psychology - indian school manual

CONTENTS

Foreword iii

Preface v

Chapter 1

Variations in Psychological Attributes 1

Chapter 2

Self and Personality 23

Chapter 3

Meeting Life Challenges 50

Chapter 4

Psychological Disorders 69

Chapter 5

Therapeutic Approaches 89

Chapter 6

Attitude and Social Cognition 106

Chapter 7

Social Influence and Group Processes 129

Chapter 8

Psychology and Life 152

Chapter 9

Developing Psychological Skills 177

Guidelines for Practicals in Psychology 196

Glossary 200

Suggested Readings 209

/book_publishing/NEW BOOK 2007/class12/psychology/Chapter 1.pdf







/book_publishing/NEW BOOK 2007/class12/psychology/Chap 8 - Psychology and Life.pdf

/book_publishing/NEW BOOK 2007/class12/psychology/Chap 9 - Developing Psychological Skills.pdf

/book_publishing/NEW BOOK 2007/class12/psychology/Guidelines for Practicals.pdf

/book_publishing/NEW BOOK 2007/class12/psychology/Glossary.pdf

VARIAVARIAVARIAVARIAVARIATIONS IN PSYTIONS IN PSYTIONS IN PSYTIONS IN PSYTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATCHOLOGICAL ATCHOLOGICAL ATCHOLOGICAL ATCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTESTRIBUTESTRIBUTESTRIBUTESTRIBUTES

IntroductionIndividual Differences in Human FunctioningAssessment of Psychological AttributesIntelligenceTheories of Intelligence

Theory of Multiple IntelligencesTriarchic Theory of IntelligencePlanning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous- successive Model of Intelligence

Individual Differences in IntelligenceVariations of IntelligenceSome Misuses of Intelligence Tests (Box 1.1)

Culture and IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence

Characteristics of Emotionally IntelligentPersons (Box 1.2)

Special AbilitiesAptitude : Nature and Measurement

Creativity

CONTENTS

Key TermsSummaryReview QuestionsProject IdeasWeblinksPedagogical Hints

After reading this chapter, you would be able to:understand psychological attributes on which people differ from each other,learn about different methods that are used to assess psychological attributes,explain what constitutes intelligent behaviour,learn how psychologists assess intelligence to identify mentally challengedand gifted individuals,understand how intelligence has different meaning in different cultures, andunderstand the difference between intelligence and aptitude.

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exemplifies a typical combination ofvarious traits. The question which you maylike to pose is how and why people differ.This, in fact, is the subject matter of thestudy of individual differences. Forpsychologists, individual differences refer todistinctiveness and variations amongpeople’s characteristics and behaviourpatterns.

While many psychologists believe thatour behaviours are influenced by ourpersonal traits, some others hold the viewthat our behaviours are influenced more bysituational factors. This latter view isknown as situationism, which states thatsituations and circumstances in which oneis placed influence one’s behaviour. Aperson, who is generally aggressive, maybehave in a submissive manner in thepresence of her/his top boss. Sometimes,the situational influences are so powerfulthat individuals with differing personalitytraits respond to them in almost the sameways. The situationist perspective viewshuman behaviour as resulting frominteraction of external and internal factors.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN

FUNCTIONING

Individual variations are common withinand across all species. Variations addcolour and beauty to nature. For amoment, think of a world around youwhere each and every object is of the samecolour, say red or blue or green. How wouldthe world appear to you? Certainly not abeautiful one! Would you prefer to live insuch a world? In all likelihood, youranswer will be ‘no’. Like objects, people toopossess different combinations of traits.

Variability is a fact of nature, andindividuals are no exception to this. Theyvary in terms of physical characteristics,such as height, weight, strength, haircolour, and so on. They also vary alongpsychological dimensions. They may beintelligent or dull, dominant or submissive,creative or not so creative, outgoing orwithdrawn, etc. The list of variations canbe endless. Different traits can exist invarying degrees in an individual. In thissense, each one of us is unique as s/he

If you observe your friends, classmates or relatives, you will find how theydiffer from each other in the manner they perceive, learn, and think, asalso in their performance on various tasks. Such individual differences canbe noticed in every walk of life. That people differ from one another is obvious.In Class XI, you have learnt about psychological principles that are appliedto understand human behaviour. We also need to know how people differ,what brings about these differences, and how such differences can beassessed. You will recall how one of the main concerns of modern psychologyhas been the study of individual differences from the time of Galton. Thischapter will introduce you to some of the fundamentals of individualdifferences.

One of the most popular psychological attributes which has been ofinterest to psychologists is Intelligence. People differ from each other intheir ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn fromexperience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles.In this chapter, you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitionsof intelligence, cultural differences in intelligence, range and variations inthe intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilitiesor aptitudes.

Introduction

Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 3

ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL

ATTRIBUTES

Psychological attributes are involved invery simple phenomena like in time takento react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time,and also in highly global concepts likehappiness. It is difficult to count andspecify the number of psychologicalattributes that can be assessed.Assessment is the first step inunderstanding a psychological attribute.Assessment refers to the measurement ofpsychological attributes of individuals andtheir evaluation, often using multiplemethods in terms of certain standards ofcomparison. Any attribute will be said toexist in a person only if it can be measuredby using scientific procedures. Forexample, when we say, “Harish isdominant”, we are referring to the degreeof ‘dominance’ in Harish. This statement isbased on our own assessment of‘dominance’ in him. Our assessment maybe informal or formal. Formal assessmentis objective, standardised, and organised.On the other hand, informal assessmentvaries from case to case and from oneassessor to another and, therefore, is opento subjective interpretations. Psychologistsare trained in making formal assessmentof psychological attributes.

Once assessment is done, we can usethis information to predict how Harish willprobably behave in future. We may predictthat Harish, if given a chance to lead ateam, will most likely be an authoritarianleader. If the predicted consequence is notwhat we want, we may want to interveneto effect a change in Harish’s behaviour.The attribute chosen for assessmentdepends upon our purpose. In order tohelp a weak student perform well inexaminations, we may assess her/hisintellectual strengths and weaknesses. If aperson fails to adjust with members of her/

his family and neighbourhood, we mayconsider assessing her/his personalitycharacteristics. For a poorly motivatedperson, we may assess her/his interestsand preferences. Psychological assessmentuses systematic testing procedures toevaluate abilities, behaviours, and personalqualities of individuals.

Some Domains of PsychologicalAttributes

Psychological attributes are not linear orunidimensional. They are complex andexpressed in terms of dimensions. A lineis a mere aggregate of many points. A pointoccupies no space. But think of a box. Itoccupies space. It can be described only interms of its three dimensions, i.e. length,width, and height. Similar is the case withpsychological attributes. They are usuallymulti-dimensional. If you want to have acomplete assessment of a person, you willneed to assess how s/he functions invarious domains or areas, such ascognitive, emotional, social, etc.

We will discuss in this chapter someimportant attributes that are of interest topsychologists. These attributes arecategorised on the basis of varieties of testsused in psychological literature.1. Intelligence is the global capacity to

understand the world, think rationally,and use available resources effectivelywhen faced with challenges. Intelligencetests provide a global measure of aperson’s general cognitive competenceincluding the ability to profit fromschooling. Generally, students havinglow intelligence are not likely to do sowell in school-related examinations, buttheir success in life is not associatedonly with their intelligence test scores.

2. Aptitude refers to an individual’sunderlying potential for acquiring skills.Aptitude tests are used to predict whatan individual will be able to do if given

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proper environment and training. Aperson with high mechanical aptitudecan profit from appropriate training andcan do well as an engineer. Similarly,a person having high language aptitudecan be trained to be a good writer.

3. Interest is an individual’s preference forengaging in one or more specificactivities relative to others. Assessmentof interests of students may help todecide what subjects or courses theycan pursue comfortably and withpleasure. Knowledge of interests helpsus in making choices that promote lifesatisfaction and performance on jobs.

4. Personality refers to relatively enduringcharacteristics of a person that makeher or him distinct from others.Personality tests try to assess anindividual’s unique characteristics, e.g.whether one is dominant or submissive,outgoing or withdrawn, moody oremotionally stable, etc. Personalityassessment helps us to explain anindividual’s behaviour and predict howshe/he will behave in future.

5. Values are enduring beliefs about anideal mode of behaviour. A personhaving a value sets a standard forguiding her/his actions in life and alsofor judging others. In value assessment,we try to determine the dominantvalues of a person (e.g., political,religious, social or economic).

Assessment Methods

Several methods are used for psychologicalassessment. You have learnt about someof these methods in Class XI. Let us recalltheir key features.• Psychological Test is an objective

and standardised measure of anindividual’s mental and/or behaviouralcharacteristics. Objective tests havebeen developed to measure all thedimensions of psychological attributes(e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.)described above. These tests are widely

used for the purposes of clinicaldiagnosis, guidance, personnelselection, placement, and training.Besides objective tests, psychologistshave also developed certain projectivetests, especially for the assessment ofpersonality. You will learn about themin Chapter 2.

• Interview involves seeking informationfrom a person on a one-to-one basis. Youmay see it being used when acounsellor interacts with a client, asalesperson makes a door -to-doorsurvey regarding the usefulness of aparticular product, an employer selectsemployees for her/his organisation, or ajournalist interviews important peopleon issues of national and internationalimportance.

• Case Study is an in-depth study of theindividual in terms of her/hispsychological attributes, psychologicalhistory in the context of her/hispsychosocial and physical environment.Case studies are widely used byclinical psychologists. Case analyses ofthe lives of great people can also behighly illuminating for those willing tolearn from their life experiences.Case studies are based on datagenerated by different methods, e.g.interview, observation, questionnaire,psychological tests, etc.

• Observation involves employingsystematic, organised, and objectiveprocedures to record behaviouralphenomena occurring naturally in realtime. Certain phenomena such asmother-child interactions can be easilystudied through observation. The majorproblems with observational methodsare that the observer has little controlover the situation and the reports maysuffer from subjective interpretations ofthe observer.

• Self-Report is a method in which aperson provides factual informationabout herself/himself and/or opinions,


beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Suchinformation may be obtained byusing an interview schedule or aquestionnaire, a psychological test, ora personal diary.

INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is a key construct employed toknow how individuals differ from oneanother. It also provides an understandingof how people adapt their behaviouraccording to the environment they live in.In this section, you will read aboutintelligence in its various forms.

Psychological notion of intelligence isquite different from the common sensicalnotion of intelligence. If you watch anintelligent person, you are likely to see inher/him attributes like mental alertness,ready wit, quickness in learning, andability to understand relationships. TheOxford Dictionary explains intelligence asthe power of perceiving, learning,understanding, and knowing. Earlyintelligence theorists also used theseattributes in defining intelligence. AlfredBinet was one of the first psychologistswho worked on intelligence. He definedintelligence as the ability to judge well,understand well, and reason well.Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are mostwidely used, understood intelligence interms of its functionality, i.e. its value foradaptation to environment. He defined it asthe global and aggregate capacity of anindividual to think rationally, actpurposefully, and to deal effectively withher/his environment. Other psychologists,such as Gardner and Sternberg havesuggested that an intelligent individual notonly adapts to the environment, but alsoactively modifies or shapes it. You will beable to understand the concept ofintelligence and how it has evolved, when

we discuss some important theories ofintelligence.

Activity1.1

Discovering the Attributes ofIntelligent Persons

1. Who is the most intelligent of yourclassmates? Think of her/him inyour mind’s eye, and write downa few words/phrases describingthat person.

2. Think of 3 other persons in yourimmediate environment, whomyou consider intelligent, and writedown a few words/phrasesdescribing the attributes of each.

3. Judge the newer additions withreference to what you wrote in itemno. 1.

4. Make a list of all the attributes youconsider as manifestations ofintelligent behaviours. Using theseattributes, try to frame a definition.

5. Discuss your report with yourclassmates and the teacher.

6. Compare it with what theresearchers have to say about‘intelligence’.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Psychologists have proposed severaltheories of intelligence. Theories can bebroadly classified as either representing apsychometric/structural approach or aninformation-processing approach.

The psychometric approach considersintelligence as an aggregate of abilities. Itexpresses the individual’s performance interms of a single index of cognitive abilities.On the other hand, the information-processing approach describes theprocesses people use in intellectualreasoning and problem solving. The majorfocus of this approach is on how anintelligent person acts. Rather thanfocusing on structure of intelligence or itsunderlying dimensions, information-

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processing approaches emphasise studyingcognitive functions underlying intelligentbehaviour. We will discuss somerepresentative theories of theseapproaches.

We mentioned above that Alfred Binetwas the first psychologist who tried toformalise the concept of intelligence interms of mental operations. Prior to him,we find the notion of intelligence describedin general ways in various philosophicaltreatises available in different culturaltraditions. Binet’s theory of intelligencewas rather simple as it arose from hisinterest in differentiating more intelligentfrom less intelligent individuals. He,therefore, conceptualised intelligence asconsisting of one similar set of abilitieswhich can be used for solving any or everyproblem in an individual’s environment.His theory of intelligence is called Uni orone factor theory of intelligence. Thistheory came to be disputed whenpsychologists started analysing dataof individuals, which was collected usingBinet’s test.

In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed atwo-factor theory of intelligenceemploying a statistical method called factoranalysis. He showed that intelligenceconsisted of a general factor (g-factor) andsome specific factors (s-factors). Theg-factor includes mental operations whichare primary and common to allperformances. In addition to the g-factor,he said that there are also many specificabilities. These are contained in what hecalled the s-factor. Excellent singers,architects, scientists, and athletes may behigh on g-factor, but in addition to this,they have specific abilities which allowthem to excel in their respective domains.Spearman’s theory was followed by LouisThurstone’s theory. He proposed thetheory of primary mental abilities. Itstates that intelligence consists of sevenprimary abilities, each of which is relatively

independent of the others. These primaryabilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension(grasping meaning of words, concepts, andideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed andaccuracy in numerical and computationalskills), (iii) Spatial Relations (visualisingpatterns and forms), (iv) Perceptual Speed(speed in perceiving details), (v) WordFluency (using words fluently and flexibly),(vi) Memory (accuracy in recallinginformation), and (vii) Inductive Reasoning(deriving general rules from presentedfacts).

Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchicalmodel of intelligence consisting of abilitiesoperating at two levels, called Level I andLevel II. Level I is the associative learningin which output is more or less similar tothe input (e.g., rote learning and memory).Level II, called cognitive competence,involves higher-order skills as theytransform the input to produce an effectiveoutput.

J.P. Guilford proposed the structure-of-intellect model which classifiesintellectual traits among three dimensions:operations, contents, and products.Operations are what the respondent does.These include cognition, memoryrecording, memory retention, divergentproduction, convergent production, andevaluation. Contents refer to the nature ofmaterials or information on whichintellectual operations are performed.These include visual, auditory, symbolic(e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g.,words) and behavioural (e.g., informationabout people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs,etc.). Products refer to the form in whichinformation is processed by the respondent.Products are classified into units, classes,relations, systems, transformations, andimplications. Since this classification(Guilford, 1988) includes 6 5 6 categories,therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cellis expected to have at least one factor orability; some cells may have more than


one factor. Each factor is described interms of all three dimensions.

The above mentioned theories arerepresentations of psychometric approachto understand intelligent behaviour.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner proposed the theory ofmultiple intelligences. According to him,intelligence is not a single entity; ratherdistinct types of intelligences exist. Eachof these intelligences are independent ofeach other. This means that, if a personexhibits one type of intelligence, it does notnecessarily indicate being high or low onother types of intelligences. Gardner alsoput forth that dif ferent types ofintelligences interact and work together tofind a solution to a problem. Gardnerstudied extremely talented persons, whohad shown exceptional abilities in theirrespective areas, and described eight typesof intelligence. These are as follows:

Linguistic (skills involved in theproduction and use of language) : It is thecapacity to use language fluently andflexibly to express one’s thinking andunderstand others. Persons high on thisintelligence are ‘word-smart’, i.e. they aresensitive to different shades of wordmeanings, are articulate, and can createlinguistic images in their mind. Poets andwriters are very strong in this componentof intelligence.

Logical-Mathematical (skills inscientific thinking and problem solving) :Persons high on this type of intelligence canthink logically and critically. They engage inabstract reasoning, and can manipulatesymbols to solve mathematical problems.Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likelyto be strong in this component.

Spatial (skills in forming visual imagesand patterns) : It refers to the abilitiesinvolved in forming, using, andtransforming mental images. The person

high on this intelligence can easilyrepresent the spatial world in the mind.Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters,architects, interior decorators, andsurgeons are likely to have highlydeveloped spatial intelligence.

Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythmsand patterns) : It is the capacity toproduce, create and manipulate musicalpatterns. Persons high on this intelligenceare very sensitive to sounds and vibrations,and in creating new patterns of sounds.

Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole orportions of the body flexibly andcreatively) : This consists of the use of thewhole body or portions of it for display orconstruction of products and problemsolving. Athletes, dancers, actors,sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeonsare likely to have such kind of intelligence.

Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtleaspects of others’ behaviours) : This is theskill of understanding the motives, feelingsand behaviours of other people so as tobond into a comfortable relationship withothers. Psychologists, counsellors,politicians, social workers, and religiousleaders are likely to possess highinterpersonal intelligence.

Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s ownfeelings, motives, and desires): This refersto the knowledge of one’s internalstrengths and limitations and using thatknowledge to effectively relate to others.Persons high on this ability have finersensibilities regarding their identity,human existence, and meaning of life.Philosophers and spiritual leaders presentexamples of this type of intelligence.

Naturalistic (sensitivity to the featuresof the natural world) : This involvescomplete awareness of our relationshipwith the natural world. It is useful inrecognising the beauty of different speciesof flora and fauna, and making subtlediscriminations in the natural world.Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists,

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zoologists, and bird watchers possess moreof naturalistic intelligence.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed thetriarchic theory of intelligence. Sternbergviews intelligence as “the ability to adapt,to shape and select environment toaccomplish one’s goals and those of one’ssociety and culture”. According to thistheory, there are three basic types ofintelligence: Componential, Experiential,and Contextual. The elements of thetriarchic theory of intelligence are shownin Figure 1.1.

Componential Intelligence : Compo-nential or analytical intelligence is theanalysis of information to solve problems.Persons high on this ability thinkanalytically and critically and succeed inschools. This intelligence has threecomponents, each serving a differentfunction. First is the knowledge acquisitioncomponent, which is responsible forlearning and acquisition of the ways ofdoing things. The second is the meta or ahigher order component, which involvesplanning concerning what to do and howto do. The third is the performancecomponent, which involves actually doingthings.

Fig.1.1 : Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Experiential Intelligence: Experiential orcreative intelligence is involved in usingpast experiences creatively to solve novelproblems. It is reflected in creativeperformance. Persons high on this aspectintegrate different experiences in anoriginal way to make new discoveries andinventions. They quickly find out whichinformation is crucial in a given situation.

Activity1.2

On the ‘Practical’ Track

You have just been admitted into aschool/college. You will take threeexaminations during the entire year.You sincerely want to receive highmarks in the course. How likely are youto engage in each of the followingactions? Rank the following courses ofaction. Match your answer with thatof your classmates.• Attend classes regularly.• Create study groups with your

friends for weekly discussions.• Take detailed notes in the class.• Join a tutorial/coaching centre.• Prepare written notes for each

chapter.• Read the textbook chapters

thoroughly.• Solve the questions of the last three

years.Talk to your teacher after the class.


Contextual Intelligence : Contextual orpractical intelligence involves the ability todeal with environmental demandsencountered on a daily basis. It may becalled ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’.Persons high on this aspect easily adapt totheir present environment or select a morefavourable environment than the existingone, or modify the environment to fit theirneeds. Therefore, they turn out to besuccessful in life.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory ofintelligence represents the information-processing approach to understandintelligence.

Planning, Attention-arousal, andSimultaneous-successive (PASS) Modelof Intelligence

This model has been developed by J.P.Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994).According to this model, intellectualactivity involves the interdependentfunctioning of three neurological systems,called the functional units of brain. Theseunits are responsible for arousal/attention,coding or processing, and planningrespectively.

Arousal/Attention : State of arousal isbasic to any behaviour as it helps us inattending to stimuli. Arousal and attentionenable a person to process information. Anoptimal level of arousal focuses ourattention to the relevant aspects of aproblem. Too much or too little arousalwould interfere with attention. Forinstance, when you are told by yourteacher about a test which s/he plans tohold, it would arouse you to attend to thespecific chapters. Arousal forces you tofocus your attention on reading, learningand revising the contents of the chapters.

Simultaneous and SuccessiveProcessing : You can integrate theinformation into your knowledge systemeither simultaneously or successively.Simultaneous processing takes place when

you perceive the relations among variousconcepts and integrate them into ameaningful pattern for comprehension. Forexample, in Raven’s Progressive Matrices(RPM) Test, a design is presented fromwhich a part has been removed. You arerequired to choose one of the six optionsthat best completes the design.Simultaneous processing helps you ingrasping the meaning and relationshipbetween the given abstract figures.Successive processing takes place whenyou remember all the information seriallyso that the recall of one leads to the recallof another. Learning of digits, alphabets,multiplication tables, etc. are examples ofsuccessive processing.

Planning : This is an essential featureof intelligence. After the information isattended to and processed, planning isactivated. It allows us to think of thepossible courses of action, implement themto reach a target, and evaluate theireffectiveness. If a plan does not work, it ismodified to suit the requirements of thetask or situation. For example, to take thetest scheduled by your teacher, you wouldhave to set goals, plan a time schedule ofstudy, get clarifications in case of problemsand if you are not able to tackle thechapters assigned for the test, you mayhave to think of other ways (e.g., give moretime, study with a friend, etc.) to meet yourgoals.

These PASS processes operate on aknowledge base developed either formally(by reading, writing, and experimenting) orinformally from the environment. Theseprocesses are interactive and dynamic innature; yet each has its own distinctivefunctions. Das and Naglieri have alsodeveloped a battery of tests, known as theCognitive Assessment System (CAS). Itconsists of verbal as well as non-verbaltasks that measure basic cognitivefunctions presumed to be independent ofschooling. The battery of tests is meant forindividuals between 5 and 18 years of age.

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The results of assessment can be used toremedy cognitive deficits of children withlearning problems.

This model represents the information-processing approach to intelligence.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE

Why are some people more intelligent thanothers? Is it due to their heredity, or is itdue to the influence of environmentalfactors? You have already read about theinfluence of these factors in thedevelopment of an individual in Class XI.

