource

fraternity in India on the whole, if the organizations and HR professionals that

are actually using psychometric tests and tools must come forward to share

their views and experiences with other organizations which may not be that

strong financially to experiment with such things. Human resource personnel

working in foreign multinational companies must specially participate in


activities that can introduce new tools and techniques to their fellow human

resource professionals.

More corporate level seminars and workshops must be organized where

human resource professionals from various organizations can forward to

share their views, experiences and knowledge. This would be beneficial for

everyone on the whole. In fact it is about time when human resource

professionals in India form a national level forum that can conduct such

seminars and workshops to take human resource in India to higher levels.

As said by a great speaker “ In 21st century those who can read and write

shall not be illiterate but it would be those who cannot learn, unlearn and

relearn” keeping this in mind I would just like to recommend to the human

resource fraternity to be more enterprising and look forward to out of the box

thinking .

LIMITATIONS

A sincere attempt has been made to keep the project away from

any kind of redundancies, biases or errors, yet the readers may

find certain l imitation in the project, which may be because of

one or more of the following reasons:

The validity and correctness of information relating the

various tests and tools are subject to the data gathered

from various websites on the internet.

The sample size for the survey is only 12 this. This is

because only one HR person per organizations could be

used to represent their respective organizations and human

resource departments f i l l the questionnaire.


The validity of data is subject to the views expressed by

the respondents working as human resource professionals

in various organizations.

The number of psychometric tools included in this project is

only inclusive and not exhaustive because it is practically

impossible to include all the psychometric tools from the

toolkit of HR

REFERENCES

BOOKS

Anastasi Anne, Urbina Susana

Psychological Testing,

Pearson Education, 2003.

Mcshane S, Glinow A M, Sharma R,

Introduction to Organization Behavior,

Tata McGraw Hills, 2006.

E-Books

D.Constantine-Simms,

Everything you need to know to pass psychometric tests.


Magazines

HRM Review February 2007

Search Engines

Google

Websites

http://www.teamfocus.co.uk/different_types_of_psychometric_tests.htm

http://changingminds.org/disciplines/hr/selection/psychometric.htm

http://www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.html

http://en.wikipedia.org

www.humanmetrics.com

http://www.opp.co.uk etc.


http://www.opp.co.uk/

http://www.humanmetrics.com/

http://en.wikipedia.org/

http://www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.html

http://changingminds.org/disciplines/hr/selection/psychometric.htm

http://www.teamfocus.co.uk/different_types_of_psychometric_tests.htm

psychometric testing

Technology

various psychometric

psychological tests

term psychometric testing

personality tests

number of psychometric

aptitude tests

power tests

project report