Intelligence: Interplay of Nature andNurture

The evidence for hereditary influences onintelligence comes mainly from studies ontwins and adopted children. Theintelligence of identical twins rearedtogether correlate almost 0.90. Twinsseparated early in childhood alsoshow considerable similarity in theirintellectual, personality and behaviouralcharacteristics. The intelligence of identicaltwins reared in different environmentscorrelate 0.72, those of fraternal twinsreared together correlate almost 0.60, andthose of brothers and sisters rearedtogether correlate about 0.50, whilesiblings reared apart correlate about 0.25.Another line of evidence comes from thestudies of adopted children, whichshow that children’s intelligence is moresimilar to their biological rather thanadoptive parents.

With respect to the role of environment,studies have reported that as children growin age, their intelligence level tends to movecloser to that of their adoptive parents.Children from disadvantaged homesadopted into families with higher socio-economic status exhibit a large increase intheir intelligence scores. There is evidencethat environmental deprivation lowers

intelligence while rich nutrition, good familybackground, and quality schoolingincreases intelligence. There is a generalconsensus among psychologists thatintelligence is a product of complexinteraction of heredity (nature) andenvironment (nurture). Heredity can best beviewed as something that sets a rangewithin which an individual’s development isactually shaped by the support andopportunities of the environment.

Assessment of Intelligence

In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon,made the first successful attempt toformally measure intelligence. In 1908,when the scale was revised, they gave theconcept of Mental Age (MA), which is ameasure of a person’s intellectualdevelopment relative to people of her/hisage group. A mental age of 5 means thata child’s performance on an intelligencetest equals the average performance levelof a group of 5-year olds. ChronologicalAge (CA) is the biological age from birth.A bright child’s MA is more than her/hisCA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA.Retardation was defined by Binet andSimon as being two mental age years belowthe chronological age.

In 1912, William Stern, a Germanpsychologist, devised the concept ofIntelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers tomental age divided by chronological age,and multiplied by 100.

IQ = 100

The number 100 is used as a multiplierto avoid the decimal point. When the MAequals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA ismore than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQbecomes less than 100 when the MA is lessthan the CA. For example, a10-year-old child with a mental age of 12would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 100),

MACA


whereas the same child with an MA of 7would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 100). Theaverage IQ in the population is 100,irrespective of age.

IQ scores are distributed in thepopulation in such a way that the scoresof most people tend to fall in the middlerange of the distribution. Only a fewpeople have either very high or very lowscores. The frequency distribution for theIQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve.This type of distribution is symmetricalaround the central value, called the mean.The distribution of IQ scores in the formof a normal distribution is shown inFigure 1.2.

The mean IQ score in a population is100. People with IQ scores in the range of90–110 have normal intelligence. Thosewith IQ below 70 are suspected to have

‘mental retardation’, while persons with IQabove 130 are considered to haveexceptional talents. The IQ score of aperson can be interpreted by referring toTable 1.1.

Table 1.1 : Classification of People on theBasis of IQ

IQ Range Descriptive Label Per cent in thePopulation

Above 130 Very superior 2.2120 – 130 Superior 6.7110 – 119 High average 16.190 – 109 Average 50.080 – 89 Low average 16.170 – 79 Borderline 6.7Below 70 Mentally challenged/ 2.2

retarded

Fig.1.2 : Normal Curve Pattern Showing Distribution of IQ Scores in the Population

‘Intelligent’ Numbers(Computing IQ)

• Find out the IQ of a 14-year-oldchild with a mental age of 16.

• Find out the mental age of a 12-year-old child with an IQ of 90.

Activity1.3

All persons do not have the sameintellectual capacity; some areexceptionally bright and some are belowaverage. One practical use of intelligencetest is to identify persons at the extremesof intellectual functioning. If you refer toTable 1.1, you will notice that about 2 percent of the population have IQ above 130,

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and a similar percentage have IQ below 70.The persons in the first group are calledintellectually gifted; those in the secondgroup are termed mentally challengedor mentally retarded. These twogroups deviate considerably from thenormal population in respect of theircognitive, emotional, and motivationalcharacteristics.

Variations of Intelligence

Intellectual Deficiency

On the one hand are the gifted and creativepersons we discussed briefly earlier. On theother hand, there are children who faceenormous difficulty in learning even verysimple skills. Those children who showintellectual deficiency are termed as‘mentally challenged’ or ‘mentally retarded’.As a group, there is wide variation amongthe mentally deficient or retarded. TheAmerican Association on Mental Deficiency(AAMD) views mental retardation as“significantly sub-average generalintellectual functioning existing concurrentlywith deficits in adaptive behaviour andmanifested during the developmentalperiod”. This definition points to threebasic features. First, in order to be judgedas mentally retarded, a person must showsignificantly sub-average intellectualfunctioning. Persons having IQs below 70are judged to have sub-averageintelligence. The second relates to deficitsin adaptive behaviour. Adaptive behaviourrefers to a person’s capacity to beindependent and deal effectively with one’senvironment. The third feature is that thedeficits must be observed during thedevelopmental period, that is between 0and 18 years of age.

Individuals who are categorised ashaving mental retardation show significantvariation in their abilities, ranging fromthose who can be taught to work and

function with special attention, to thosewho cannot be trained and requireinstitutional care throughout their lives.You have learnt earlier that the mean IQscore in the population is 100. Thesefigures are used to understand thecategories of mentally retarded. Thedifferent levels of retardation are: mildretardation (IQs 55–69), moderateretardation (IQs 40–54), severeretardation (IQs 25–39), and profoundretardation (IQs below 25). Although thedevelopment of people with mildretardation is typically slower than that oftheir peers, they can function quiteindependently, hold jobs and families. Asthe level of retardation increases, thedifficulties are strongly marked. The peoplewith moderate retardation lag behind theirpeers in language and motor skills. Theycan be trained in self-care skills, andsimple social and communication skills.They need to have moderate degree ofsupervision in everyday tasks. Individualswith profound and severe retardation areincapable of managing life and needconstant care for their entire lives. You willread more about the characteristics of thementally retarded/challenged in Chapter 4.

Intellectual Giftedness

Intellectually gifted individuals show higherperformance because of their outstandingpotentialities. The study of giftedindividuals began in 1925, when LewisTerman followed the lives of about 1500children with IQs of 130 and above toexamine how intelligence was related tooccupational success and life adjustment.Although the terms ‘talent ’ and‘giftedness ’ are often used inter -changeably, they mean different things.Giftedness is exceptional general abilityshown in superior performance in a widevariety of areas. Talent is a narrower termand refers to remarkable ability in a


specific field (e.g., spiritual, social,aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented aresometimes called ‘prodigies’.

It has been suggested by psychologiststhat giftedness from the teachers’ point ofview depends on a combination of highability, high creativity , and highcommitment.

Gifted children show early signs ofintellectual superiority. Even duringinfancy and early childhood, they showlarger attention span, good recognitionmemory, preference for novelty, sensitivityto environmental changes, and earlyappearance of language skills. To equategiftedness with brilliant academicperformance is not correct. Athletes whoshow superior psychomotor ability arealso gifted. Each gifted studentpossesses different strengths, personalitiesand characteristics. Some importantcharacteristics of gifted children are :• Advanced logical thinking, questioning

and problem solving behaviour.• High speed in processing information.• Superior generalisation and discri-

mination ability.• Advanced level of original and creative

thinking.• High level of intrinsic motivation and

self-esteem.• Independent and non-conformist

thinking.• Preference for solitary academic

activities for long periods.Performance on intelligence tests is not

the only measure for identifying the gifted.Many other sources of information, such asteachers’ judgment, school achievementrecord, parents’ interviews, peer and self-ratings, etc. can be used in combinationwith intellectual assessment. To reach theirfull potential, gifted children require specialattention and different educationalprogrammes beyond those provided tonormal children in regular classrooms.

These may include life enrichmentprogrammes that can sharpen children’sskills in productive thinking, planning,decision-making, and communication.

Types of Intelligence Tests

Intelligence tests are of several types. Onthe basis of their administration procedure,they can be categorised as individual orgroup tests. They can also be classified aseither verbal or performance tests on thebasis of the nature of items used.Depending upon the extent to which anintelligence test favours one culture overanother, it can be judged as either culture-fair or culture-biased. You can choose atest depending on the purpose of your use.

Individual or Group Tests

An individual intelligence test is one whichcan be administered to one person at atime. A group intelligence test can beadministered to several personssimultaneously. Individual tests requirethe test administrator to establish arapport with the subject and be sensitiveto her/his feelings, moods and expressionsduring the testing session. Group tests,however, do not allow an opportunity to befamiliar with the subjects’ feelings.Individual tests allow people to answerorally or in a written form or manipulateobjects as per the tester’s instructions.Group tests generally seek written answersusually in a multiple-choice format.

Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests

An intelligence test may be fully verbal,fully non-verbal or fully performance-based, or it may consist of a mixture ofitems from each category. Verbal testsrequire subjects to give verbal responseseither orally or in a written form. Therefore,verbal tests can be administered only toliterate people. The non-verbal tests use

Psychology14

pictures or illustrations as test items.Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test isan example of a non-verbal test. In thistest, the subject examines an incompletepattern and chooses a figure from thealternatives that will complete the pattern.A specimen item from RPM is given inFigure 1.3.

is asked to arrange the blocks within atime period to produce a given design. Amajor advantage of performance tests isthat they can be easily administered topersons from different cultures.

Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests

Intelligence tests can be culture-fair orculture-biased. Many intelligence testsshow a bias to the culture in which theyare developed. Tests developed in Americaand Europe represent an urban andmiddle class cultural ethos. Hence,educated middle class white subjectsgenerally perform well on those tests. Theitems do not respect the culturalperspectives of Asia and Africa. The normsfor these tests are also drawn from westerncultural groups. You may be alreadyfamiliar with the concept of normsdiscussed in Class XI.

It is nearly impossible to design a testthat can be applied equally meaningfully inall cultures. Psychologists have tried todevelop tests that are culture-fair orculturally appropriate, i.e. one that does notdiscriminate against individuals belongingto different cultures. In such tests, itemsare constructed in a manner that they

Box1.1

Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests

You might have learnt by now that intelligence tests serve many useful purposes such asselection, counselling, guidance, self-analysis, and diagnosis. Unless used by a trainedinvestigator, they may be misused either intentionally or unintentionally. Some of the ill-effects of intelligence testing by naive testers are:• Poor performance on a test may attach a stigma to children and thereby adversely

affect their performance and self-respect.• The tests may invite discriminating practices from parents, teachers and elders in the

society.• Administering a test biased in favour of the middle class and higher class populations

may underestimate the IQ of children coming from disadvantaged sections of the society.• Intelligence tests do not capture creative potentialities and practical side of intelligence,

and they also do not relate much to success in life. Intelligence can be a potential factorfor achievement in various spheres of life.It is suggested that one should guard against erroneous practices associated with

intelligence tests and take the help of trained psychologists to analyse an individual’sstrengths and weaknesses.

Fig.1.3 : An Item from Raven’s ProgressiveMatrices Test

Performance tests require subjects tomanipulate objects and other materials toperform a task. Written language is notnecessary for answering the items. Forexample, Kohs’ Block Design Test containsa number of wooden blocks. The subject


assess experiences common to all culturesor have questions in which language usageis not required. Non-verbal andperformance tests help reduce the culturalbias usually associated with verbal tests.

Intelligence Testing in India

S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt inconstructing an intelligence test in Hindi

(NCERT) has documented Indian tests.Critical reviews of Indian tests arepublished in the form of handbooks.NLEPT has brought out the handbooks inthe area of intelligence, aptitude,personality, attitudes, and interests.Table 1.2 lists some tests developed inIndia. Among these, Bhatia’s Battery ofPerformance Tests is quite popular.

Table 1.2 : Some Tests Developed in India

Verbal

• CIE Verbal Group Test of Intelligence byUday Shankar

• Group Test of General Mental Ability byS. Jalota

• Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta

• The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M. Mohsin

• Group Test of Intelligence by Bureau ofPsychology, Allahabad

• Indian Adaptation of Stanford-Binet Test(Third Edition) by S.K. Kulshrestha

• Test of General Mental Ability (Hindi) byM.C. Joshi.

Performance

• CIE Non-verbal Group Test of Intelligence

• Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests

• Draw-a-Man Test by Pramila Pathak

• Adaptation of Wechsler Adult PerformanceIntelligence Scale by R. Ramalingaswamy

in the 1930s. C.H. Rice attempted tostandardise Binet’s test in Urdu andPunjabi. At about the same time,Mahalanobis attempted to standardiseBinet’s test in Bengali. Attempts were alsomade by Indian researchers to developIndian norms for some western testsincluding RPM, WAIS, Alexander’sPassalong, Cube Construction, and Kohs’Block Design. Long and Mehta prepared aMental Measurement Handbook listing out103 tests of intelligence in India that wereavailable in various languages. Since then,a number of tests have either beendeveloped or adapted from westerncultures. The National Library ofEducational and Psychological Tests(NLEPT) at the National Council ofEducational Research and Training

CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE

A major characteristic of intelligence is thatit helps individuals to adapt to theirenvironment. The cultural environmentprovides a context for intelligence todevelop. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,has argued that culture provides a socialcontext in which people live, grow, andunderstand the world around them. Forexample, in less technologically developedsocieties, social and emotional skills inrelating to people are valued, while intechnologically advanced societies,personal achievement founded on abilitiesof reasoning and judgment is consideredto represent intelligence.

From your previous reading you knowthat culture is a collective system

Psychology16

of customs, beliefs, attitudes, andachievements in art and literature. Aperson’s intelligence is likely to be tunedby these cultural parameters. Manytheorists have regarded intelligence asattributes specific to the person withoutregard to their cultural background. Theunique features of culture now find somerepresentation in theories of intelligence.Sternberg’s notion of contextual orpractical intelligence implies thatintelligence is a product of culture.Vygotsky also believed that cultures, likeindividuals, have a life of their own; theygrow and change, and in the processspecify what will be the end-product ofsuccessful intellectual development.According to him, while elementary mentalfunctions (e.g., crying, attending tomother’s voice, sensitivity to smells,walking, and running) are universal, themanner in which higher mental functionssuch as problem solving and thinkingoperate are largely culture-produced.

Technologically advanced societiesadopt child rearing practices that fosterskills of generalisation and abstraction,speed, minimal moves, and mentalmanipulation among children. Thesesocieties promote a type of behaviour,which can be called technologicalintelligence. In these societies, personsare well-versed in skills of attention,observation, analysis, performance, speed,and achievement orientation. Intelligencetests developed in western cultures lookprecisely for these skills in an individual.

Technological intelligence is not sovalued in many Asian and Africansocieties. The qualities and skills regardedas intelligent actions in non-westerncultures are sharply different, though theboundaries are gradually vanishing underthe influence of western cultures. Inaddition to cognitive competence that isvery specific to the individual, the non-western cultures look for skills to relate to

others in the society. Some non-westernsocieties value self-reflection andcollectivistic orientation as opposed topersonal achievement and individualisticorientation.

Intelligence in the Indian Tradition

Contrary to technological intelligence,intelligence in the Indian tradition can betermed as integral intelligence, whichgives emphasis on connectivity with thesocial and world environment. Indianthinkers view intelligence from a holisticperspective where equal attention is paidto cognitive and non-cognitive processes aswell as their integration.

The Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’ which isoften used to represent intelligence is farmore pervasive in scope than the westernconcept of intelligence. Buddhi, accordingto J.P. Das, includes such skills as mentaleffort, determined action, feelings, andopinions along with cognitive competencesuch as knowledge, discrimination, andunderstanding. Among other things,buddhi is the knowledge of one’s own selfbased on conscience, will and desire. Thus,the notion of buddhi has affective andmotivational components besides a strongcognitive component. Unlike the westernviews, which primarily focus on cognitiveparameters, the following competencies areidentified as facets of intelligence in theIndian tradition :• Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to

context, understanding, discrimination,problem solving, and ef fectivecommunication).

• Social competence (respect for socialorder, commitment to elders, theyoung and the needy, concernabout others, recognising others’perspectives).

• Emotional competence (self-regulation and self-monitoring ofemotions, honesty, politeness, goodconduct, and self-evaluation).


• Entrepreneurial competence(commitment, persistence, patience,hard work, vigilance, and goal-directedbehaviours).

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

The notion of emotional intelligencebroadens the concept of intelligencebeyond the intellectual sphere/domain andconsiders that intelligence includesemotions. You may note that it builds onthe concept of intelligence in the Indiantradition. Emotional intelligence is a setof skills that underlie accurate appraisal,expression, and regulation of emotions. Itis the feeling side of intelligence. A good IQand scholastic record is not enough to besuccessful in life. You may find manypeople who are academically talented, butare unsuccessful in their own life. Theyexperience problems in family, workplaceand interpersonal relationships. What dothey lack? Some psychologists believe thatthe source of their difficulty may be a lackof emotional intelligence. This concept wasfirst introduced by Salovey and Mayer whoconsidered emotional intelligence as “theability to monitor one’s own and other’semotions, to discriminate among them, andto use the information to guide one’sthinking and actions”. Emotional Quotient(EQ) is used to express emotionalintelligence in the same way as IQ is usedto express intelligence.

In simple terms, emotional intelligencerefers to the ability to process emotional

information accurately and efficiently. Toknow the characteristics of persons whoare high on emotional intelligence, readBox 1.2.

Emotional intelligence is receivingincreasing attention of educators fordealing with students who are affected bystresses and challenges of the outsideworld. Programmes aimed at improvingstudents’ emotional intelligence havebeneficial ef fects on their academicachievement. They encourage cooperativebehaviour and reduce their antisocialactivities. These programmes are veryuseful in preparing students to face thechallenges of life outside the classroom.

SPECIAL ABILITIES

Aptitude : Nature and Measurement

By now you have learnt enough aboutintelligence. You may recall thatintelligence tests assess a general mentalability. Aptitude refers to special abilitiesin a particular field of activity. It is acombination of characteristics that indicatesan individual’s capacity to acquire somespecific knowledge or skill after training. Weassess aptitude with the help of selectedtests. The knowledge of aptitude can helpus to predict an individual’s futureperformance.

While assessing intelligence,psychologists often found that people withsimilar intelligence differed widely inacquiring certain knowledge or skills. You

Box1.2

Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons

• Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.• Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body

language, voice and tone, and facial expressions.• Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into account while solving

problems and taking decisions.• Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions.• Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and

others to achieve harmony and peace.

Psychology18

may observe in your class that there arecertain areas in which some intelligentstudents do not do well. When you have aproblem in mathematics, you may turn toAman for help, and with similar difficultiesin literature you may consult Avinash. Youmay request Shabnam to sing for yourannual function, and may turn to Johnwhen facing a problem with your bike.These specific skills and abilities are calledaptitudes. With proper training theseabilities can be considerably enhanced.

In order to be successful in a particularfield, a person must have both aptitudeand interest. Interest is a preference fora particular activity; aptitude is thepotentiality to perform that activity. Aperson may be interested in a particularjob or activity, but may not have theaptitude for it. Similarly, a person mayhave the potentiality for performing a job,but may not be interested in doing that.In both cases, the outcome will not besatisfactory. A student with highmechanical aptitude and strong interest inengineering is more likely to be asuccessful mechanical engineer.

Aptitude tests are available in twoforms: independent (specialised) aptitudetests and multiple (generalised) aptitudetests. Clerical Aptitude, MechanicalAptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and TypingAptitude are independent aptitude tests.Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the formof test batteries, which measure aptitudein several separate but homogeneousareas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT),the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB),and the Armed Services VocationalAptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-knownaptitude test batteries. Among these,DAT is most commonly used ineducational settings. It consists of 8independent subtests: (i) Verbal Reasoning,(ii) Numerical Reasoning, (iii) AbstractReasoning, (iv) Clerical Speed andAccuracy, (v) Mechanical Reasoning,

(vi) Space Relations, (vii) Spelling, and(viii) Language Usage. J.M. Ojha hasdeveloped an Indian adaptation of DAT.Several other aptitude tests have beendeveloped in India for measuring scientific,scholastic, literary, clerical, and teachingaptitudes.

CREATIVITY

In the foregoing sections, you have readthat there are variations in psychologicalattributes like intelligence, aptitude,personality and so on. Here, you will learnthat there are differences in the potentialfor creativity across individuals and themanner in which creativity is expressed.Some are highly creative and others are notso creative. Some may express creativity inwriting, still others in dance, music, poetry,science and so on. Manifestations ofcreativity can be observed in a novelsolution to a problem, an invention,composition of a poem, painting, newchemical process, an innovation in law, abreakthrough in preventing a disease andthe like. Despite differences, one commonelement among these is the production ofsomething new and unique.

We generally think of creativity in termsof creative persons like Tagore, Einstein,C.V. Raman, Ramanujan etc. who havemade outstanding contributions indifferent spheres. In recent years, ourunderstanding of creativity has broadened.Creativity is not just limited to a selectedfew — the artist, the scientist, the poet orthe inventor. An ordinary individual who isengaged in simple occupations like pottery,carpentry, cooking, etc. can also becreative. However, it has been said thatthey are not working at the same level ofcreativity as an eminent scientist or awriter. Hence, we can say that individualsvary in terms of the level and the areas inwhich they exhibit creativity and that allmay not be operating at the same level.


Einstein’s theory of relativity is an exampleof the highest level of creativity whichimplies bringing out altogether new ideas,facts, theory, or a product. Another levelof creativity is working on what has alreadybeen established earlier by way ofmodifications, by putting things in newperspectives or to new use.

Research literature suggests thatchildren begin to develop their imaginationduring the early years of childhood butthey express creativity mostly throughphysical activities and in non-verbal ways.When language and intellectual functionsare fully developed and store of knowledgeis adequately available, creativity isexpressed through verbal modes too. Thosewho are outstanding in their creativity maygive an indication about the direction inwhich their creativity lies through theirself-chosen activities. In some cases,however, opportunities need to be providedbefore they can manifest their hiddenpotential for creativity.

How do we explain variations in thepotential for creativity? As in the case ofother mental and physical characteristics,such variations can be attributed to thecomplex interaction of heredity andenvironment. There is no disagreementthat creativity is determined by bothheredity and environment. Limits of thecreative potential are set by heredity,environmental factors stimulate thedevelopment of creativity. How much of thecreative potential can be realised, whenand in what specific form and direction islargely determined by environmentalfactors such as motivation, commitment,family support, peer influences, trainingopportunities, etc. Although no amount oftraining can transform an average personto the level of Tagore, Shakespeare, etc.but it is also true that every individual canraise her/his level of creative potentialbeyond its present level. In this context,

you have already read in Class XI aboutstrategies to enhance creativity.

Creativity and Intelligence

One important debate in understandingthe variations in creativity has been therelationship of creativity with intelligence.

Let us take an example of two studentsin a class. Sunita is regarded by herteachers as an excellent student. She doesher work on time, scores the highestgrades in her class, listens to instructionswith care, grasps quickly, reproducesaccurately but she rarely comes out withideas which are her own. Rita is anotherstudent who is just average in her studiesand has not achieved high gradesconsistently. She prefers to learn on herown. She improvises new ways of helpingher mother at home and comes up withnew ways of doing her work andassignments. The former is considered tobe more intelligent and the latter as morecreative. Thus, a person who has theability to learn faster and reproduceaccurately may be considered intelligentmore than creative unless s/he devisesnew ways of learning and doing.

Terman, in the 1920s, found thatpersons with high IQ were not necessarilycreative. At the same time, creative ideascould come from persons who did not havea very high IQ. Other researches haveshown that not even one of those identifiedas gifted, followed up throughout theiradult life, had become well-known forcreativity in some field. Researchers havealso found that both high and low level ofcreativity can be found in highly intelligentchildren and also children of averageintelligence. The same person, thus, can becreative as well as intelligent but it is notnecessary that intelligent ones, in theconventional sense, must be creative.Intelligence, therefore, by itself does notensure creativity.

Psychology20

Key TermsAptitude, Aptitude tests, Case study, Cognitive assessment system, Componential intelligence, Contextualintelligence, Creativity, Emotional intelligence, Culture-fair test, Experiential intelligence, g-factor,Individual differences, Intellectual giftedness, Intelligence, Intelligence tests, Intelligence quotient (IQ),Interest, Interview, Mental age (MA), Mental retardation, Observational method, Planning, Psychologicaltest, Simultaneous processing, Situationism, Successive processing, Values.

Researchers have found that therelationship between creativity andintelligence is positive. All creative actsrequire some minimum ability to acquireknowledge and capacity to comprehend,retain, and retrieve. Creative writers, forexample, need facility in dealing withlanguage. The artist must understand theeffect that will be produced by a particulartechnique of painting, a scientist must beable to reason and so on. Hence, a certainlevel of intelligence is required for creativitybut beyond that intelligence does notcorrelate well with creativity. It can beconcluded that creativity can take manyforms and blends. Some may have more ofintellectual attributes, others may havemore of attributes associated withcreativity. But, what are the attributes ofa creative person? You may like to discussthe attributes which are common to allkinds of creative persons.

Creativity tests came into existence toassess variations in terms of the potentialfor creativity in contrast to intelligence.

A general feature of most of thecreativity tests is that they are open-ended.They permit the person to think of differentanswers to the questions or problems interms of her/his experiences, whateverthese may have been. These help theindividual to go in different directions.There are no specified answers toquestions or problems in creativity tests.Therefore, there is freedom to use one’simagination and express it in original ways.Creativity tests involve divergent thinkingand assess such abilities as ability toproduce a variety of ideas, i.e. ideas which

are off-the-beaten track, ability to see newrelationships between seemingly unrelatedthings, ability to guess causes andconsequences, ability to put things in anew context, etc. This is contrary to thetests of intelligence which mostly involveconvergent thinking. In tests ofintelligence, the person has to think of theright solution to the problem and the focusis on assessing abilities such as memory,logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptualability, and clear thinking. There is littlescope for the expression of spontaneity,originality, and imagination.

Since expressions of creativity arevaried, tests have been developed usingdifferent stimuli like words, figures, action,and sounds. These tests measure generalcreative thinking abilities like ability tothink of a variety of ideas on a given topic/situation, alternative ways of looking atthings, problems or situations, to guesscauses and consequences, to think ofunusual ideas to improve and to usecommon objects, ask unusual questionsand so on. A few investigators have alsodeveloped tests of creativity in differentareas such as literary creativity, scientificcreativity, mathematical creativity, etc.Some of the famous psychologists whohave developed creativity tests areGuilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallach andKogan, Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi.Each test has a standardised procedure, acomplete set of manual, and interpretationguide. These can be used only afterextensive training in administration andinterpretation of test scores.


• Individuals vary in their physical and psychological characteristics. Individualdifferences refer to distinctiveness and variations in people’s characteristics andbehaviour patterns.

• A wide variety of personal attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, interests,personality, and values can be assessed. Psychologists assess these attributesthrough psychological tests, interviews, case studies, observations, and self-reports.

• The term ‘intelligence’ refers to an individual’s capacity to understand the world,think rationally, and use resources effectively to meet the demands of life. Intellectualdevelopment is the product of a complex interplay of hereditary factors (nature), andenvironmental conditions (nurture).

• The psychometric approaches to intelligence lay emphasis on studying intelligenceas a constellation of abilities, expressed in quantitative terms such as IQ. The morerecent theories representing information-processing approaches, e.g. Sternberg’striarchic theory and Das’s PASS model describe the processes underlying intelligentbehaviour. Howard Gardner suggests that there are eight different kinds of intelligence.

• Intelligence is assessed with the help of specially designed tests. Intelligence testsmay be of verbal or performance type; can be administered individually or in groups;and may be culturally-biased or culturally-fair. At the two extremes of intelligenceare the intellectually deficient persons and the intellectually gifted.

• Culture provides a context for intellectual development. Western culture promotes‘technological intelligence’ based on skills of analysis, performance, speed, andachievement orientation. In contrast, non-western cultures value self-reflection, socialand emotional competence as signs of intelligent behaviour. Indian culture promotes‘integral intelligence’ that emphasises connectivity with people and the larger socialworld.

• Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive and manage one’s and other’sfeelings and emotions; to motivate oneself and restrain one’s impulses; and to handleinterpersonal relationships effectively.

• Aptitude refers to an individual’s potential for acquiring some specific skills. Aptitudetests predict what an individual will be able to do given proper training andenvironment.

• Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel,appropriate and useful. Certain level of intelligence is necessary to be creative, but ahigh level of intelligence, however, does not ensure that a person would certainly becreative.

Review Questions1. How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence?2. To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment

(nurture)? Discuss.3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.4. How does the triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?5. “Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological

systems”. Explain with reference to PASS model.6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores?8. How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?9. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in

their intellectual ability? Explain.10. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life

and why?11. How is ‘aptitude’ different from ‘interest’ and ‘intelligence’? How is aptitude measured?12. How is creativity related to intelligence?

Psychology22

Pedagogical Hints1. To introduce the topic, teacher can

initiate discussion on psychologicalconstructs such as intelligence,personality, aptitude, values, etc.This would serve to point out thedifficulty in arriving at one single,universal explanation of theseconstructs.

2. Teacher should draw from theexperiences of the students tointroduce the different psycho-logical attributes discussed in thechapter.

3. Some sample items of various tests(to be collected by the teacher) canbe given to students to generatetheir interest.

4. Encourage students to complete theactivities and also to designactivities on their own eitherindividually or in groups. Initiatediscussion in the class onobservations made by students oncompletion of the activities.

5. Students should be encouraged torelate the concepts to their real-lifeexperiences.

Weblinkshttp://www.indiana.edu/~intell/anastasi.shtmlhttp://www.chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/intell.htmlhttp://www.humandimensions.org/emotion.htmhttp://www.emotionaliq.com/Gdefault.htmhttp://edweb.gsn.org/edref.mi.intro.htmlhttp://www.talentsmart.comhttp://www.kent.ac.uk/career/psychotests.com

ProjectIdeas

1. Observe and interview 5 persons in your neighbourhood in order to see how they differfrom each other in terms of certain psychological attributes. Cover all the five domains.Prepare a psychological profile of each person and compare.

2. Select 5 vocations and gather information about the nature of work done by people inthese vocations. Also analyse these vocations in terms of the types of psychologicalattributes required for successful performance. Write a report.

SELF AND PERSONALITYSELF AND PERSONALITYSELF AND PERSONALITYSELF AND PERSONALITYSELF AND PERSONALITY

IntroductionSelf and PersonalityConcept of SelfCognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self

Self-esteem, Self-efficacy and Self-regulationCulture and SelfConcept of Personality

Personality-related Terms (Box 2.1)Major Approaches to the Study of Personality

Type ApproachesTrait ApproachesFive-Factor Model of Personality (Box 2.2)Psychodynamic ApproachBehavioural ApproachCultural ApproachHumanistic ApproachWho is a Healthy Person? (Box 2.3)

Assessment of PersonalitySelf-report MeasuresProjective TechniquesBehavioural Analysis

CONTENTS


After reading this chapter, you would be able to:describe the concept of self and learn some ways for self-regulation of behaviour,explain the concept of personality,differentiate between various approaches to the study of personality,develop insight into the development of a healthy personality, anddescribe some techniques for personality assessment.

Psychology24

CONCEPT OF SELF

From your childhood days, you may havespent considerable time thinking aboutwho you are, and how you are differentfrom others. By now, you already may havedeveloped some ideas about yourself,although you may not be aware of it. Letus try to have some preliminary notion ofour self (i.e. who are we?) by completingActivity 2.1.

How easy was it for you to completethese sentences? How much time did youtake? Perhaps it was not as easy as youmay have thought at first. While workingon it, you were describing your ‘self ’. Youare aware of your ‘self’ in the same way asyou are aware of various objects in yoursurrounding environment, such as a chairor a table in your room. A newly born childhas no idea of its self. As a child grows

SELF AND PERSONALITY

Self and personality refer to thecharacteristic ways in which we define ourexistence. They also refer to the ways inwhich our experiences are organised andshow up in our behaviour. From commonobservation we know that different peoplehold different ideas about themselves.These ideas represent the self of a person.We also know that different people behavein different ways in a given situation, butthe behaviour of a particular person fromone situation to another generally remainsfairly stable. Such a relatively stablepattern of behaviour represents the“personality” of that person. Thus, differentpersons seem to possess dif ferentpersonalities. These personalities arereflected in the diverse behaviour ofpersons.

Quite often you must have found yourself engaged in knowing andevaluating your own behaviour and that of others. You must have noticedhow you react and behave in certain situations in a manner different fromothers? You may have also often asked questions about your relationshipswith others. To find an answer to some of these questions, psychologistsuse the notion of self. Similarly when we ask questions such as why peopleare different, how they make different meaning of events, and how theyfeel and react differently in similar situations (i.e. questions relating tovariations in behaviour), the notion of personality comes into play. Boththese concepts, i.e. self and personality are intimately related. Self, in fact,lies at the core of personality.

The study of self and personality helps us understand not only who weare, but also our uniqueness as well as our similarities with others. Byunderstanding self and personality, we can understand our own as wellas others’ behaviour in diverse settings. Several thinkers have analysedthe structure and function of self and personality. As a result, we havedifferent theoretical perspectives on self and personality today. This chapterwill introduce you to some basic aspects of self and personality. You willalso learn some important theoretical approaches to self and personality,and certain methods of personality assessment.

Introduction

Chapter 2 • Self and Personality 25

older, the idea of self emerges and itsformation begins. Parents, friends,teachers and other significant persons playa vital role in shaping a child’s ideas aboutself. Our interaction with other people, ourexperiences, and the meaning we give tothem, serve as the basis of our self. Thestructure of self is modifiable in the lightof our own experiences and theexperiences we have of other people. Thisyou will notice if you exchange the list youcompleted under Activity 2.1 with yourother friends.

disclosing her/his personal identity. Socialidentity refers to those aspects of a personthat link her/him to a social or culturalgroup or are derived from it. Whensomeone says that s/he is a Hindu or aMuslim, a Brahmin or an adivasi or aNorth Indian or a South Indian, orsomething like these, s/he is trying toindicate her/his social identity. Thesedescriptions characterise the way peoplementally represent themselves as a person.Thus, self refers to the totality of anindividual’s conscious experiences, ideas,thoughts and feelings with regard to herselfor himself. These experiences and ideasdefine the existence of an individual bothat the personal and at social levels.

Self as Subject and Self as Object

If you return to your friends’ descriptionsin Activity 2.1, you will find that they havedescribed themselves either as an entitythat does something (e.g., I am a dancer)or as an entity on which something is done(e.g., I am one who easily gets hurt). In theformer case, the self is described as a‘subject’ (who does something); in the lattercase, the self is described as an ‘object’(which gets affected).

This means that self can be understoodas a subject as well as an object. When yousay, “I know who I am”, the self is beingdescribed as a ‘knower’ as well assomething that can be ‘known’. As asubject (actor) the self actively engages inthe process of knowing itself. As an object(consequence) the self gets observed andcomes to be known. This dual status of selfshould always be kept in mind.

Kinds of Self

There are several kinds of self. They getformed as a result of our interactions withour physical and socio-culturalenvironments. The first elements of selfmay be noticed when a newborn child cries

Understanding the Self

Please complete the following sentencesstarting with “I am”.

Time Now.............

I am........................................................I am........................................................I am........................................................I am........................................................I am........................................................I am........................................................I am........................................................I am........................................................I am........................................................I am.....................................................

Time when you finished.....................

Activity2.1

Notice what they have done. You willfind that they have produced a fairly longlist of attributes about how they identifythemselves. The attributes they have usedfor identification tell us about theirpersonal as well as social or culturalidentities. Personal identity refers to thoseattributes of a person that make her/himdifferent from others. When a persondescribes herself/himself by telling her/hisname (e.g., I am Sanjana or Karim), or her/his qualities or characteristics (e.g., I amhonest or hardworking person), or her/hispotentialities or capabilities (e.g., I am asinger or dancer), or her/his beliefs (e.g.,I am a believer in God or destiny), s/he is

Psychology26

for milk when it is hungry. Although, thiscry is based on reflex, this later on leadsto development of awareness that ‘I amhungry’. This biological self in the contextof socio-cultural environment modifiesitself. While you may feel hungry for achocolate, an Eskimo may not.

A distinction is made between ‘personal’and ‘social’ self. The personal self leads toan orientation in which one feels primarilyconcerned with oneself. We have talkedabove how our biological needs lead to thedevelopment of a ‘biological self’. But, soona child’s psychological and social needs inthe context of her/his environment leadother components of personal self toemerge. Emphasis comes to be laid onthose aspects of life that relate only to theconcerned person, such as personalfreedom, personal responsibility, personalachievement, or personal comforts. Thesocial self emerges in relation with othersand emphasises such aspects of life ascooperation, unity, affiliation, sacrifice,support or sharing. This self valuesfamily and social relationships. Hence, itis also referred to as familial or relationalself.

COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS

OF SELF

Psychologists from all parts of the worldhave shown interest in the study of self.These studies have brought out manyaspects of our behaviour related to self. Asindicated earlier, all of us carry within usa sense of who we are and what makes usdifferent from everyone else. We cling toour personal and social identities and feelsafe in the knowledge that it remainsstable in our lifetime.

The way we perceive ourselves and theideas we hold about our competencies andattributes is also called self-concept. At avery general level, this view of oneself is,overall, either positive or negative. At a

more specific level, a person may have avery positive view of her/his athleticbravery, but a negative view of her/hisacademic talents. At an even more specificlevel, one may have a positive self-conceptabout one’s reading ability but a negativeone about one’s mathematical skills.Finding out an individual’s self-concept isnot easy. The most frequently used methodinvolves asking the person about herself/himself.

Self-esteem

Self-esteem is an important aspect of ourself. As persons we always make somejudgment about our own value or worth.This value judgment of a person aboutherself/himself is called self-esteem. Somepeople have high self-esteem, whereasothers may have low self-esteem. In orderto assess self-esteem we present a varietyof statements to a person, and ask her/him to indicate the extent to which thosestatements are true for her or him. Forexample, we may ask a child to indicate theextent to which statements such as “I amgood at homework”, or “I am the oneusually chosen for the games”, or “I amhighly liked by my peers”, are true of her/him. If a child reports these statements tobe true for her/him, her/his self-esteemwill be high in comparison to someone whosays “no”.

Studies indicate that by the age of 6 to7 years, children seem to have formed self-esteem at least in four areas: academiccompetence, social competence, physical/athletic competence, and physicalappearance, which become more refinedwith age. Our capacity to view ourselves interms of stable dispositions permits us tocombine separate self-evaluations into ageneral psychological image of ourselves.This is known as an overall sense of self-esteem.

Self-esteem shows a strong relationshipwith our everyday behaviour. For example,


children with high academic self-esteemperform better in schools than those withlow academic self-esteem, and childrenwith high social self-esteem are more likedby their peers than those with low socialself-esteem. On the other hand, childrenwith low self-esteem in all areas are oftenfound to display anxiety, depression, andincreasing antisocial behaviour. Studieshave shown that warm and positiveparenting helps in the development of highself-esteem among children as it allowsthem to know that they are accepted ascompetent and worthwhile. Children, whoseparents help or make decisions for themeven when they do not need assistance,often suffer from low self-esteem.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is another important aspectof our self. People differ in the extent towhich they believe they themselves controltheir life outcomes or the outcomes arecontrolled by luck or fate or othersituational factors, e.g. passing anexamination. A person who believes thats/he has the ability or behaviours requiredby a particular situation demonstrateshigh self-efficacy.

The notion of self-efficacy is based onBandura’s social learning theory.Bandura’s initial studies showed thatchildren and adults learned behaviour byobserving and imitating others. People’sexpectations of mastery or achievementand their convictions about their owneffectiveness also determine the types ofbehaviour in which they would engage, asalso the amount of risk they wouldundertake. A strong sense of self-efficacyallows people to select, influence, and evenconstruct the circumstances of their ownlife. People with a strong sense of self-efficacy also feel less fearful.

Self-efficacy can be developed. Peoplewith high self-efficacy have been found to

stop smoking the moment they decide todo so. Our society, our parents and ourown positive experiences can help in thedevelopment of a strong sense of self-efficacy by presenting positive modelsduring the formative years of children.

Self-regulation

Self-regulation refers to our ability toorganise and monitor our own behaviour.People, who are able to change theirbehaviour according to the demands of theexternal environment, are high on self-monitoring.

Many situations of life requireresistance to situational pressures andcontrol over ourselves. This becomespossible through what is commonlyknown as ‘will power’. As human beingswe can control our behaviour the way wewant. We often decide to delay or defer thesatisfaction of certain needs. Learning todelay or defer the gratification of needs iscalled self-control. Self-control plays akey role in the fulfilment of long-termgoals. Indian cultural tradition providesus with certain effective mechanisms (e.g.,fasting in vrata or roza and non-attachment with worldly things) fordeveloping self-control.

A number of psychological techniquesof self-control have also been suggested.Observation of own behaviour is one ofthem. This provides us with necessaryinformation that may be used to change,modify, or strengthen certain aspects ofself. Self-instruction is another importanttechnique. We often instruct ourselves todo something and behave the way we wantto. Such instructions are quite effective inself-regulation. Self-reinforcement is thethird technique. This involves rewardingbehaviours that have pleasant outcomes.For example, you may go to see a moviewith friends, if you have done well in anexamination. These techniques have been

Psychology28

Fig.2.1 : Self and Group Boundaries in Western and Indian Cultural Perspectives

tried out and found quite effective withrespect to self-regulation and self-control.

CULTURE AND SELF

Several aspects of self seem to be linkedto the characteristic features of the culturein which an individual lives. Analysis ofself carried out in the Indian culturalcontext reveals a number of importantfeatures that are distinct from those foundin the Western cultural context.

The most important distinction betweenthe Indian and the Western views is theway the boundary is drawn between theself and the other. In the Western view, thisboundary appears to be relatively fixed.The Indian view of self, on the other hand,is characterised by the shifting nature ofthis boundary. Thus, our self at onemoment of time expands to fuse with thecosmos or include the others. But at thenext moment, it seems to be completelywithdrawn from it and focused fully onindividual self (e.g., our personal needs orgoals). The Western view seems to holdclear dichotomies between self and other,man and nature, subjective and objective.The Indian view does not make such cleardichotomies. Figure 2.1 illustrates thisrelationship.

In the Western culture, the self and thegroup exist as two different entities withclearly defined boundaries. Individual

members of the group maintain theirindividuality. In the Indian culture, the selfis generally not separated from one’s owngroup; rather both remain in a state ofharmonious co-existence. In the Westernculture, on the other hand, they oftenremain at a distance. That is why manyWestern cultures are characterised asindividualistic, whereas many Asiancultures are characterised as collectivistic.

CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

The term ‘personality’ often appears in ourday-to-day discussion. The literal meaningof personality is derived from the Latinword persona, the mask used by actors inthe Roman theatre for changing their facialmake-up. After putting on the mask,audience expected the person to performa role in a particular manner. It did not,however, mean that the person enactingthe given role necessarily possessed thosequalities.

For a layperson, personality generallyrefers to the physical or externalappearance of an individual. For example,when we find someone ‘good-looking’, weoften assume that the person also has acharming personality. This notion ofpersonality is based on superficialimpressions, which may not be correct.

In psychological terms, personalityrefers to our characteristic ways of


responding to individuals and situations.People can easily describe the way in whichthey respond to various situations. Certaincatchwords (e.g., shy, sensitive, quiet,concerned, warm, etc.) are often used todescribe personalities. These words refer todifferent components of personality. In thissense, personality refers to unique andrelatively stable qualities that characterisean individual’s behaviour across differentsituations over a period of time.

If you watch closely, you will find thatpeople do show variations in theirbehaviour. One is not always cautious orimpulsive, shy or friendly. Personalitycharacterises individuals as they appear inmost circumstances. Consistency inbehaviour, thought and emotion of anindividual across situations and acrosstime periods characterises her/hispersonality. For example, an honest personis more likely to remain honest irrespectiveof time or situation. However, situationalvariations in behaviour do occur as theyhelp individuals in adapting to theirenvironmental circumstances.

In brief, personality is characterised bythe following features:1. It has both physical and psychological

components.2. Its expression in terms of behaviour is

fairly unique in a given individual.3. Its main features do not easily change

with time.4. It is dynamic in the sense that some of

its features may change due to internal

or external situational demands. Thus,personality is adaptive to situations.

Once we are able to characterisesomeone’s personality, we can predicthow that person will probably behavein a variety of circumstances. Anunderstanding of personality allows us todeal with people in realistic and acceptableways. For example, if you find a child whodoes not like orders, the most effective wayto deal with that child will be not to giveorders, but to present a set of acceptablealternatives from which the child maychoose. Similarly, a child who has feelingsof inferiority needs to be treated differentlyfrom a child who is self-confident.

Several other terms are used to refer tobehavioural characteristics of individuals.Quite often they are used as synonyms ofpersonality. Some of these terms are givenin Box 2.1 along with their definingfeatures. You may read them carefully toappreciate how they are different from thenotion of personality.

MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF

PERSONALITY

Psychologists interested in the study ofpersonality, try to answer certain questionsabout the nature and origin of individualdifferences in personality. You may haveobserved that two children in the samefamily develop dramatically differentpersonalities. Not only they look physically

Box2.1

Personality-related Terms

Temperament: Biologically based characteristic way of reacting.

Trait: Stable, persistent and specific way of behaving.

Disposition: Tendency of a person to react to a given situation in a particular way.

Character: The overall pattern of regularly occurring behaviour.

Habit: Over learned modes of behaving.

Values: Goals and ideals that are considered important and worthwhile to achieve.

Psychology30

different, but they also behave differentlyin different situations. These observationsoften generate curiosity and force us toask: “Why is it that some people reactdifferently in a given situation than othersdo? Why is it that some people enjoyadventurous activities, while others likereading, watching television or playingcards? Are these differences stable allthrough one’s life, or are they just short-lived and situation-specific?”

A number of approaches and theorieshave been developed to understand andexplain behavioural differences amongindividuals, and behavioural consistencieswithin an individual. These theories arebased on different models of humanbehaviour. Each throws light on some, butnot all, aspects of personality.

Psychologists distinguish between typeand trait approaches to personality. Thetype approaches attempts to comprehendhuman personality by examining certainbroad patterns in the observed behaviouralcharacteristics of individuals. Eachbehavioural pattern refers to one type inwhich individuals are placed in terms ofthe similarity of their behaviouralcharacteristics with that pattern. Incontrast, the trait approach focuses onthe specific psychological attributes alongwhich individuals tend to dif fer inconsistent and stable ways. For example,one person may be less shy, whereasanother may be more; or one person maybe less friendly, whereas another may bemore. Here “shyness” and “friendliness”represent traits along which individualscan be rated in terms of the degree ofpresence or absence of the concernedbehavioural quality or a trait. Theinteractional approach holds thatsituational characteristics play animportant role in determining ourbehaviour. People may behave asdependent or independent not because oftheir internal personality trait, but because

of external rewards or threats available ina particular situation. The cross-situational consistency of traits is found tobe quite low. The compelling influence ofsituations can be noted by observingpeople’s behaviour in places like a market,a courtroom, or a place of worship.

Type Approaches

As we explained above, personality typesare used to represent and communicate aset of expected behaviours based onsimilarities. Efforts to categorise peopleinto personality types have been madesince ancient times. The Greek physicianHippocrates had proposed a typology ofpersonality based on fluid or humour. Heclassified people into four types (i.e.,sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic andcholeric); each characterised by specificbehavioural features.

In India also, Charak Samhita, afamous treatise on Ayurveda, classifiespeople into the categories of vata, pitta andkapha on the basis of three humouralelements called tridosha. Each refers to atype of temperament, called prakriti (basicnature) of a person. Apart from this, thereis also a typology of personality based onthe trigunas, i.e. sattva, rajas, and tamas.Sattva guna includes attributes likecleanliness, truthfulness, dutifulness,detachment, discipline, etc. Rajas gunaincludes intensive activity, desire for sensegratification, dissatisfaction, envy forothers, and a materialistic mentality, etc.Tamas guna characterises anger,arrogance, depression, laziness, feeling ofhelplessness, etc. All the three gunas arepresent in each and every person indifferent degrees. The dominance of one orthe other guna may lead to a particulartype of behaviour.

Within psychology, the personalitytypes given by Sheldon are fairly well-known. Using body build and temperamentas the main basis, Sheldon proposed the


Endomorphic, Mesomorphic, andEctomorphic typology. The endomorphsare fat, soft and round. By temperamentthey are relaxed and sociable. Themesomorphs have strong musculature, arerectangular with a strong body build. Theyare energetic and courageous. Theectomorphs are thin, long and fragile inbody build. They are brainy, artistic andintrovert.

Let us remember that these bodytypologies are simple, and have limited usein predicting behaviour of individuals. Theyare more like stereotypes which peoplehold.

Jung has proposed another importanttypology by grouping people into introvertsand extraverts. This is widely recognised.According to this typology, introverts arepeople who prefer to be alone, tend to avoidothers, withdraw themselves in the face ofemotional conflicts, and are shy.Extraverts, on the other hand, are sociable,outgoing, drawn to occupations that allowdealing directly with people, and react tostress by trying to lose themselves amongpeople and social activity.

In recent years, Friedman andRosenman have classified individuals intoType-A and Type-B personalities. The tworesearchers were trying to identifypsychosocial risk factors when theydiscovered these types. Peoplecharacterised by Type-A personality seemto possess high motivation, lack patience,feel short of time, be in a great hurry, andfeel like being always burdened with work.Such people find it difficult to slow downand relax. People with Type-A personalityare more susceptible to problems likehypertension and coronary heart disease(CHD). The risk of developing CHD withType-A personality is sometimes evengreater than the risks caused by high bloodpressure, high cholesterol levels, orsmoking. Opposite to this is the Type-Bpersonality, which can be understood as

the absence of Type-A traits. This typologyhas been further extended. Morris hassuggested a Type-C personality, which isprone to cancer. Individuals characterisedby this personality are cooperative,unassertive and patient. They suppresstheir negative emotions (e.g., anger), andshow compliance to authority. Morerecently, a Type-D personality has beensuggested, which is characterised byproneness to depression.

Personality typologies are usually veryappealing, but are too simplistic. Humanbehaviour is highly complex and variable.Assigning people to a particular personalitytype is difficult. People do not fit into suchsimple categorisation schemes so neatly.

Trait Approaches

These theories are mainly concerned withthe description or characterisation of basiccomponents of personality. They try todiscover the ‘building blocks’ ofpersonality. Human beings display a widerange of variations in psychologicalattributes, yet it is possible to club theminto smaller number of personality traits.Trait approach is very similar to ourcommon experience in everyday life. Forexample, when we come to know that aperson is sociable, we assume that s/hewill not only be cooperative, friendly andhelping, but also engage in behaviours thatinvolve other social components. Thus,trait approach attempts to identify primarycharacteristics of people. A trait isconsidered as a relatively enduringattribute or quality on which oneindividual differs from another. Theyinclude a range of possible behavioursthat are activated according to thedemands of the situation.

To summarise, (a) traits are relativelystable over time, (b) they are generallyconsistent across situations, and (c) theirstrengths and combinations vary across

Psychology32

individuals leading to individual differencesin personality.

A number of psychologists have usedtraits to formulate their theories ofpersonality. We will discuss someimportant theories.

Allport’s Trait Theory

Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer oftrait approach. He proposed thatindividuals possess a number of traits,which are dynamic in nature. Theydetermine behaviour in such a mannerthat an individual approaches differentsituations with similar plans. The traitsintegrate stimuli and responses whichotherwise look dissimilar. Allport arguedthat the words people use to describethemselves and others provide a basis forunderstanding human personality. Heanalysed the words of English language tolook for traits which describe a person.Allport, based on this, categorised traitsinto cardinal, central, and secondary.Cardinal traits are highly generaliseddispositions. They indicate the goal aroundwhich a person’s entire life seems torevolve. Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violenceand Hitler’s Nazism are examples ofcardinal traits. Such traits often getassociated with the name of the person sostrongly that they derive such identities asthe ‘Gandhian’ or ‘Hitlerian’ trait. Lesspervasive in ef fect, but still quitegeneralised dispositions, are called centraltraits. These traits (e.g., warm, sincere,diligent, etc.) are often used in writing atestimonial or job recommendationfor a person. The least generalisedcharacteristics of a person are calledsecondary traits. Traits such as ‘likesmangoes’ or ‘prefers ethnic clothes’ areexamples of secondary traits.

While Allport acknowledged theinfluence of situations on behaviour, heheld that the way a person reacts to given

situations depends on her/his traits,although people sharing the same traitsmight express them in different ways.Allport considered traits more likeintervening variables that occur betweenthe stimulus situation and response of theperson. This meant that any variation intraits would elicit a different response tothe same situation.

Cattell: Personality Factors

Raymond Cattell believed that there is acommon structure on which people differfrom each other. This structure could bedetermined empirically. He tried to identifythe primary traits from a huge array ofdescriptive adjectives found in language.He applied a statistical technique, calledfactor analysis, to discover the commonstructures. He found 16 primary or sourcetraits. The source traits are stable, and areconsidered as the building blocks ofpersonality. Besides these, there are alsoa number of surface traits that result outof the interaction of source traits. Cattelldescribed the source traits in terms ofopposing tendencies. He developed a test,called Sixteen Personality FactorQuestionnaire (16PF), for the assessmentof personality. This test is widely used bypsychologists.

Eysenck’s Theory

H.J. Eysenck proposed that personalitycould be reduced into two broaddimensions. These are biologically andgenetically based. Each dimensionsubsumes a number of specific traits.These dimensions are:(1) Neuroticism vs. emotional stability : It

refers to the degree to which peoplehave control over their feelings. At oneextreme of the dimension, we findpeople who are neurotic. They areanxious, moody, touchy, restless andquickly lose control. At the other


extreme lie people who are calm, even-tempered, reliable and remain undercontrol.

(2) Extraversion vs. introversion : It refersto the degree to which people aresocially outgoing or socially withdrawn.At one extreme are those who areactive, gregarious, impulsive and thrill-seeking. At the other extreme arepeople who are passive, quiet, cautiousand reserved.

In a later work Eysenck proposed athird dimension, called Psychoticism vs.Sociability, which is considered to interact

with the other two dimensions mentionedabove. A person who scores high onpsychoticism dimension tends to behostile, egocentric, and antisocial.Eysenck Personality Questionnaire is thetest which is used for studying thesedimensions of personality.

The trait approach is very popular andmany advances in this respect are takingplace. These are beyond the scope of yourpresent studies. A new formulation hasalso been advanced that provides a novelscheme of organising traits. This newformulation is given in Box 2.2.

Psychodynamic Approach

This is a highly popular approach tostudying personality. This view oweslargely to the contributions of SigmundFreud. He was a physician, and developedthis theory in the course of his clinicalpractice. Early in his career he used

Box2.2

Five-Factor Model of Personality

The controversy regarding the number of basic personality traits has taken an interestingturn in recent years. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae have examined all possible personalitytraits. The findings indicate a set of five factors. They are often called Big Five Factors.These factors include:1. Openness to experience : Those who score high on this factor are imaginative, curious,

open to new ideas, and interested in cultural pursuits. In contrast, those who scorelow are rigid.

2. Extraversion : It characterises people who are socially active, assertive, outgoing,talkative, and fun loving. On its opposite are people who are shy.

3. Agreeableness : This factor characterises people who are helpful, co-operative, friendly,caring, and nurturing. On the opposite are people who are hostile and self-centered.

4. Neuroticism : People who score high on this factor are emotionally unstable, anxious,worried, fearful, distressed, irritable and hypertensive. On the opposite side are peoplewho are well adjusted.

5. Conscientiousness : Those who score high on this factor are achievement-oriented,dependable, responsible, prudent, hardworking and self-controlled. On the oppositeare people who are impulsive.

This five factor model represents an important theoretical development in the field ofpersonality. It has been found useful in understanding the personality profile of peopleacross cultures. While it is consistent with the analysis of personality traits found indifferent languages, it is also supported by the studies of personality carried out throughdifferent methods. Hence, it is now considered to be the most promising empirical approachto the study of personality.

If you were asked to change one aspectof your personality, what would youlike to change and why? If not, why?Which aspect of your personality wouldyou never want to change? Write aparagraph. Discuss with a friend.

Activity2.2

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hypnosis to treat people with physical andemotional problems. He noted that manyof his patients needed to talk about theirproblems, and having talked about them,they often felt better. Freud used freeassociation (a method in which a person isasked to openly share all the thoughts,feelings and ideas that come to her/hismind), dream analysis, and analysis oferrors to understand the internalfunctioning of the mind.

Levels of Consciousness

Freud’s theory considers the sources andconsequences of emotional conflicts andthe way people deal with these. In doingso, it visualises the human mind in termsof three levels of consciousness. The firstlevel is conscious, which includes thethoughts, feelings and actions of whichpeople are aware. The second level ispreconscious, which includes mentalactivity of which people may become awareonly if they attend to it closely. The thirdlevel is unconscious, which includesmental activity that people are unaware of.

According to Freud, the unconscious isa reservoir of instinctive or animal drives.It also stores all ideas and wishes that areconcealed from conscious awareness,perhaps, because they lead topsychological conflicts. Most of these arisefrom sexual desires which cannot beexpressed openly and therefore arerepressed. People constantly struggle tofind either some socially acceptable waysto express unconscious impulses, or tokeep those impulses away from beingexpressed. Unsuccessful resolution ofconflicts results in abnormal behaviour.Analysis of forgetting, mispronunciations,jokes and dreams provide us with a meansto approach the unconscious. Freuddeveloped a therapeutic procedure, calledpsychoanalysis. The basic goal ofpsychoanalytic therapy is to bring the

repressed unconscious materials toconsciousness, thereby helping people tolive in a more self-aware and integratedmanner.

Structure of Personality

According to Freud’s theory, the primarystructural elements of personality arethree, i.e. id, ego, and superego. Theyreside in the unconscious as forces, andthey can be inferred from the ways peoplebehave (see Fig. 2.2). Let us remember thatid, ego and superego are concepts, not realphysical structures. We will discuss theseterms in some detail.

Fig.2.2 : Structure of Personality in FreudianTheory

Id : It is the source of a person’sinstinctual energy. It deals with immediategratification of primitive needs, sexualdesires and aggressive impulses. It workson the pleasure principle, which assumesthat people seek pleasure and try to avoidpain. Freud considered much of a person’sinstinctual energy to be sexual, and therest as aggressive. Id does not care formoral values, society, or other individuals.

Ego : It grows out of id, and seeks tosatisfy an individual’s instinctual needs in


accordance with reality. It works by thereality principle, and often directs the idtowards more appropriate ways ofbehaving. For example, the id of a boy, whowants an ice-cream cone, tells him to grabthe cone and eat it. His ego tells him thatif he grabs the cone without asking, hemay be punished. Working on the realityprinciple, the boy knows that the best wayto achieve gratification is to ask forpermission to eat the cone. Thus, while theid is demanding, unrealistic and worksaccording to pleasure principle, the ego ispatient, reasonable, and works by thereality principle.

Superego : The best way to characterise thesuperego is to think of it as the moralbranch of mental functioning. Thesuperego tells the id and the ego whethergratification in a particular instance isethical. It helps control the id byinternalising the parental authoritythrough the process of socialisation. Forexample, if a boy sees and wants an ice-cream cone and asks his mother for it, hissuperego will indicate that his behaviouris morally correct. This approach towardsobtaining the ice-cream will not createguilt, fear or anxiety in the boy.

Thus, in terms of individual functioningFreud thought of the unconscious as beingcomposed of three competing forces. Insome people, the id is stronger than thesuperego; in others, it is the superego. Therelative strength of the id, ego andsuperego determines each person’sstability. Freud also assumed that id isenergised by two instinctual forces, calledlife instinct and death instinct. He paidless attention to the death instinct andfocused more on the life (or sexual)instinct. The instinctual life force thatenergises the id is called libido. It workson the pleasure principle, and seeksimmediate gratification.

Ego Defence Mechanisms

According to Freud, much of humanbehaviour reflects an attempt to deal withor escape from anxiety. Thus, how the egodeals with anxiety largely determines howpeople behave. Freud believed that peopleavoid anxiety mainly by developing defencemechanisms that try to defend the egoagainst the awareness of the instinctualneeds. Thus, defence mechanism is a wayof reducing anxiety by distorting reality.Although some defence against anxiety isnormal and adaptive, people who use thesemechanisms to such an extent that realityis truly distorted develop various forms ofmaladjustment.

Freud has described many differentkinds of defence mechanisms. The mostimportant is repression, in which anxiety-provoking behaviours or thoughts aretotally dismissed by the unconscious.When people repress a feeling or desire,they become totally unaware of that wishor desire. Thus, when a person says, “I donot know why I did that”, some repressedfeeling or desire is expressing itself.

Other major defence mechanisms areprojection, denial, reaction formation andrationalisation. In projection, peopleattribute their own traits to others. Thus,a person who has strong aggressivetendencies may see other people as actingin an excessively aggressive way towardsher/him. In denial, a person totally refusesto accept reality. Thus, someone sufferingfrom HIV/AIDS may altogether deny her/his illness. In reaction formation, aperson defends against anxiety by adoptingbehaviours opposite to her/his truefeelings. A person with strong sexual urges,who channels her/his energy into religiousfervour, presents a classical example ofreaction formation. In rationalisation, aperson tries to make unreasonable feelingsor behaviour seem reasonable andacceptable. For example, when a student

Psychology36

buys a set of new pens after doing poorlyin an examination, s/he may try torationalise her/his behaviour by asserting,“I will do much better with these pens”.

People who use defence mechanismsare often unaware of doing so. Eachdefence mechanism is a way for the ego todeal with the uncomfortable feelingsproduced by anxiety. However, Freud’sideas about the role of defencemechanisms have been questioned. Forexample, his claim that projection reducesanxiety and stress has not found supportin several studies.

Stages of Personality Development

Freud claims that the core aspects ofpersonality are established early, remainstable throughout life, and can be changedonly with great difficulty. He proposed afive-stage theory of personality (alsocalled psychosexual) development.Problems encountered at any stage mayarrest development, and have long-termeffect on a person’s life. A brief descriptionof these stages is given here.

Oral Stage : A newborn’s instincts arefocused on the mouth. This is the infant’sprimary pleasure seeking centre. It isthrough the mouth that the baby obtainsfood that reduces hunger. The infantachieves oral gratification through feeding,thumb sucking, biting and babbling. It isduring these early months that people’sbasic feelings about the world areestablished. Thus, for Freud, an adult whoconsiders the world a bitter place probablyhad difficulty during the oral stage ofdevelopment.

Anal Stage : It is found that around agestwo and three the child learns to respondto some of the demands of the society. Oneof the principal demands made by parentsis that the child learns to control the bodilyfunctions of urination and defecation. Most

children at this age experience pleasure inmoving their bowels. The anal area of thebody becomes the focus of certainpleasurable feelings. This stage establishesthe basis for conflict between the id andthe ego, and between the desire for babyishpleasure and demand for adult, controlledbehaviour.

Phallic Stage : This stage focuses on thegenitals. At around ages four and fivechildren begin to realise the differencesbetween males and females. They becomeaware of sexuality and the sexualrelationship between their parents. Duringthis stage, the male child experiences theOedipus Complex, which involves love forthe mother, hostility towards the father,and the consequent fear of punishment orcastration by the father (Oedipus was aGreek king who unknowingly killed hisfather and then married his mother). Amajor developmental achievement of thisstage is the resolution of the Oedipuscomplex. This takes place by accepting hisfather’s relationship with his mother, andmodelling his own behaviour after hisfather.

For girls, the Oedipus complex (calledthe Electra Complex after Electra, a Greekcharacter, who induced her brother to killtheir mother) follows a slightly differentcourse. By attaching her love to the fathera girl tries to symbolically marry him andraise a family. When she realises that thisis unlikely, she begins to identify with hermother and copy her behaviour as a meansof getting (or, sharing in) her father’saffection. The critical component inresolving the Oedipus complex is thedevelopment of identification with the samesex parents. In other words, boys give upsexual feelings for their mothers and beginto see their fathers as role models ratherthan as rivals; girls give up their sexualdesires for their father and identify withtheir mother.


Latency Stage : This stage lasts from aboutseven years until puberty. During thisperiod, the child continues to growphysically, but sexual urges are relativelyinactive. Much of a child’s energy ischannelled into social or achievement-related activities.

Genital Stage : During this stage, theperson attains maturity in psychosexualdevelopment. The sexuality, fears andrepressed feelings of earlier stages are onceagain exhibited. People learn to deal withmembers of the opposite sex in a sociallyand sexually mature way. However, if thejourney towards this stage is marked byexcessive stress or over-indulgence, it maycause fixation to an earlier stage ofdevelopment.

Freud’s theory also postulates that aschildren proceed from one stage to anotherstage of development, they seem to adjusttheir view of the world. Failure of a childto pass successfully through a stage leadsto fixation to that stage. In this situation,the child’s development gets arrested at anearlier stage. For example, a child whodoes not pass successfully through thephallic stage fails to resolve the Oedipalcomplex and may still feel hostile towardthe parent of the same sex. This failuremay have serious consequences for thechild’s life. Such a boy may come toconsider that men are generally hostile,and may wish to relate to females in adependable relationship. Regression isalso a likely outcome in such situations.It takes a person back to an earlier stage.Regression occurs when a person’sresolution of problems at any stage ofdevelopment is less than adequate. In thissituation, people display behaviours typicalof a less mature stage of development.

Post-Freudian Approaches

A number of theorists further developedtheir ideas following Freud. Some had

worked with him and then moved on todevelop their own versions of thepsychoanalytic theory. These theoristshave been called neo-analytic, or post-Freudian in order to differentiate theirwork from Freud’s. These theories arecharacterised by less prominent roles tosexual and aggressive tendencies of the idand expansion of the concept of ego. Thehuman qualities of creativity, competence,and problem solving abilities areemphasised. Some of these theories arebriefly described here.

Carl Jung : Aims and Aspirations

Jung worked with Freud in his early stagesof career, but later on he broke away fromFreud. Jung saw human beings guided asmuch by aims and aspirations as by sexand aggression. He developed his owntheory of personality, called analyticalpsychology. The basic assumption of histheory is that personality consists ofcompeting forces and structures within theindividual (that must be balanced) ratherthan between the individual and thedemands of society, or between theindividual and reality.

Jung claimed that there was acollective unconscious consisting ofarchetypes or primordial images. Theseare not individually acquired, but areinherited. The God or the Mother Earth isa good example of archetypes. They arefound in myths, dreams and arts of allmankind. Jung held that the self strives forunity and oneness. It is an archetype thatis expressed in many ways. He devotedmuch of his efforts to the study of suchexpressions in various traditions.According to him, for achieving unity andwholeness, a person must becomeincreasingly aware of the wisdom availablein one’s personal and collectiveunconscious, and must learn to live inharmony with it.

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Karen Horney : Optimism

Horney was another disciple of Freud whodeveloped a theory that deviated from basicFreudian principles. She adopted a moreoptimistic view of human life withemphasis on human growth and self-actualisation.

Horney’s major contribution lies in herchallenge to Freud’s treatment of womenas inferior. According to her, each sex hasattributes to be admired by the other, andneither sex can be viewed as superior orinferior. She countered that women weremore likely to be affected by social andcultural factors than by biological factors.She argued that psychological disorderswere caused by disturbed interpersonalrelationship during childhood. Whenparents’ behaviour toward a child isindifferent, discouraging, and erratic, thechild feels insecure and a feeling calledbasic anxiety results. Deep resentmenttoward parents or basic hostility occursdue to this anxiety. By showing excessivedominance or indifference, or by providingtoo much or too little approval, parents cangenerate among children feelings ofisolation and helplessness which interferewith their healthy development.

Alfred Adler : Lifestyle and Social Interest

Adler’s theory is known as individualpsychology. His basic assumption is thathuman behaviour is purposeful and goal-directed. Each one of us has the capacityto choose and create. Our personal goalsare the sources of our motivation. Thegoals that provide us with security andhelp us in overcoming the feelings ofinadequacy are important in ourpersonality development. In Adler’s view,every individual suffers from the feelingsof inadequacy and guilt, i.e. inferioritycomplex, which arise from childhood.Overcoming this complex is essential foroptimal personality development.

Erich Fromm : The Human Concerns

In contrast to Freud’s biologicalorientation, Fromm developed his theoryfrom a social orientation. He viewed humanbeings as basically social beings whocould be understood in terms of theirrelationship with others. He argued thatpsychological qualities such as growth andrealisation of potentials resulted from adesire for freedom, and striving forjustice and truth.

Fromm holds that character traits(personality) develop from our experienceswith other individuals. While culture isshaped by the mode of existence of a givensociety, people’s dominant character traitsin a given society work as forces in shapingthe social processes and the culture itself.His work recognises the value of positivequalities, such as tenderness and love inpersonality development.

Erik Erikson : Search for Identity

Erikson’s theory lays stress on rational,conscious ego processes in personalitydevelopment. In his theory, development isviewed as a lifelong process, and egoidentity is granted a central place in thisprocess. His concept of identity crisis ofadolescent age has drawn considerableattention. Erikson argues that youngpeople must generate for themselves acentral perspective and a direction that cangive them a meaningful sense of unity andpurpose.

Psychodynamic theories face strongcriticisms from many quarters. The majorcriticisms are as follows:(1) The theories are largely based on case

studies; they lack a rigorous scientificbasis.

(2) They use small and atypical individualsas samples for advancing generali-sations.

(3) The concepts are not properly defined,and it is difficult to submit them toscientific testing.


(4) Freud has used males as the prototypeof all human personality development.He overlooked female experiences andperspectives.

Behavioural Approach

This approach does not give importance tothe internal dynamics of behaviour. Thebehaviourists believe in data, which theyfeel are definable, observable, andmeasurable. Thus, they focus on learningof stimulus-response connections and theirreinforcement. According to them,personality can be best understood as theresponse of an individual to theenvironment. They see the developmentsimply as a change in responsecharacteristics, i.e. a person learns newbehaviours in response to newenvironments and stimuli.

For most behaviourists, the structuralunit of personality is the response. Eachresponse is a behaviour, which is emittedto satisfy a specific need. As you know, allof us eat because of hunger, but we arealso very choosy about foods. For example,children do not like eating many of thevegetables (e.g., spinach, pumpkin, gourds,etc.), but gradually they learn to eat them.Why do they do so? According to thebehavioural approach, children mayinitially learn to eat such vegetables inanticipation of appreciation (reinforcement)from their parents. Later on they mayeventually learn to eat vegetables not onlybecause their parents are pleased with thisbehaviour, but also because they acquirethe taste of those vegetables, and find themgood. Thus, the core tendency thatorganises behaviour is the reduction ofbiological or social needs that energisebehaviour. This is accomplishedthrough responses (behaviours) that arereinforced.

From your study in Class XI, you mayrecall that there are several different

Activity2.3

Observe and note your behaviourcharacteristics and those of yourfriends that have been imbibed frompopular youth icons.

learning principles that involve the use ofstimuli, responses, and reinforcement indifferent ways. The theories of classicalconditioning (Pavlov), instrumentalconditioning (Skinner), and observationallearning (Bandura) are well-known to you.These theories view learning andmaintenance of behaviour from differentangles. The principles of these theorieshave been widely used in developingpersonality theories. For example,observational learning theory considersthought processes extremely important inlearning, but these find almost no place inclassical or instrumental conditioningtheories. Observational learning theoryalso emphasises social learning (based onobservation and imitation of others) andself-regulation, which again is missed outin other theories.

Cultural Approach

This approach attempts to understandpersonality in relation to the features ofecological and cultural environment. Itproposes that a group’s ‘economicmaintenance system’ plays a vital role inthe origin of cultural and behaviouralvariations. The climatic conditions, thenature of terrain of the habitat and theavailability of food (flora and fauna) in itdetermine not only people’s economicactivities, but also their settlementpatterns, social structures, division oflabour, and other features such as child-rearing practices. Taken together theseelements constitute a child’s overalllearning environment. People’s skills,abilities, behavioural styles, and valuepriorities are viewed as strongly linked to

Psychology40

these features. Rituals, ceremonies,religious practices, arts, recreationalactivities, games and play are the meansthrough which people’s personality getsprojected in a culture. People developvarious personality (behavioural) qualitiesin an attempt to adapt to the ecological andcultural features of a group’s life. Thus, thecultural approach considers personality asan adaptation of individuals or groups tothe demands of their ecology and culture.

Let us try to understand these aspectswith a concrete example. As you know, agood proportion of the world’s population,even today, lives in forests andmountainous regions with hunting andgathering (economic activities) as theirprimary means of livelihood. The Birhor (atribal group) of Jharkhand represent sucha population. Most of them live a nomadiclife, which requires constant movement insmall bands from one forest to another insearch of games and other forest products(e.g., fruits, roots, mushrooms, honey,etc.). In the Birhor society, children froman early age are allowed enormous freedomto move into forests and learn hunting andgathering skills. Their child socialisationpractices are also aimed at makingchildren independent (do many thingswithout help from elders), autonomous(take several decisions for themselves), andachievement-oriented (accept risks andchallenges such as those involved inhunting) from an early age of life.

In agricultural societies, children aresocialised to be obedient to elders,nurturant to youngsters, and responsibleto their duties. Since these behaviouralqualities make people more functional inagricultural societies, they becomedominant features of people’s personalityin contrast to independence, autonomyand achievement, which are morefunctional (and thus highly valued) inhunting-gathering societies. Because ofdif ferent economic pursuits and

cultural demands, children in hunting-gathering and agricultural societiesdevelop and display different personalitypatterns.

Humanistic Approach

The humanistic theories are mainlydeveloped in response to Freud’s theory.Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow haveparticularly contributed to the developmentof humanistic perspective on personality.We will briefly examine their theories.

The most important idea proposed byRogers is that of a fully functioningperson. He believes that fulfilment is themotivating force for personalitydevelopment. People try to express theircapabilities, potentials and talents to thefullest extent possible. There is an inborntendency among persons that directs themto actualise their inherited nature.

Rogers makes two basic assumptionsabout human behaviour. One is thatbehaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile.The second is that people (who are innatelygood) will almost always choose adaptive,self-actualising behaviour.

Rogers’ theory grew out of hisexperiences of listening to patients in hisclinic. He noted that self was an importantelement in the experience of his clients.Thus, his theory is structured around theconcept of self. The theory assumes thatpeople are constantly engaged in theprocess of actualising their true self.

Rogers suggests that each person alsohas a concept of ideal self. An ideal self isthe self that a person would like to be.When there is a correspondence betweenthe real self and ideal self, a person isgenerally happy. Discrepancy between thereal self and ideal self often results inunhappiness and dissatisfaction. Rogers’basic principle is that people have atendency to maximise self-concept throughself-actualisation. In this process, the selfgrows, expands and becomes more social.


Rogers views personality developmentas a continuous process. It involveslearning to evaluate oneself andmastering the process of self-actualisation. He recognises the role ofsocial influences in the development ofself-concept. When social conditions arepositive, the self-concept and self-esteemare high. In contrast, when the conditionsare negative, the self-concept and self-esteem are low. People with high self-concept and self-esteem are generallyflexible and open to new experiences, sothat they can continue to grow and self-actualise.

This situation warrants that anatmosphere of unconditional positiveregard must be created in order to ensureenhancement of people’s self-concept. Theclient-centred therapy that Rogersdeveloped basically attempts to create thiscondition.

You are already familiar with thehierarchy of needs propounded by Maslow

Box2.3

Who is a Healthy Person?

The humanistic theorists have indicated that healthy personality lies in not mereadjustment to society. It involves a quest to know oneself deeply and to be true to one’sown feelings without disguise, and to be oneself in the here-and-now. According to them,the healthy people share the following characteristics :1. They become aware of themselves, their feelings, and their limits; accept themselves,

and what they make of their lives as their own responsibility; have ‘the courage to be’.2. They experience the “here-and-now”; are not trapped.3. They do not live in the past or dwell in the future through anxious expectations and

distorted defences.

from your study of motivation in Class XI.Maslow has given a detailed account ofpsychologically healthy people in terms oftheir attainment of self-actualisation, astate in which people have reached theirown fullest potential. Maslow had anoptimistic and positive view of man whohas the potentialities for love, joy and todo creative work. Human beings areconsidered free to shape their lives and toself-actualise. Self-actualisation becomespossible by analysing the motivations thatgovern our life. We know that biological,security, and belongingness needs (calledsurvival needs) are commonly foundamong animals and human beings. Thus,an individual’s sole concern with thesatisfaction of these needs reduces her/him to the level of animals. The realjourney of human life begins with thepursuit of self-esteem and self-actualisation needs. The humanisticapproach emphasises the significance ofpositive aspects of life (see Box 2.3).

Fig.2.3 : Pattern of Adjustment and Self-concept

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ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY

To know, understand and describe peopleis a task in which everybody is involved inday-to-day life. When we meet new people,we often try to understand them and evenpredict what they may do before weinteract with them. In our personal lives,we rely on our past experiences,observations, conversations and infor-mation obtained from other persons. Thisapproach to understanding others may beinfluenced by a number of factors that maycolour our judgement and reduceobjectivity. Hence, we need to organise ourefforts more formally to analysepersonalities. A formal effort aimed atunderstanding personality of an individualis termed as personality assessment.

Assessment refers to the proceduresused to evaluate or differentiate people onthe basis of certain characteristics. Thegoal of assessment is to understand andpredict behaviour with minimum error andmaximum accuracy. In assessment, we tryto study what a person generally does, orhow s/he behaves, in a given situation.Besides promoting our understanding,assessment is also useful for diagnosis,training, placement, counselling, and otherpurposes.

Psychologists have tried to assesspersonality in various ways. Themost commonly used techniques arePsychometric Tests, Self-ReportMeasures, Projective Techniques, andBehavioural Analysis. These techniquesare rooted in different theoreticalorientations; hence they throw light ondifferent aspects of personality. You haveread about psychometric tests in theprevious chapter. We will discuss the othermethods.

Self-report Measures

It was Allport who suggested that the bestmethod to assess a person is by asking

her/him about herself/himself. This led tothe use of self-report measures. These arefairly structured measures, often based ontheory, that require subjects to give verbalresponses using some kind of rating scale.The method requires the subject toobjectively report her/his own feelings withrespect to various items. The responses areaccepted at their face value. They arescored in quantitative terms andinterpreted on the basis of normsdeveloped for the test. Some of the well-known self-report measures are brieflydescribed below.

The Minnesota Multiphasic PersonalityInventory (MMPI)

This inventory is widely used as a test inpersonality assessment. Hathaway andMcKinley developed this test as a helpingtool for psychiatric diagnosis, but the testhas been found very effective in identifyingvarieties of psychopathology. Its revisedversion is available as MMPI-2. It consistsof 567 statements. The subject has to judgeeach statement as ‘true’ or ‘false’ for her/him. The test is divided into 10 subscales,which seek to diagnose hypochondriasis,depression, hysteria, psychopathicdeviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia,psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania andsocial introversion. In India, Mallick andJoshi have developed the JodhpurMultiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI)along the lines of MMPI.

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)

Developed by Eysenck this test initiallyassessed two dimensions of personality,called introverted-extraverted andemotionally stable-emotionally unstable.These dimensions are characterised by 32personality traits. Later on, Eysenck addeda third dimension, called psychoticism. Itis linked to psychopathology thatrepresents a lack of feeling for others, a


tough manner of interacting with people,and a tendency to defy social conventions.A person scoring high on this dimensiontends to be hostile, egocentric, andantisocial. This test is also widely used.

Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire(16 PF)

This test was developed by Cattell. On thebasis of his studies, he identified a largeset of personality descriptors, which weresubjected to factor analysis to identify thebasic personality structure. You will learnabout this statistical technique later. Thetest provides with declarative statements,and the subject responds to a specificsituation by choosing from a set of givenalternatives. The test can be used withhigh school level students as well as withadults. It has been found extremely usefulin career guidance, vocational exploration,and occupational testing.

Apart from the few popular tests whichuse self-report technique which have beendescribed above, there are several othersthat try to assess specific dimensions ofpersonality (e.g., authoritarianism, locus ofcontrol, optimism, etc.). As you proceedfurther with your study of psychology, youwill come to know more about them.

The self-report measures suffer from anumber of problems. Social desirability isone of them. It is a tendency on the partof the respondent to endorse items in asocially desirable manner. Acquiescence isanother one. It is a tendency of the subjectto agree with items/questions irrespectiveof their contents. It often appears in theform of saying ‘yes’ to items. Thesetendencies render the assessment ofpersonality less reliable.

It is also necessary to sound a note ofcaution at this stage. Remember thatpsychological testing and understandingpersonality requires great skill andtraining. Unless you have acquired these

to an optimum level under carefulsupervision of an expert, you should notventure into testing and interpreting thepersonality of your friends who do notstudy psychology.

Projective Techniques

The techniques of personality assessmentdescribed so far are known as directtechniques, because they tend to rely oninformation directly obtained from theperson who clearly knows that her/hispersonality is being assessed. In thesesituations, people generally become self-conscious and hesitate to share theirprivate feelings, thoughts, and motivations.When they do so, they often do it in asocially desirable manner.

The psychoanalytic theory tells us thata large part of human behaviour isgoverned by unconscious motives. Directmethods of personality assessment cannotuncover the unconscious part of ourbehaviour. Hence, they fail to provide uswith a real picture of an individual’spersonality. These problems can beovercome by using indirect methods ofassessment. Projective techniques fall inthis category.

Projective techniques were developed toassess unconscious motives and feelings.These techniques are based on theassumption that a less structured orunstructured stimulus or situation willallow the individual to project her/hisfeelings, desires and needs on to thatsituation. These projections are interpretedby experts. A variety of projectivetechniques have been developed; they usevarious kinds of stimulus materials andsituations for assessing personality. Someof them require reporting associations withstimuli (e.g., words, inkblots), some involvestory writing around pictures, some requiresentence completions, some requireexpression through drawings, and some

Psychology44

Fig.2.4 : An Example of the Rorschach Inkblot

require choice of stimuli from a large setof stimuli.

While the nature of stimuli andresponses in these techniques varyenormously, all of them do share thefollowing features:(1) The stimuli are relatively or fully

unstructured and poorly defined.(2) The person being assessed is usually

not told about the purpose ofassessment and the method of scoringand interpretation.

(3) The person is informed that there areno correct or incorrect responses.

(4) Each response is considered to reveala significant aspect of personality.

(5) Scoring and interpretation are lengthyand sometimes subjective.Projective techniques are different from

the psychometric tests in many ways. Theycannot be scored in any objective manner.They generally require qualitative analysesfor which a rigorous training is needed. Inthe following pages, some of the well-known projective techniques are brieflydiscussed.

The Rorschach Inkblot Test

This test was developed by HermannRorschach. The test consists of 10inkblots. Five of them are in black andwhite, two with some red ink, and theremaining three in some pastel colours.The blots are symmetrical in design witha specific shape or form. Each blot isprinted in the centre of a white cardboardof about 7” 10” size. The blots wereoriginally made by dropping ink on a pieceof paper and then folding the paper in half(hence called inkblot test). The cards areadministered individually in two phases. Inthe first phase, called performanceproper, the subjects are shown the cardsand are asked to tell what they see in eachof them. In the second phase, calledinquiry, a detailed report of the response

is prepared by asking the subject to tellwhere, how, and on what basis was aparticular response made. Fine judgmentis necessary to place the subject’sresponses in a meaningful context. The useand interpretation of this test requiresextensive training. Computer techniquestoo have been developed for analysis ofdata. An example of the Rorschach Inkblotis given in Figure 2.4.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

This test was developed by Morgan andMurray. It is a little more structured thanthe Inkblot test. The test consists of 30black and white picture cards and oneblank card. Each picture card depicts oneor more people in a variety of situations.Each picture is printed on a card. Somecards are used with adult males or females.Others are used with boys or girls. Stillothers are used in some combinations.Twenty cards are appropriate for a subject,although a lesser number of cards (evenfive) have also been successfully used.

The cards are presented one at a time.The subject is asked to tell a storydescribing the situation presented in the


picture: What led up to the situation, whatis happening at the moment, what willhappen in the future, and what thecharacters are feeling and thinking? Astandard procedure is available for scoringTAT responses. The test has been modifiedfor children and for the aged. UmaChaudhury’s Indian adaptation of TAT isalso available. An example of a TAT cardis given in Figure 2.5.

Fig.2.5 : An Illustration Showing the Drawing of aCard of TAT

made to examine whether the focus is onthe frustrating object, or on protection ofthe frustrated person, or on constructivesolution of the problem. The direction ofaggression may be towards theenvironment, towards oneself, or it may betuned off in an attempt to gloss over orevade the situation. Pareek has adaptedthis test for use with the Indianpopulation.

Sentence Completion Test

This test makes use of a number ofincomplete sentences. The starting part ofthe sentence is first presented and thesubject has to provide an ending to thesentence. It is held that the type ofendings used by the subjects reflect theirattitudes, motivation and conflicts. Thetest provides subjects with severalopportunities to reveal their underlyingunconscious motivations. A few sampleitems of a sentence completion test aregiven below.1. My father——————————————.2. My greatest fear is —————————.3. The best thing about my mother is —

—————————.4. I am proud of ————————————

————————.

Draw-a-Person Test

It is a simple test in which the subject isasked to draw a person on a sheet of paper.A pencil and eraser is provided to facilitatedrawing. After the completion of thedrawing, the subject is generally asked todraw the figure of an opposite sex person.Finally, the subject is asked to make astory about the person as if s/he was acharacter in a novel or play. Someexamples of interpretations are as follows:(1) Omission of facial features

suggests that the person tries to evadea highly conflict-ridden interpersonalrelationship.

Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study(P-F Study)

This test was developed by Rosenzweig toassess how people express aggression inthe face of a frustrating situation. The testpresents with the help of cartoon likepictures a series of situations in which oneperson frustrates another, or callsattention to a frustrating condition. Thesubject is asked to tell what the other(frustrated) person will say or do. Theanalysis of responses is based on the typeand direction of aggression. An attempt is

Psychology46

(2) Graphic emphasis on the neck suggestslack of control over impulses.

(3) Disproportionately large head suggestsorganic brain disease and pre-occupation with headaches.

The analysis of personality with thehelp of projective techniques appears fairlyinteresting. It helps us to understandunconscious motives, deep-rootedconflicts, and emotional complexes of anindividual. However, the interpretation ofthe responses requires sophisticated skillsand specialised training. There areproblems associated with the reliability ofscoring and validity of interpretations. But,the practitioners have found thesetechniques quite useful.

Behavioural Analysis

A person’s behaviour in a variety ofsituations can provide us with meaningfulinformation about her/his personality.Observation of behaviour serves as thebasis of behavioural analysis. An observer’sreport may contain data obtained frominterview, observation, ratings,nomination, and situational tests. Wewill examine these different procedures insome detail.

Interview

Interview is a commonly used method forassessing personality. This involves talkingto the person being assessed and askingspecific questions. Diagnostic interviewinggenerally involves in-depth interviewingwhich seeks to go beyond the replies givenby the person. Interviews may bestructured or unstructured depending onthe purpose or goals of assessment.

In unstructured interviews, theinterviewer seeks to develop an impressionabout a person by asking a number ofquestions. The way a person presents her/himself and answers the questions carries

enough potential to reveal her/hispersonality. The structured interviewsaddress very specific questions and followa set procedure. This is often done to makeobjective comparison of persons beinginterviewed. Use of rating scales mayfurther enhance the objectivity ofevaluations.

Observation

Behavioural observation is another methodwhich is very commonly used for theassessment of personality. Although all ofus watch people and form impressionsabout their personality, use of observationfor personality assessment is asophisticated procedure that cannot becarried out by untrained people. It requirescareful training of the observer, and a fairlydetailed guideline about analysis ofbehaviours in order to assess thepersonality of a given person. For example,a clinical psychologist may like to observeher/his client’s interaction with familymembers and home visitors. With carefullydesigned observation, the clinicalpsychologist may gain considerable insightinto a client’s personality.

In spite of their frequent andwidespread use, observation and interviewmethods are characterised by the followinglimitations:

(1) Professional training required forcollection of useful data through thesemethods is quite demanding and time-consuming.

(2) Maturity of the psychologist is aprecondition for obtaining valid datathrough these techniques.

(3) Mere presence of the observer maycontaminate the results. As a stranger,the observer may influence thebehaviour of the person being observedand thus not obtain good data.


Key TermsAnal stage, Archetypes, Cardinal traits, Central traits, Client-centred therapy, Collective unconscious,Defence mechanisms, Ego, Extraversion, Humanistic approach, Id, Ideal self, Inferiority complex,Introversion, Latency period, Libido, Metaneeds, Oedipus complex, Personal identity, Phallic stage,Projective techniques, Psychodynamic approach, Projection, Rationalisation, Reaction formation,Regression, Repression, Self-efficacy, Self-esteem, Self-regulation, Social identity, Superego, Traitapproach, Type approach, Unconscious.

Behavioural Ratings

Behavioural ratings are frequently used forassessment of personality in educationaland industrial settings. Behaviouralratings are generally taken from peoplewho know the assessee intimately andhave interacted with her/him over a periodof time or have had a chance to observeher/him. They attempt to put individualsinto certain categories in terms of theirbehavioural qualities. The categories mayinvolve different numbers or descriptiveterms. It has been found that use ofnumbers or general descriptive adjectivesin rating scales always creates confusionfor the rater. In order to use ratingseffectively, the traits should be clearlydefined in terms of carefully statedbehavioural anchors.

The method of rating suffers from thefollowing major limitations:(1) Raters often display certain biases that

colour their judgments of differenttraits. For example, most of us aregreatly influenced by a singlefavourable or unfavourable trait. Thisoften forms the basis of a rater’s overalljudgment of a person. This tendency isknown as the halo effect.

(2) Raters have a tendency to placeindividuals either in the middle of thescale (called middle category bias) byavoiding extreme positions, or in theextreme positions (called extremeresponse bias) by avoiding middlecategories on the scale.

These tendencies can be overcome byproviding raters with appropriate training

or by developing such scales in which theresponse bias is likely to be small.

Nomination

This method is often used in obtaining peerassessment. It can be used with personswho have been in long-term interactionand who know each other very well. Inusing nomination, each person is asked tochoose one or more persons of the groupwith whom s/he would like to work, study,play or participate in any other activity.The person may also be asked to specifythe reason for her/his choices.Nominations thus received may beanalysed to understand the personalityand behavioural qualities of the person.This technique has been found to be highlydependable, although it may also beaffected by personal biases.

Situational Tests

A variety of situational tests have beendevised for the assessment of personality.The most commonly used test of this kindis the situational stress test. It providesus with information about how a personbehaves under stressful situations. Thetest requires a person to perform a giventask with other persons who are instructedto be non-cooperative and interfering. Thetest involves a kind of role playing. Theperson is instructed to play a role for whichs/he is observed. A verbal report is alsoobtained on what s/he was asked to do.The situation may be realistic one, or itmay be created through a video play.

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• The study of the self and the personality helps us understand ourselves as well asothers. An individual’s self develops through social interaction with significant others.

• There are different kinds of self such as personal self, social self, and relational self.Self-esteem and self-efficacy are two very important aspects of behaviour, whichhave far-reaching consequences in our life.

• The psychological techniques of self-regulation include systematic observation of one’sbehaviour, self-reinforcement, and self-instruction.

• Personality refers to psychophysical characteristics of a person that are relativelystable across situations and over time and make her or him unique. Since personalityhelps us in adapting to a variety of situations in our life, it is likely to change as aresult of external or internal forces.

• Personality has been studied through several approaches. The most prominent amongthese are typological, psychodynamic, behavioural, cultural, and humanistic approaches.

• The typological approach attempts to describe personality in terms of a few types,which are characterised by a cluster of traits. Allport, Cattell and Eysenck haveadvocated a trait approach to personality, which offers a unified view of a person.

• Freud developed psychodynamic approach and discussed personality in terms of aconstant conflict between our internal forces, called id, ego, and superego. In Freud’sview, unconscious conflicts are rooted in the process of psychosexual development,which occurs through oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.

• Post-Freudian theorists focus on interpersonal forces and the contemporarycircumstances of life of the person. Jung, Fromm, Adler, Horney and Erikson broughtout the role of ego and social forces in personality.

• The behavioural approach views personality as the response of an individual to theenvironment. They consider response as the structural unit of personality, which isemitted to satisfy a specific need.

• The cultural approach attempts to comprehend personality in terms of the demandsof adaptation made on individuals by the economic maintenance systems and theresulting cultural features of a group of people.

• The Humanistic approach focuses on subjective experiences of individuals and theirchoices. Rogers emphasised the relationship between the ‘real self’ and the ‘idealself’. The congruence of these selves makes a person fully functioning. Maslowdiscussed personality in terms of the interplay of needs that motivated people. Theneeds could be arranged in a hierarchy from lower-order (survival related) needs tohigher-order (development related) needs.

• Personality assessment refers to the procedure of analysing and evaluating people interms of certain psychological characteristics. The goal is to predict an individual’sbehaviour with a high degree of accuracy.

• An individual’s personality can be assessed by using observer reports, projectivetechniques, and self-report measures. Observer reports include interview, observation,ratings, nomination and situational tests. Rorschach Inkblot Test, and ThematicApperception Test are widely used projective tests of personality. Self-report measuresattempt to assess personality by using fairly structured tests.

Review Questions1. What is self ? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?2. What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult

development?3. How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of

personality?4. What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach?5. How does Freud explain the structure of personality?6. How would Horney’s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?


Weblinkswww.ship.edu/~cgboeree/perscontents.htmlen.wikipedia.org/wiki/projective_test

Pedagogical Hints1. To make students understand the

concept of self, certain activities couldbe organised, such as a student maybe asked to tell about herself/himself.

2. Prepare flow charts/diagrams toexplain the concepts. Help studentsto prepare charts/diagrams related toconcepts given in the chapter.

3. Emphasise the importance of variouspersonality assessment techniques indifferent spheres of life.

4. Sample items of various tests ofpersonality could be shown togenerate interest among students.They could be asked to compare thetest items included in differentmeasures of personality.

ProjectIdeas

1. We all have some notions about our ideal selves, i.e. and what we would like to be? Taketime to imagine that you have achieved your ideal self. With this notion of your idealself, express your attitudes towards these categories : (a) school, (b) friends, (c) family,and (d) money. Write a paragraph on each describing your ideal attitudes. Next write allthese categories on four sheets of paper and ask your two friends and two family membersto write about what they perceive to be your real attitudes towards these categories.These four persons will describe your real self as they see you. Compare your idealdescriptions with others’ real descriptions in detail. Are they very similar or dissimilar?Prepare a report on this.

2. Select five persons whom you most admire, either from real life or from history. Collectinformation about their contributions in their respective fields and identify thecharacteristics in their personality that have impressed you. Do you find any similarities?Prepare a comparative report.

7. What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslowmean by self-actualisation?

8. Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. Whatproblems do we face in using these methods?

9. What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely usedstructured personality tests?

10. Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests ofpersonality are widely used by psychologists?

11. Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Thoughhis family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice of career.Using Carl Rogers’ terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant’s family.

Psychology50

MEETING LIFE CHALLENGESMEETING LIFE CHALLENGESMEETING LIFE CHALLENGESMEETING LIFE CHALLENGESMEETING LIFE CHALLENGES

IntroductionNature, Types and Sources of Stress

A Measure of Stressful Life Events (Box 3.1)Effects of Stress on Psychological Functioning and Health

Examination Anxiety (Box 3.2)Stress and HealthGeneral Adaptation SyndromeStress and Immune SystemLifestyle

Coping with StressStress Management Techniques

Promoting Positive Health and Well-beingLife SkillsResilience and Health (Box 3.3)

CONTENTS


After reading this chapter, you would be able to:understand the nature, types and sources of stress as life challenges,examine the effects of stress on psychological functioning,learn ways to cope with stress,know about the life skills that help people to stay healthy, andunderstand the factors that promote positive health and well-being.

Chapter 3 • Meeting Life Challenges 51

NATURE, TYPES AND SOURCES OF STRESS

While waiting to cross the road on a busyMonday morning, you may be temporarilystressed. But, because you are alert,vigilant and aware of the danger, you areable to cross the road safely. Faced withany challenge, we put in additional effortsand mobilise all our resources and thesupport system to meet the challenge. Allthe challenges, problems, and difficultcircumstances put us to stress. Thus, ifhandled properly, stress increases the

Raj has been studying for his final examination which is going to takeplace tomorrow morning. He studies till 1 a.m. in the night. Unable toconcentrate any more, he sets the alarm for 6 a.m. and tries to go off tosleep. As he is very tense, he keeps tossing and turning in bed. Imagesflash through his mind of not being able to secure the marks he needs toopt for the subjects of his choice. He blames himself for fooling around withhis friends and not preparing thoroughly for the examination. In the morninghe wakes up with a heavy head, misses breakfast, and barely makes it intime to school for his examination. He opens the question paper, his heartpounding, hands clammy with sweat and then he feels his mind has gonecompletely blank.

Some of you may have lived through an experience such as Raj’s. Thechallenge posed by examinations is common to all students. You are perhaps,already thinking about a career. What if you are denied this choice? Willyou give up? Life poses challenges all the time. Think of a child who losesher/his parents at a young age with no one to take care of her/him; ayoung woman who loses her husband in a car accident; parents who bringup children who are physically or mentally challenged; young girls/boyswho have to spend long nights in call centres and then catch up on theirsleep during the day time. Look around yourself and you will find that lifeis a big challenge. All of us try to meet these challenges in our own way.Some of us succeed while others succumb to such life stresses. Lifechallenges are not necessarily stressful. Much depends on how a challengeis viewed. A number 11 batsman in a cricket team will view facing a fastbowler’s delivery differently than would an opening batsman, who willlook forward to such a challenge. It is said that one’s best comes out whenone is challenged. We will like to consider in this chapter how a life conditionturns into a challenge or a cause of stress. Further, we will also see howpeople respond to various life challenges as well as stressful situations.

Introduction

probability of one’s survival. Stress is likeelectricity. It gives energy, increaseshuman arousal and affects performance.However, if the electric current is too high,it can fuse bulbs, damage appliances, etc.High stress too can produce unpleasanteffects and cause our performance todeteriorate. Conversely, too little stressmay cause one to feel somewhat listlessand low on motivation which may lead usto perform slowly and less efficiently. It isimportant to remember that not all stressis inherently bad or destructive. ‘Eustress’

Psychology52

is the term used to describe the level ofstress that is good for you and is one ofa person’s best assets for achieving peakperformance and managing minor crisis.Eustress, however, has the potential ofturning into ‘distress’. It is this lattermanifestation of stress that causes ourbody’s wear and tear. Thus, stress can bedescribed as the pattern of responses anorganism makes to stimulus event thatdisturbs the equilibrium and exceeds aperson’s ability to cope.

Nature of Stress

The word stress has its origin in the Latinwords ‘strictus’, meaning tight or narrowand ‘stringere’, the verb meaning totighten. These root words reflect theinternal feelings of tightness andconstriction of the muscles and breathingreported by many people under stress.Stress is often explained in terms ofcharacteristics of the environment that aredisruptive to the individual. Stressors areevents that cause our body to give thestress response. Such events includenoise, crowding, a bad relationship, or thedaily commuting to school or office. Thereaction to external stressors is called‘strain’ (see Fig.3.1).

Stress has come to be associated withboth the causes as well as effects. However,this view of stress can cause confusion.Hans Selye, the father of modern stressresearch, defined stress as “the non-specific response of the body to any

demand” that is, regardless of the cause ofthe threat, the individual will respond withthe same physiological pattern of reactions.Many researchers do not agree with thisdefinition as they feel that the stressresponse is not nearly as general and non-specific as Selye suggests. Differentstressors may produce somewhat differentpatterns of stress reaction, and differentindividuals may have dif ferentcharacteristic modes of response. You mayrecall the case of an opening batsmanmentioned earlier. Each one of us will seethe situation through our own eyes and itis our perception of the demands, and ourability to meet them, which will determinewhether we are feeling ‘stressed’ or not.

Stress is not a factor that resides in theindividual or the environment, instead it isembedded in an ongoing process thatinvolves individuals transacting with theirsocial and cultural environments, makingappraisals of those encounters andattempting to cope with the issues thatarise. Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitivestate. It is a disruption in homeostasis oran imbalance that gives rise to arequirement for resolution of thatimbalance or restoration of homeostasis.

The perception of stress is dependentupon the individual’s cognitive appraisal ofevents and the resources available to dealwith them. The stress process, based onthe cognitive theory of stress propoundedby Lazarus and his colleagues, is describedin Figure 3.2. An individual’s response toa stressful situation largely depends upon

Fig.3.1 : Psychological Meaning of Stress


the perceived events and how they areinterpreted or appraised. Lazarus hasdistinguished between two types ofappraisal, i.e. primary and secondary.Primary appraisal refers to the perceptionof a new or changing environment aspositive, neutral or negative in itsconsequences. Negative events areappraised for their possible harm, threator challenge. Harm is the assessment ofthe damage that has already been done byan event. Threat is the assessment ofpossible future damage that may bebrought about by the event. Challengeappraisals are associated with moreconfident expectations of the ability to copewith the stressful event, the potential toovercome and even profit from the event.When we perceive an event as stressful, we

are likely to make a secondary appraisal,which is the assessment of one’s copingabilities and resources and whether theywill be sufficient to meet the harm, threator challenge of the event. These resourcesmay be mental, physical, personal orsocial. If one thinks one has a positiveattitude, health, skills and social supportto deal with the crises s/he will feel lessstressed. This two-level appraisal processdetermines not only our cognitive andbehavioural responses but also ouremotional and physiological responses toexternal events.

These appraisals are very subjectiveand will depend on many factors. Onefactor is the past experience of dealingwith such a stressful condition. If onehas handled similar situations very

Fig.3.2 : A General Model of the Stress Process

Psychology54

successfully in the past, they would be lessthreatening for her/him. Another factor iswhether the stressful event is perceived ascontrollable, i.e. whether one has masteryor control over a situation. A person whobelieves that s/he can control the onset ofa negative situation, or its adverseconsequences, will experience less amountof stress than those who have no suchsense of personal control. For example, asense of self-confidence or efficacy candetermine whether the person is likely toappraise the situation as a threat or achallenge. Thus, the experience andoutcome of a stressor may vary fromindividual to individual. Stress, includes allthose environmental and personal events,which challenge or threaten the well-beingof a person. These stressors can beexternal, such as environmental (noise, airpollution), social (break-up with a friend,loneliness) or psychological (conflict,frustration) within the individual.

Very often, these stressors result in avariety of stress reactions, which may bephysiological, behavioural, emotional, andcognitive (see Fig.3.2). At the physiologicallevel, arousal plays a key role in stress-related behaviours. The hypothalamusinitiates action along two pathways. Thefirst pathway involves the autonomicnervous system. The adrenal glandreleases large amount of catecholamines(epinephrine and norepinephrine) into theblood stream. This leads to physiologicalchanges seen in fight-or-flight response.The second pathway involves the pituitarygland, which secretes the corticosteroid(cortisol) which provides energy. Theemotional reactions to experience of stressinclude negative emotions such as fear,anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depressionor even denial. The behavioural responsesare virtually limitless, depending on thenature of the stressful event. Confrontativeaction against the stressor (fight) orwithdrawal from the threatening event

(flight) are two general categories ofbehavioural responses. Cognitiveresponses include beliefs about the harmor threat an event poses and beliefs aboutits causes or controllability. These includeresponses such as inability to concentrate,and intrusive, repetitive or morbidthoughts.

As indicated in Figure 3.2, the stresseswhich people experience also vary in termsof intensity (low intensity vs. highintensity), duration (short-term vs. long-term), complexity ( less complex vs. morecomplex) and predictability (unexpectedvs. predictable). The outcome of stressdepends on the position of a particularstressful experience along thesedimensions. Usually more intense,prolonged or chronic, complex andunanticipated stresses have more negativeconsequences than have less intense,short-term, less complex and expectedstresses. An individual’s experiences ofstress depend on the physiological strengthof that person. Thus, individuals with poorphysical health and weak constitutionwould be more vulnerable than would bethose who enjoy good health and strongconstitution.

Psychological characteristics likemental health, temperament, and self-concept are relevant to the experience ofstress. The cultural context in which welive determines the meaning of any eventand defines the nature of response that isexpected under various conditions. Finally,the stress experience will be determined bythe resources of the person, such asmoney, social skills, coping style, supportnetworks, etc. All these factors determinethe appraisal of a given stressful situation.

Signs and Symptoms of Stress

The way we respond to stress variesdepending upon our personality, earlyupbringing and life experiences. Everyonehas their own pattern of stress response.


So the warning signs may vary, as maytheir intensity. Some of us know ourpattern of stress response and can gaugethe depth of the problem by the nature andseverity of our own symptoms or changesin behaviour. These symptoms of stresscan be physical, emotional andbehavioural. Any of the symptoms canindicate a degree of stress which, if leftunresolved, might have seriousimplications.

that are often unavoidable such as airpollution, crowding, noise, heat of thesummer, winter cold, etc. Another group ofenvironmental stresses are catastrophicevents or disasters such as fire,earthquake, floods, etc.

Psychological Stress

These are stresses that we generateourselves in our minds. These are personaland unique to the person experiencingthem and are internal sources of stress. Weworry about problems, feel anxiety, orbecome depressed. These are not onlysymptoms of stress, but they cause furtherstress for us. Some of the importantsources of psychological stress arefrustration, conflicts, internal and socialpressures, etc.

Frustration results from the blockingof needs and motives by something orsomeone that hinders us from achieving adesired goal. There could be a number ofcauses of frustration such as socialdiscrimination, interpersonal hurt, lowgrades in school, etc. Conflicts may occurbetween two or more incompatible needsor motives, e.g. whether to study dance orpsychology. You may want to continuestudies or take up a job. There may be aconflict of values when you are pressurisedto take any action that may be against thevalues held by you. Internal pressuresstem from beliefs based upon expectationsfrom inside us to ourselves such as, ‘I mustdo everything perfectly’. Such expectationscan only lead to disappointment. Many ofus drive ourselves ruthlessly towardsachieving unrealistically high standards inachieving our goals. Social pressures maybe brought about from people who makeexcessive demands on us. This can causeeven greater pressure when we have towork with them. Also, there are people withwhom we face interpersonal difficulties, ‘apersonality clash’ of sorts.

Read the following signs of stress :

Lack of concentration, Memory loss,Poor decision-making, Inconsistency,Irregular attendance and timekeeping,Low self-esteem, Poor long-termplanning, Frantic bursts of energy,Extreme mood swings, Emotionaloutbursts, Worry, Anxiety, Fear,Depression, Difficulties with sleep,Difficulties with eating, Misuse ofdrugs, Physical illness, e.g. stomachupset, headache, backache, etc.

Tick those applicable to you andthen discuss in groups of two or threestudents in class. Can you reducesome of them? Discuss how? Consultyour teacher.

Activity3.1

Types of Stress

The three major types of stress, viz.physical and environmental, psychological,and social are listed in Figure 3.2. It isimportant to understand that all thesetypes of stress are interrelated.

Physical and Environmental Stress

Physical stresses are demands that changethe state of our body. We feel strainedwhen we overexert ourselves physically,lack a nutritious diet, suffer an injury, orfail to get enough sleep. Environmentalstresses are aspects of our surroundings

Psychology56

Social Stress

These are induced externally and resultfrom our interaction with other people.Social events like death or illness in thefamily, strained relationships, trouble withneighbours are some examples of socialstresses. These social stresses vary widelyfrom person to person. Attending partiesmay be stressful for a person who likes tospend quiet evenings at home while anoutgoing person may find staying at homein the evenings stressful.

Sources of Stress

A wide range of events and conditions cangenerate stress. Among the most importantof these are major stressful life events,such as death of a loved one or personal

Box3.1

A Measure of Stressful Life Events

Holmes and Rahe developed a life event measure of stress. A measure of stressful lifeevents based on the above scale known as the Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale hasbeen developed for the Indian population by Singh, Kaur and Kaur. It is a self-ratingquestionnaire made up of fifty-one life changes, which a person may have experienced.Each of these life events is assigned a numerical value in terms of their severity. Forexample, the death of one’s spouse is assigned 95, personal illness or injury 56, failure inexamination 43, appearing for examination or interview 43, change in sleeping habits 33,as the mean stress score. Both positive and negative events are taken, believing that bothkinds of changes cause stress. The respondent’s stress score is the weighted sum of all theitems/life change events in the past one year checked by her/him.

Some sample items of the measure are :

Life Events Mean Stress ScoreDeath of a close family member 66Unexpected accident or trauma 53Illness of a family member 52Break-up with friend 47Appearing for examinations 43Change in eating habits 27

The mean number of stressful life events experienced over a period of one year withoutproducing overt physical or mental illness is approximately two. However, the correlationsbetween life events and susceptibility to any particular illness is low, indicating a weakassociation between life events and stress. It has been argued as to whether life eventshave caused some stress-related illness or whether stress caused the life events and illness.The impact of most life events varies from person to person. Factors such as age at whichthe event was first experienced, frequency of occurrence, duration of the stressful eventand social support must be studied in evaluating the relationship between stressful lifeevents and the subsequent illness episode.

injury, the annoying frequent hassles ofeveryday life and traumatic events thataffect our lives.

Life Events

Changes, both big and small, sudden andgradual affect our life from the moment weare born. We learn to cope with small,everyday changes but major life events canbe stressful, because they disturb ourroutine and cause upheaval. If several ofthese life events that are planned (e.g.moving into a new house) or unpredicted(e.g. break-up of a long-term relationship)occur within a short period of time, wefind it difficult to cope with them andwill be more prone to the symptoms ofstress.


Hassles

These are the personal stresses we endureas individuals, due to the happenings inour daily life, such as noisy surroundings,commuting, quarrelsome neighbours,electricity and water shortage, trafficsnarls, and so on. Attending to variousemergencies are daily hassles experiencedby a housewife. There are some jobs inwhich daily hassles are very frequent.These daily hassles may sometimes havedevastating consequences for theindividual who is often the one copingalone with them as others may not even beaware of them as outsiders. The morestress people report as a result of dailyhassles, the poorer is their psychologicalwell-being.

Traumatic Events

These include being involved in a varietyof extreme events such as a fire, train orroad accident, robbery, earthquake,tsunami, etc. The effects of these eventsmay occur after some lapse of time andsometimes persist as symptoms of anxiety,flashbacks, dreams and intrusivethoughts, etc. Severe trauma can alsostrain relationships. Professional help willbe needed to cope with them especially ifthey persist for many months after theevent is over.

EFFECTS OF STRESS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTH

What are the effects of stress? Many of theeffects are physiological in nature,however, other changes also occurinside stressed individuals. Thereare four major ef fects of stressassociated with the stressed state, viz.emotional, physiological, cognitive, andbehavioural.

Emotional Effects : Those who suffer fromstress are far more likely to experiencemood swings, and show erratic behaviourthat may alienate them from family andfriends. In some cases this can start avicious circle of decreasing confidence,leading to more serious emotionalproblems. Some examples are feelings ofanxiety and depression, increased physicaltension, increased psychological tensionand mood swings. Box 3.2 presents thephenomenon of ‘Examination Anxiety’.

Physiological Effects : When the humanbody is placed under physical orpsychological stress, it increases theproduction of certain hormones, such asadrenaline and cortisol. These hormonesproduce marked changes in heart rate,blood pressure levels, metabolism andphysical activity. Although, this physicalreaction will help us to function moreeffectively when we are under pressure forshort periods of time, it can be extremelydamaging to the body in the long-termeffects. Examples of physiological effectsare release of epinephrine and nor -epinephrine, slowing down of the digestivesystem, expansion of air passages in thelungs, increased heart rate, andconstriction of blood vessels.

Cognitive Effects : If pressures due tostress continue, one may suffer frommental overload. This suffering from highlevel of stress can rapidly cause individualsto lose their ability to make sound

Identify the stressful events, which youand two of your classmates haveexperienced in the past one year. Listthe stressful events and rank themfrom 1 to 5 that have had negativeimpact in your day-to-day functioning.Then select those that are common toall three of you. Find out how muchability, skill, and family support yourfriends and you have in order to dealwith each of these stresses.

Discuss these results with yourteacher.

Activity3.2

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decisions. Faulty decisions made at home,in career, or at workplace may lead toarguments, failure, financial loss or evenloss of job. Cognitive effects of stress arepoor concentration, and reduced short-term memory capacity.

Behavioural Effects : Stress affects ourbehaviour in the form of eating lessnutritional food, increasing intake ofstimulants such as caffeine, excessiveconsumption of cigarettes, alcohol andother drugs such as tranquillisers etc.Tranquillisers can be addictive and haveside effects such as loss of concentration,poor coordination, and dizziness. Some ofthe typical behavioural effects of stressseen are disrupted sleep patterns,increased absenteeism, and reduced workperformance.

Stress and Health

You must have often observed that manyof your friends (may be including yourselfas well!) fall sick during the examinationtime. They suffer from stomach upsets,body aches, nausea, diarrhoea and feveretc. You must have also noticed that peoplewho are unhappy in their personal lives fallsick more often than those who are happyand enjoy life. Chronic daily stress candivert an individual’s attention from caringfor herself or himself. When stress isprolonged, it affects physical health andimpairs psychological functioning. Peopleexperience exhaustion and attitudinalproblems when the stress due to demandsfrom the environment and constraints aretoo high and little support is available fromfamily and friends. The physical

Box3.2

Examination Anxiety

Examination anxiety is a fairly common phenomenon that involves feelings of tension oruneasiness that occur before, during, or after an examination. Many people experiencefeelings of anxiety around examinations and find it helpful in some ways, as it can bemotivating and create the pressure that is needed to stay focused on one’s performance.Examination nerves, worry, or fear of failure are normal for even the most talented student.However, stress of formal examination results in such high degrees of anxiety in somestudents that they are unable to perform at a level which matches the potential they haveshown in less stressful classroom situations. Examination stress has been characterisedas “evaluative apprehension” or “evaluative stress” and produces debilitating behavioural,cognitive, and physiological effects no different from those produced by any other stressor.High stress can interfere with the student’s preparation, concentration, and performance.Examination stress can cause test anxiety which adversely affects test performance. Personswho are high in test anxiety tend to perceive evaluative situations as personally threatening;in test situations, they are often tense, apprehensive, nervous, and emotionally aroused.Moreover, the negative self-centred cognitions which they experience distract their attentionand interfere with concentration during examinations. High test anxious students respondto examination stress with intense emotional reactions, negative thoughts about themselves,feelings of inadequacy, helplessness, and loss of status and esteem that impair theirperformance. Generally, the high test anxious person instead of plunging into a task plungesinward, that is, either neglects or misinterprets informational cues that may be readilyavailable to her/him, or experiences attentional blocks. While preparing for examinations,one must spend enough time for study, overview and weigh one’s strengths and weaknesses,discuss difficulties with teachers and classmates, plan a revision timetable, condense notes,space out revision periods, and most importantly on the examination day concentrate onstaying calm.


exhaustion is seen in the signs of chronicfatigue, weakness and low energy. Themental exhaustion appears in the form ofirritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessnessand hopelessness. This state of physical,emotional and psychological exhaustion isknown as burnout.

There is also convincing evidence toshow that stress can produce changes inthe immune system and increase thechances of someone becoming ill. Stresshas been implicated in the development ofcardiovascular disorders, high bloodpressure, as well as psychosomaticdisorders including ulcers, asthma,allergies and headaches.

Researchers estimate that stress playsan important role in fifty to seventy percent of all physical illnesses. Studies alsoreveal that sixty per cent of medical visitsare primarily for stress-related symptoms.

General Adaptation Syndrome

What happens to the body when stress isprolonged? Selye studied this issue bysubjecting animals to a variety of stressorssuch as high temperature, X-rays andinsulin injections, in the laboratory over along period of time. He also observedpatients with various injuries and illnessesin hospitals. Selye noticed a similar patternof bodily response in all of them. He calledthis pattern the General AdaptationSyndrome (GAS). According to him, GASinvolves three stages: alarm reaction,resistance, and exhaustion (see Fig.3.3).

1. Alarm reaction stage : The presenceof a noxious stimulus or stressorleads to activation of the adrenal-pituitary-cortex system. This triggersthe release of hormones producing thestress response. Now the individual isready for fight or flight.

2. Resistance stage : If stress is prolonged,the resistance stage begins. The para-sympathetic nervous system calls formore cautious use of the body’sresources. The organism makes effortsto cope with the threat, as throughconfrontation.

3. Exhaustion stage : Continued exposureto the same stressor or additionalstressors drains the body of itsresources and leads to the third stageof exhaustion. The physiologicalsystems involved in alarm reaction andresistance become ineffective andsusceptibility to stress-related diseasessuch as high blood pressure becomesmore likely.

Selye’s model has been criticised forassigning a very limited role topsychological factors in stress. Researchershave reported that the psychologicalappraisal of events is important for thedetermination of stress. How peoplerespond to stress is substantiallyinfluenced by their perceptions,personalities and biological constitutions.

Stress and the Immune System

Stress can cause illness by impairing theworkings of the immune system. Theimmune system guards the body againstattackers, both from within and outside.Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on thelinks between the mind, the brain and theimmune system. It studies the effects ofstress on the immune system. How doesthe immune system work? The white bloodcells (leucocytes) within the immunesystem identify and destroy foreign bodiesFig.3.3 : The General Adaptation Syndrome

Psychology60

(antigens) such as viruses. It also leads tothe production of antibodies. There areseveral kinds of white blood cells orleucocytes within the immune system,including T cells, B cells and natural killercells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helpercells increase immunological activity. It isthese T-helper cells that are attacked bythe Human Immuno Deficiency Virus(HIV), the virus causing Acquired ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). B cellsproduce antibodies. Natural killer cells areinvolved in the fight against both virusesand tumours.

Stress can affect natural killer cellcytotoxicity, which is of major importancein the defence against various infectionsand cancer. Reduced levels of natural killercell cytotoxicity have been found in peoplewho are highly stressed, includingstudents facing important examinations,bereaved persons, and those who areseverely depressed. Studies reveal thatimmune functioning is better in individualsreceiving social support. Also, changes inthe immune system will have more effecton health among those whose immunesystems are already weakened. Figure 3.4depicts this sequence comprising negativeemotions, release of stress hormoneswhich lead to weakening of the immunesystem, thereby affecting mental andphysical health.

Psychological stress is accompanied bynegative emotions and associatedbehaviours, including depression, hostility,anger and aggression. Negative emotionstates are of particular concern to thestudy of effects of stress on health. Theincidence of psychological disorders, suchas panic attacks and obsessive behaviourincreases with the build up of long-termstress. Worries can reach such a level thatthey surface as a frightening, painfulphysical sensation, which can be mistakenfor a heart attack. People under prolongedstress are more prone to irrational fears,mood swings and phobias, and mayexperience fits of depression, anger andirritability. These negative emotions appearto be related to the function of the immunesystem. Our ability to interpret our worldand to invest that interpretation withpersonal meaning and emotion have apowerful and direct effect on the body.Negative moods have been associated withpoorer health outcomes. Feelings ofhopelessness are related to worsening ofdisease, increased risk of injury and deathdue to various causes.

Lifestyle

Stress can lead to unhealthy lifestyle orhealth damaging behaviour. Lifestyle is theoverall pattern of decisions and behavioursthat determine a person’s health and

Fig.3.4 : Relation of Stress with Illness


quality of life. Stressed individuals may bemore likely to expose themselves topathogens, which are agents causingphysical illness. People who are stressedhave poor nutritional habits, sleep less andare likely to engage in other health riskingbehaviours like smoking and alcoholabuse. Such health impairing behavioursdevelop gradually and are accompanied bypleasant experiences temporarily. However,we tend to ignore their long-term damagingeffects and underestimate the risk theypose to our lives.

Studies have revealed that healthpromoting behaviour like balanced diet,regular exercise, family support, etc. playan important role in good health. Adheringto a lifestyle that includes balanced low fatdiet, regular exercise and continuedactivity along with positive thinkingenhances health and longevity. Themodern lifestyle of excesses in eating,drinking and the so called fast-paced goodlife has led to violation of basic principlesof health in some of us, as to what we eat,think or do with our lives.

COPING WITH STRESS

In recent years the conviction has grownthat it is how we cope with stress and notthe stress one experiences that influencesour psychological well-being, socialfunctioning and health. Coping is adynamic situation-specific reaction tostress. It is a set of concrete responses tostressful situations or events that areintended to resolve the problem and reducestress. The way we cope with stress oftendepends on rigid deep-seated beliefs, basedon experience, e.g. when caught in a trafficjam we feel angry, because we believe thatthe traffic ‘should’ move faster. To managestress we often need to reassess the waywe think and learn coping strategies.People who cope poorly with stress have an

impaired immune response anddiminished activity of natural killer cells.

Individuals show consistent individualdifferences in the coping strategies theyuse to handle stressful situations. Thesecan include both overt and covertactivities. The three coping strategies givenby Endler and Parker are:

Task-oriented Strategy : This involvesobtaining information about the stressfulsituation and about alternative courses ofaction and their probable outcome; it alsoinvolves deciding priorities and acting soas to deal directly with the stressfulsituation. For example, schedule my timebetter, or think about how I have solvedsimilar problems.

Emotion-oriented Strategy : This caninvolve efforts to maintain hope and tocontrol one’s emotions; it can also involveventing feelings of anger and frustration,or deciding that nothing can be done tochange things. For example, tell myselfthat it is not really happening to me, orworry about what I am going to do.

Avoidance-oriented Strategy : Thisinvolves denying or minimising theseriousness of the situation; it also involvesconscious suppression of stressfulthoughts and their replacement by self-

Activity3.3

Respond to the following items on a5-point scale ranging from 5 = alwaysto 1 = never.

I express emotions openly anddirectly.I work towards my own personalgoals.I accept situations that cannot bealtered.I discuss my worries with friends.I may not get everything just right.

Discuss your answers with yourclassmates and teacher. The higherthe score, the better would be yourability to cope.

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protective thoughts. Examples of this arewatching TV, phone up a friend, or try tobe with other people.

Lazarus and Folkman hasconceptualised coping as a dynamicprocess rather than an individual trait.Coping refers to constantly changingcognitive and behavioural efforts to master,reduce or tolerate the internal or externaldemands that are created by the stressfultransaction. Coping serves to allow theindividual to manage or alter a problemand regulate the emotional response tothat problem. According to them copingresponses can be divided into two types ofresponses, problem-focused and emotion-focused. Problem-focused strategies attackthe problem itself, with behavioursdesigned to gain information, to alter theevent, and to alter belief and commitments.They increase the person’s awareness, levelof knowledge, and range of behaviouraland cognitive coping options. They can actto reduce the threat value of the event. Forexample “I made a plan of action andfollowed it”. Emotion-focused strategies callfor psychological changes designedprimarily to limit the degree of emotionaldisruption caused by an event, withminimal effort to alter the event itself. Forexample “I did some things to let it out ofmy system”. While both problem-focusedand emotion-focused coping are necessarywhen facing stressful situations, researchsuggests that people generally tend to usethe former more often than the latter.

Stress Management Techniques

Stress is a silent killer. It is estimated toplay a significant role in physical illnessand disease. Hypertension, heart disease,ulcers, diabetes and even cancer are linkedto stress. Due to lifestyle changes stress ison the increase. Therefore, schools, otherinstitutions, offices and communities areconcerned about knowing techniques to

manage stress. Some of these techniquesare:

Relaxation Techniques : It is an activeskill that reduces symptoms of stress anddecreases the incidence of illnesses suchas high blood pressure and heart disease.Usually relaxation starts from the lowerpart of the body and progresses up to thefacial muscles in such a way that thewhole body is relaxed. Deep breathing isused along with muscle relaxation to calmthe mind and relax the body.

Meditation Procedures : The yogic methodof meditation consists of a sequence oflearned techniques for refocusing ofattention that brings about an altered stateof consciousness. It involves such athorough concentration that the meditatorbecomes unaware of any outsidestimulation and reaches a different stateof consciousness.

Biofeedback : It is a procedure to monitorand reduce the physiological aspects ofstress by providing feedback about currentphysiological activity and is oftenaccompanied by relaxation training.

Activity3.4

Which of the following copingbehaviours are problem-focused? Why?• Discussing your problem with a

friend.• Feeling sorry for failing in an

examination.• Finding fault with classmates for

poor marks in tests.• Hiding examination results from

parents.• Blaming friends for bad habits.• Reading essential books for the

annual examination.• Making efforts to improve one’s

performance after a setback.• Missing school when assignments

not completed.Discuss the answers with your

classmates and teacher.


Biofeedback training involves three stages :developing an awareness of the particularphysiological response, e.g. heart rate,learning ways of controlling thatphysiological response in quiet conditions;and transferring that control into theconditions of everyday life.

Creative Visualisation : It is an effectivetechnique for dealing with stress. Creativevisualisation is a subjective experience thatuses imagery and imagination. Beforevisualising one must set oneself a realisticgoal, as it helps build confidence. It iseasier to visualise if one’s mind is quiet,body relaxed and eyes are closed. Thisreduces the risk of interference fromunbidden thoughts and provides thecreative energy needed for turning animagined scene into reality.

Cognitive Behavioural Techniques :These techniques aim to inoculate peopleagainst stress. Stress inoculation trainingis one effective method developed byMeichenbaum. The essence of thisapproach is to replace negative andirrational thoughts with positive andrational ones. There are three main phasesin this : assessment, stress reductiontechniques, and application and follow-through. Assessment involves discussingthe nature of the problem and seeing itfrom the viewpoint of the person/client.Stress reduction involves learning thetechniques of reducing stress such asrelaxation and self-instruction.

Exercise : Exercise can provide an activeoutlet for the physiological arousalexperienced in response to stress. Regularexercise improves the efficiency of theheart, enhances the function of the lungs,maintains good circulation, lowers bloodpressure, reduces fat in the blood andimproves the body’s immune system.Swimming, walking, running, cycling,skipping, etc. help to reduce stress. Onemust practice these exercises at least four

times a week for 30 minutes at a time.Each session must have a warm-up,exercise and cool down phases.

PROMOTING POSITIVE HEALTH AND

WELL-BEING

It is unlikely that we will go through lifewithout some experience of personal crisescausing acute pressure for a while. Manypeople sail through and rebuild their livesvery positively. They are likely to haveconstructive attitudes and also have lots ofemotional and social support of variouskinds available to them. When we findways of managing these pressures and canuse the energy to create something positiveout of the situation, then we will havelearned to survive healthily and this willleave us more stress fit for future crises.It is like being immunised against thedangers of unhealthy stress.

Stress Resistant Personality : Recentstudies by Kobasa have shown that peoplewith high levels of stress but low levels ofillness share three characteristics, whichare referred to as the personality traits ofhardiness. It consists of ‘the three Cs’, i.e.commitment, control, and challenge.Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself,the world, and how they interact. It takesshape as a sense of personal commitmentto what you are doing, a sense of controlover your life, and a feeling of challenge.Stress resistant personalities have controlwhich is a sense of purpose and directionin life; commitment to work, family,hobbies and social life; and challenge, thatis, they see changes in life as normal andpositive rather than as a threat.

Everyone does not have thesecharacteristics, many of us have to relearnspecific life skills in areas such as rationalthinking, and assertiveness to equipourselves better to cope with the demandsof everyday life, etc.

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Life Skills

Life skills are abilities for adaptive andpositive behaviour that enable individualsto deal effectively with the demands andchallenges of everyday life. Our ability tocope depends on how well we are preparedto deal with and counterbalance everydaydemands, and keep equilibrium in ourlives. These life skills can be learned andeven improved upon. Assertiveness, timemanagement, rational thinking, improvingrelationships, self-care, and overcomingunhelpful habits such as perfectionism,procrastination, etc. are some life skillsthat will help to meet the challenges of life.

Assertiveness : Assertiveness is abehaviour or skill that helps tocommunicate, clearly and confidently, ourfeelings, needs, wants, and thoughts. It isthe ability to say no to a request, to statean opinion without being self-conscious, orto express emotions such as love, anger,etc. openly. If you are assertive, you feelconfident, and have high self-esteem anda solid sense of your own identity.

Time Management : The way you spendyour time determines the quality of yourlife. Learning how to plan time anddelegate can help to relieve the pressure.The major way to reduce time stress is tochange one’s perception of time. Thecentral principle of time management is tospend your time doing the things that youvalue, or that help you to achieve yourgoals. It depends on being realistic aboutwhat you know and that you must do itwithin a certain time period, knowing whatyou want to do, and organising your life toachieve a balance between the two.

Rational Thinking : Many stress-relatedproblems occur as a result of distortedthinking. The way you think and the wayyou feel are closely connected. When weare stressed, we have an inbuilt selectivebias to attend to negative thoughts and

images from the past, which affect ourperception of the present and the future.Some of the principles of rational thinkingare: challenging your distorted thinking andirrational beliefs, driving out potentiallyintrusive negative anxiety-provokingthoughts, and making positive statements.

Improving Relationships : The key to asound lasting relationship is communi-cation. This consists of three essentialskills: listening to what the other personis saying, expressing how you feel andwhat you think, and accepting the otherperson’s opinions and feelings, even if theyare different from your own. It alsorequires us to avoid misplaced jealousyand sulking behaviour.

Self-care : If we keep ourselves healthy, fitand relaxed, we are better preparedphysically and emotionally to tackle thestresses of everyday life. Our breathingpatterns reflect our state of mind andemotions. When we are stressed oranxious, we tend towards rapid andshallow breathing from high in the chest,with frequent sighs. The most relaxedbreathing is slow, stomach-centredbreathing from the diaphragm, i.e. a domelike muscle between the chest and theabdominal cavity. Environmental stresseslike noise, pollution, space, light, colour,etc. can all exert an influence on our mood.These have a noticeable effect on ourability to cope with stress, and well-being.

Overcoming Unhelpful Habits : Unhelpfulhabits such as perfectionism, avoidance,procrastination, etc. are strategies thathelp to cope in the short-term but whichmake one more vulnerable to stress.Perfectionists are persons who have to geteverything just right. They have difficultyin varying standards according to factorssuch as time available, consequences ofnot being able to stop work, and the effortneeded. They are more likely to feel tense


Box3.3

Resilience and Health

In recent years, there has been a lot of research in understanding resilience in childrenand adolescents. Resilience is a dynamic developmental process referring to the maintenanceof positive adjustment under challenging life conditions. It has been described as the capacityto ‘bounce back’ in the face of stress and adversity. Resilience has been conceptualised asreflecting feelings of self-worth and self-confidence, autonomy and self-reliance, findingpositive role models, seeking a confidant, cognitive skills such as problem solving, creativity,resourcefulness, and flexibility and a belief that one’s life has purpose and meaning. Resilientindividuals are able to overcome the effects of trauma, stress and adversity and learn tolive psychologically healthy and meaningful lives.

Resilience has recently been defined in terms of three resources: I HAVE (social andinterpersonal strengths), i.e. ‘people around me I trust and who love me no matter what’, IAM (inner strengths), i.e. ‘respectful of myself and others’, and I CAN ( interpersonal andproblem solving skills), i.e. ‘find ways to solve problems I face’. For a child to be resilient,s/he needs to have more than one of these strengths. For example, children may haveplenty of self-esteem (I am), but may lack anyone whom they can turn to for support (Ihave), and do not have the capacity to solve problems (I can), will not be resilient. Outcomesof longitudinal studies of children provide evidence that in spite of extreme vulnerabilitiesrelated to poverty and other social disadvantages, many individuals develop into capableand caring adults.

and find it difficult to relax, are critical ofself and others, and may become inclinedto avoid challenges. Avoidance is to put theissue under the carpet and refuse to acceptor face it. Procrastination means putting offwhat we know we need to do. We all areguilty of saying “I will do it later”. Peoplewho procrastinate are deliberately avoidingconfronting their fears of failure or rejection.

Various factors have been identifiedwhich facilitate the development ofpositive health. Health is a state ofcomplete physical, mental, social andspiritual well-being, and not merely theabsence of disease or infirmity. Positivehealth comprises the following constructs:“a healthy body; high quality of personalrelationships; a sense of purpose in life;self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks; andresilience to stress, trauma, and change”.Box 3.3 presents the relationship betweenresilience and health. Specifically, factorsthat act as stress buffers and facilitatepositive health are diet, exercise, positiveattitude, positive thinking, and socialsupport.

Diet : A balanced diet can lift one’s mood,give more energy, feed muscles, improvecirculation, prevent illness, strengthen theimmune system and make one feel betterto cope with stresses of life. The key tohealthy living is to eat three main mealsa day, and eat a varied well-balanced diet.How much nutrition one needs depends onone’s activity level, genetic make-up,climate, and health history. What peopleeat, and how much do they weigh involvebehavioural processes. Some people areable to maintain a healthy diet and weightwhile others become obese. When we arestressed, we seek ‘comfort foods’ which arehigh in fats, salt and sugar.

Exercise : A large number of studiesconfirm a consistently positive relationshipbetween physical fitness and health. Also,of all the measures an individual can taketo improve health, exercise is the lifestylechange with the widest popular approval.Regular exercise plays an important role inmanaging weight and stress, and is shownto have a positive effect on reducing

Psychology66

tension, anxiety and depression. Physicalexercises that are essential for good healthare stretching exercises such as yogicasanas and aerobic exercises such asjogging, swimming, cycling, etc. Whereasstretching exercises have a calming effect,aerobic exercises increase the arousal levelof the body. The health benefits of exercisework as a stress buffer. Studies suggestthat fitness permits individuals tomaintain general mental and physical well-being even in the face of negative lifeevents.

Positive Attitude : Positive health andwell-being can be realised by having apositive attitude. Some of the factorsleading to a positive attitude are: having afairly accurate perception of reality; a senseof purpose in life and responsibility;acceptance and tolerance for differentviewpoints of others; and taking credit forsuccess and accepting blame for failure.Finally, being open to new ideas andhaving a sense of humour with the abilityto laugh at oneself help us to remaincentred, and see things in a properperspective.

Positive Thinking : The power of positivethinking has been increasingly recognisedin reducing and coping with stress.Optimism, which is the inclination toexpect favourable life outcomes, has beenlinked to psychological and physical well-being. People differ in the manner in whichthey cope. For example, optimists tend toassume that adversity can be handledsuccessfully whereas pessimists anticipatedisasters. Optimists use more problem-focused coping strategies, and seek adviceand help from others. Pessimists ignore theproblem or source of stress, and usestrategies such as giving up the goal withwhich stress is interfering or denying thatstress exists.

Social Support : Social support is definedas the existence and availability of peopleon whom we can rely upon, people who letus know that they care about, value, andlove us. Someone who believes that s/hebelongs to a social network ofcommunication and mutual obligationexperiences social support. Perceivedsupport, i.e. the quality of social supportis positively related to health and well-being, whereas social network, i.e. thequantity of social support is unrelated towell-being, because it is very time-consuming and demanding to maintain alarge social network. Studies have revealedthat women exposed to life event stresses,who had a close friend, were less likely tobe depressed and had lesser medicalcomplications during pregnancy. Socialsupport can help to provide protectionagainst stress. People with high levels ofsocial support from family and friends mayexperience less stress when they confronta stressful experience, and they may copewith it more successfully.

Social support may be in the form oftangible support or assistance involvingmaterial aid, such as money, goods,services, etc. For example, a child givesnotes to her/his friend, since s/he wasabsent from school due to sickness. Familyand friends also provide informationalsupport about stressful events. Forexample, a student facing a stressful eventsuch as a difficult board examination, ifprovided information by a friend who hasfaced a similar one, would not only be ableto identify the exact procedures involved,but also it would facilitate in determiningwhat resources and coping strategies couldbe useful to successfully pass theexamination. During times of stress, onemay experience sadness, anxiety, and lossof self-esteem. Supportive friends andfamily provide emotional support by


Activity3.5

Identify a child in your neighbourhoodwho had undergone some major stressin life such as a serious accident or beenthrough a recent traumatic experiencelike a robbery, fire, etc. Talk to the childand family. Can you identify somefactors that have helped her/him tocope and overcome the trauma? Do yousee any similar factors in your own life?Discuss with your teacher.

reassuring the individual that she/he isloved, valued, and cared for. Research hasdemonstrated that social supporteffectively reduces psychological distresssuch as depression or anxiety, duringtimes of stress. There is growing evidencethat social support is positively related topsychological well-being. Generally, socialsupport leads to mental health benefits forboth the giver and the receiver.

Key TermsAlarm reaction, Appraisal, Coping, Exhaustion, General adaptation syndrome, Hardiness, Homeostasis,Life skills, Optimism, Positive health, Psychoneuroimmunology, Resilience, Social support, Stress,Stressors.

• Stress is a part of life. Stress is neither a stimulus nor a response but an ongoingtransactional process between the individual and the environment.

• There are three major types of stresses, physical and environmental, psychologicaland social. Sources of stress are life events, everyday hassles, traumatic events.The response to stress is emotional, physiological, cognitive and behavioural.

• Coping is a dynamic situation-specific individual reaction to stress. There are threemain types of coping, task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented coping.Coping responses may be problem-focused or emotion-focused. Problem-focused copingfocuses to alter the environment and acts to reduce the threat value of the event.Emotion-focused coping are strategies for changing emotions and aim to limit thedegree of emotional disruption caused by the event.

• It is essential to have a healthy lifestyle for handling stress and effective coping.Assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self-care, and overcoming unhelpful habits are life skills that help us to meet life’schallenges.

• Positive health and well-being come through balanced diet, exercise, positive attitude,positive optimistic thinking, and social support. There is also a need for overallharmonious conditions in society. We must avoid taking unhealthy escape routes ofsmoking, alcohol, drugs and other harmful behaviours.

Review Questions1. Explain the concept of stress. Give examples from daily life.2. State the symptoms and sources of stress.3. Describe the GAS model and illustrate the relevance of this model with the help of

an example.4. Enumerate the different ways of coping with stress.5. Explain the effect of stress on psychological functioning.6. Describe how life skills can help meet life’s challenges.7. Discuss the factors that lead to positive health and well-being.8. How does stress affect the immune system?

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Weblinkshttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/stress.htmlhttp://www.teachhealth.comhttp://www.lifepositive.com/stress.html

Pedagogical Hints1. It is important to make students

realise that stress is an integral partof life. They must, therefore, beencouraged to recognise the signsof stress in themselves and inothers.

2. Students could brainstorm forpossible ways of dealing withdifferent types of stressors.

3. Drawing examples from students’lives, they need to be made tounderstand the harmful effects ofstress on physical and mentalhealth.

4. Students should be encouraged tosearch for literature in newspapers,magazines, Internet, etc. suggestingways of dealing with stress. Thiscould be followed by discussion inthe classroom.

ProjectIdeas

1. Record the stresses in the lives of 5–10 teenagers. Are these different for girls and boys?Find out the ways by which they cope with them.

2. Discuss with your parents and grandparents the unique stressors they face in theirlives and how they cope with them.

9. Give an example of a life event which is likely to be stressful. Suggest reasons why itis likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it.

10. Given what you know about coping strategies, what suggestions would you give toyour friends to avoid stress in their everyday lives.

11. Reflect on the environmental factors that have (a) a positive impact on the being, and(b) a negative effect.

12. We know that certain lifestyle factors can cause stress and may lead to diseases likecancer and coronary heart disease, yet we are unable to change our behaviour.Explain why?

Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders 69

PSYPSYPSYPSYPSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERSCHOLOGICAL DISORDERSCHOLOGICAL DISORDERSCHOLOGICAL DISORDERSCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

IntroductionConcepts of Abnormality and Psychological DisordersClassification of Psychological DisordersFactors Underlying Abnormal BehaviourMajor Psychological Disorders

Anxiety DisordersSomatoform DisordersDissociative DisordersSalient Features of Somatoform and DissociativeDisorders (Box 4.1)Mood DisordersSchizophrenic DisordersSub-types of Schizophrenia (Box 4.2)Behavioural and Developmental DisordersSubstance-use DisordersEffects of Alcohol : Some Facts (Box 4.3)Commonly Abused Substances (Box 4.4)

CONTENTS


After reading this chapter, you would be able to:understand the basic issues in abnormal behaviour and the criteria used to identify suchbehaviours,appreciate the factors which cause abnormal behaviour,explain the different models of abnormal behaviour, anddescribe the major psychological disorders.

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CONCEPTS OF ABNORMALITY AND

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Although many definitions of abnormalityhave been used over the years, none haswon universal acceptance. Still, mostdefinitions have certain common features,often called the ‘four Ds’: deviance,distress, dysfunction and danger. That is,psychological disorders are deviant(different, extreme, unusual, even bizarre),distressing (unpleasant and upsetting tothe person and to others), dysfunctional(interfering with the person’s ability tocarry out daily activities in a constructive

You must have come across people who are unhappy, troubled anddissatisfied. Their minds and hearts are filled with sorrow, unrest andtension and they feel that they are unable to move ahead in their lives; theyfeel life is a painful, uphill struggle, sometimes not worth living. Famousanalytical psychologist Carl Jung has quite remarkably said, “How can Ibe substantial without casting a shadow? I must have a dark side, too, if Iam to be whole and by becoming conscious of my shadow, I rememberonce more that I am a human being like any other”. At times, some of youmay have felt nervous before an important examination, tense and concernedabout your future career or anxious when someone close to you was unwell.All of us face major problems at some point of our lives. However, somepeople have an extreme reaction to the problems and stresses of life. In thischapter, we will try to understand what goes wrong when people developpsychological problems, what are the causes and factors which lead toabnormal behaviour, and what are the various signs and symptomsassociated with different types of psychological disorders?

The study of psychological disorders has intrigued and mystified allcultures for more than 2,500 years. Psychological disorders or mentaldisorders (as they are commonly referred to), like anything unusual maymake us uncomfortable and even a little frightened. Unhappiness,discomfort, anxiety, and unrealised potential are seen all over the world.These failures in living are due mainly to failures in adaptation to lifechallenges. As you must have studied in the previous chapters, adaptationrefers to the person’s ability to modify her/his behaviour in response tochanging environmental requirements. When the behaviour cannot bemodified according to the needs of the situation, it is said to be maladaptive.Abnormal Psychology is the area within psychology that is focused onmaladaptive behaviour – its causes, consequences, and treatment.

Introduction

way), and possibly dangerous (to theperson or to others).

This definition is a useful starting pointfrom which we can explore psychologicalabnormality. Since the word ‘abnormal’literally means “away from the normal”, itimplies deviation from some clearly definednorms or standards. In psychology, wehave no ‘ideal model’ or even ‘normalmodel’ of human behaviour to use as abase for comparison. Various approacheshave been used in distinguishing betweennormal and abnormal behaviours. Fromthese approaches, there emerge two basicand conflicting views :


The first approach views abnormalbehaviour as a deviation from socialnorms. Many psychologists have statedthat ‘abnormal’ is simply a label that isgiven to a behaviour which is deviant fromsocial expectations. Abnormal behaviour,thoughts and emotions are those that differmarkedly from a society’s ideas of properfunctioning. Each society has norms,which are stated or unstated rules forproper conduct. Behaviours, thoughts andemotions that break societal norms arecalled abnormal. A society’s norms growfrom its particular culture — its history,values, institutions, habits, skills,technology, and arts. Thus, a society whoseculture values competition andassertiveness may accept aggressivebehaviour, whereas one that emphasisescooperation and family values (such as inIndia) may consider aggressive behaviouras unacceptable or even abnormal. Asociety’s values may change over time,causing its views of what is psychologicallyabnormal to change as well. Seriousquestions have been raised about thisdefinition. It is based on the assumptionthat socially accepted behaviour is notabnormal, and that normality is nothingmore than conformity to social norms.

The second approach views abnormalbehaviour as maladaptive. Manypsychologists believe that the best criterionfor determining the normality of behaviouris not whether society accepts it butwhether it fosters the well-being of theindividual and eventually of the group towhich s/he belongs. Well-being is notsimply maintenance and survival but alsoincludes growth and fulfilment, i.e. theactualisation of potential, which you musthave studied in Maslow’s need hierarchytheory. According to this criterion,conforming behaviour can be seen asabnormal if it is maladaptive, i.e. if itinterferes with optimal functioning andgrowth. For example, a student in the class

prefers to remain silent even when s/hehas questions in her/his mind. Describingbehaviour as maladaptive implies that aproblem exists; it also suggests thatvulnerability in the individual, inability tocope, or exceptional stress in theenvironment have led to problems in life.

If you talk to people around, you willsee that they have vague ideas aboutpsychological disorders that arecharacterised by superstition, ignoranceand fear. Again it is commonly believedthat psychological disorder is something tobe ashamed of. The stigma attached tomental illness means that people arehesitant to consult a doctor or psychologistbecause they are ashamed of theirproblems. Actually, psychological disorderwhich indicates a failure in adaptationshould be viewed as any other illness.

Activity4.1

Talk to three people: one of yourfriends, a friend of your parents, andyour neighbour.

Ask them if they have seensomeone who is mentally ill or who hasmental problems. Try to understandwhy they find this behaviourabnormal, what are the signs andsymptoms shown by this person, whatcaused this behaviour and can thisperson be helped.

Share the information you elicitedin class and see if there are somecommon features, which make us labelothers as ‘abnormal’.

Historical Background

To understand psychological disorders, wewould require a brief historical account ofhow these disorders have been viewed overthe ages. When we study the history ofabnormal psychology, we find that certaintheories have occurred over and over again.

One ancient theory that is stillencountered today holds that abnormalbehaviour can be explained by the

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operation of supernatural and magicalforces such as evil spirits (bhoot-pret), orthe devil (shaitan). Exorcism, i.e. removingthe evil that resides in the individualthrough countermagic and prayer, is stillcommonly used. In many societies, theshaman, or medicine man (ojha) is aperson who is believed to have contact withsupernatural forces and is the mediumthrough which spirits communicate withhuman beings. Through the shaman, anafflicted person can learn which spirits areresponsible for her/his problems and whatneeds to be done to appease them.

A recurring theme in the history ofabnormal psychology is the belief thatindividuals behave strangely because theirbodies and their brains are not workingproperly. This is the biological or organicapproach. In the modern era, there isevidence that body and brain processeshave been linked to many types ofmaladaptive behaviour. For certain types ofdisorders, correcting these defectivebiological processes results in improvedfunctioning.

Another approach is the psychologicalapproach. According to this point of view,psychological problems are caused byinadequacies in the way an individualthinks, feels, or perceives the world.

All three of these perspectives —supernatural, biological or organic, andpsychological — have recurred throughoutthe history of Western civilisation. In theancient Western world, it was philosopher-physicians of ancient Greece such asHippocrates, Socrates, and in particularPlato who developed the organismicapproach and viewed disturbed behaviouras arising out of conflicts between emotionand reason. Galen elaborated on the roleof the four humours in personal characterand temperament. According to him, thematerial world was made up of fourelements, viz. earth, air, fire, and waterwhich combined to form four essential

body fluids, viz. blood, black bile, yellowbile, and phlegm. Each of these fluids wasseen to be responsible for a differenttemperament. Imbalances among thehumours were believed to cause variousdisorders. This is similar to the Indiannotion of the three doshas of vata, pittaand kapha which were mentioned in theAtharva Veda and Ayurvedic texts. Youhave already read about it in Chapter 2.

In the Middle Ages, demonology andsuperstition gained renewed importance inthe explanation of abnormal behaviour.Demonology related to a belief that peoplewith mental problems were evil and thereare numerous instances of ‘witch-hunts’during this period. During the earlyMiddle Ages, the Christian spirit of charityprevailed and St. Augustine wroteextensively about feelings, mental anguishand conflict. This laid the groundwork formodern psychodynamic theories ofabnormal behaviour.

The Renaissance Period was markedby increased humanism and curiosityabout behaviour. Johann Weyeremphasised psychological conflict anddisturbed interpersonal relationships ascauses of psychological disorders. He alsoinsisted that ‘witches’ were mentallydisturbed and required medical, nottheological, treatment.

The seventeenth and eighteenthcenturies were known as the Age ofReason and Enlightenment, as thescientific method replaced faith and dogmaas ways of understanding abnormalbehaviour. The growth of a scientificattitude towards psychological disorders inthe eighteenth century contributed to theReform Movement and to increasedcompassion for people who suffered fromthese disorders. Reforms of asylums wereinitiated in both Europe and America. Oneaspect of the reform movement was thenew inclination for deinstitutionalisationwhich placed emphasis on providing


community care for recovered mentally illindividuals.

In recent years, there has been aconvergence of these approaches, whichhas resulted in an interactional, or bio-psycho-social approach. From thisperspective, all three factors, i.e. biological,psychological and social play importantroles in influencing the expression andoutcome of psychological disorders.

CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL

DISORDERS

In order to understand psychologicaldisorders, we need to begin by classifyingthem. A classification of such disordersconsists of a list of categories of specificpsychological disorders grouped intovarious classes on the basis of someshared characteristics. Classifications areuseful because they enable users likepsychologists, psychiatrists and socialworkers to communicate with each otherabout the disorder and help inunderstanding the causes of psychologicaldisorders and the processes involved intheir development and maintenance.

The American Psychiatric Association(APA) has published an official manualdescribing and classifying various kinds ofpsychological disorders. The currentversion of it, the Diagnostic andStatistical Manual of Mental Disorders,IV Edition (DSM-IV), evaluates the patienton five axes or dimensions rather than justone broad aspect of ‘mental disorder’.These dimensions relate to biological,psychological, social and other aspects.

The classification scheme officially usedin India and elsewhere is the tenth revisionof the International Classification ofDiseases (ICD-10), which is known as theICD-10 Classification of Behavioural andMental Disorders. It was prepared by theWorld Health Organisation (WHO). For

each disorder, a description of the mainclinical features or symptoms, and of otherassociated features including diagnosticguidelines is provided in this scheme.

Activity4.2

Certain behaviours like eating sandwould be considered abnormal. But notif it was done after being stranded ona beach in a plane crash.

Listed below are ‘abnormal’behaviours followed by situationswhere the behaviours might beconsidered normal.(i) talking to yourself - you are

praying.(ii) standing in the middle of the street

waving your arms wildly - you area traffic policeman.Think about it and list similar

examples.

FACTORS UNDERLYING ABNORMAL

BEHAVIOUR

In order to understand something ascomplex as abnormal behaviour,psychologists use different approaches.Each approach in use today emphasises adifferent aspect of human behaviour, andexplains and treats abnormality in linewith that aspect. These approaches alsoemphasise the role of different factors suchas biological, psychological andinterpersonal, and socio-cultural factors.We will examine some of the approacheswhich are currently being used to explainabnormal behaviour.

Biological factors influence all aspectsof our behaviour. A wide range of biologicalfactors such as faulty genes, endocrineimbalances, malnutrition, injuries andother conditions may interfere with normaldevelopment and functioning of the humanbody. These factors may be potentialcauses of abnormal behaviour. We havealready come across the biological model.According to this model, abnormal

Psychology74

behaviour has a biochemical orphysiological basis. Biological researchershave found that psychological disordersare often related to problems in thetransmission of messages from one neuronto another. You have studied in Class XI,that a tiny space called synapse separatesone neuron from the next, and the messagemust move across that space. When anelectrical impulse reaches a neuron’sending, the nerve ending is stimulated torelease a chemical, called a neuro-transmitter. Studies indicate thatabnormal activity by certain neuro-transmitters can lead to specificpsychological disorders. Anxiety disordershave been linked to low activity of theneurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid(GABA), schizophrenia to excess activity ofdopamine, and depression to low activityof serotonin.

Genetic factors have been linked tomood disorders, schizophrenia, mentalretardation and other psychologicaldisorders. Researchers have not, however,been able to identify the specific genes thatare the culprits. It appears that in mostcases, no single gene is responsible for aparticular behaviour or a psychologicaldisorder. Infact, many genes combine tohelp bring about our various behavioursand emotional reactions, both functionaland dysfunctional. Although there is soundevidence to believe that genetic/biochemical factors are involved in mentaldisorders as diverse as schizophrenia,depression, anxiety, etc. and biology alonecannot account for most mental disorders.

There are several psychologicalmodels which provide a psychologicalexplanation of mental disorders. Thesemodels maintain that psychological andinterpersonal factors have a significant roleto play in abnormal behaviour. Thesefactors include maternal deprivation(separation from the mother, or lack ofwarmth and stimulation during early

years of life), faulty parent-child relationships(rejection, overprotection, over-permissiveness, faulty discipline, etc.),maladaptive family structures (inadequate ordisturbed family), and severe stress.

The psychological models include thepsychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive,and humanistic-existential models. Thepsychodynamic model is the oldest andmost famous of the modern psychologicalmodels. You have already read about thismodel in Chapter 2 on Self and Personality.Psychodynamic theorists believe thatbehaviour, whether normal or abnormal, isdetermined by psychological forces withinthe person of which s/he is notconsciously aware. These internal forcesare considered dynamic, i.e. they interactwith one another and their interactiongives shape to behaviour, thoughts andemotions. Abnormal symptoms are viewedas the result of conflicts between theseforces. This model was first formulated byFreud who believed that three centralforces shape personality — instinctualneeds, drives and impulses (id), rationalthinking (ego), and moral standards(superego). Freud stated that abnormalbehaviour is a symbolic expression ofunconscious mental conflicts that can begenerally traced to early childhood orinfancy.

Another model that emphasises the roleof psychological factors is the behaviouralmodel. This model states that both normaland abnormal behaviours are learned andpsychological disorders are the result oflearning maladaptive ways of behaving.The model concentrates on behaviours thatare learned through conditioning andproposes that what has been learned canbe unlearned. Learning can take place byclassical conditioning (temporal associationin which two events repeatedly occur closetogether in time), operant conditioning(behaviour is followed by a reward), andsocial learning (learning by imitating


others’ behaviour). These three types ofconditioning account for behaviour,whether adaptive or maladaptive.

Psychological factors are alsoemphasised by the cognitive model. Thismodel states that abnormal functioningcan result from cognitive problems. Peoplemay hold assumptions and attitudes aboutthemselves that are irrational andinaccurate. People may also repeatedlythink in illogical ways and makeovergeneralisations, that is, they may drawbroad, negative conclusions on the basisof a single insignificant event.

Another psychological model is thehumanistic-existential model whichfocuses on broader aspects of humanexistence. Humanists believe that humanbeings are born with a natural tendency tobe friendly, cooperative and constructive,and are driven to self-actualise, i.e. to fulfilthis potential for goodness and growth.Existentialists believe that from birth wehave total freedom to give meaning to ourexistence or to avoid that responsibility.Those who shirk from this responsibilitywould live empty, inauthentic, anddysfunctional lives.

In addition to the biological andpsychosocial factors, socio-cultural factorssuch as war and violence, group prejudiceand discrimination, economic andemployment problems, and rapid socialchange, put stress on most of us and canalso lead to psychological problems insome individuals. According to the socio-cultural model, abnormal behaviour isbest understood in light of the social andcultural forces that influence an individual.As behaviour is shaped by societal forces,factors such as family structure andcommunication, social networks, societalconditions, and societal labels and rolesbecome more important. It has been foundthat certain family systems are likely toproduce abnormal functioning in

individual members. Some families have anenmeshed structure in which the membersare overinvolved in each other’s activities,thoughts, and feelings. Children from thiskind of family may have difficulty inbecoming independent in life. The broadersocial networks in which people operateinclude their social and professionalrelationships. Studies have shown thatpeople who are isolated and lack socialsupport, i.e. strong and fulfillinginterpersonal relationships in their livesare likely to become more depressed andremain depressed longer than those whohave good friendships. Socio-culturaltheorists also believe that abnormalfunctioning is influenced by the societallabels and roles assigned to troubledpeople. When people break the norms oftheir society, they are called deviant and‘mentally ill’. Such labels tend to stick sothat the person may be viewed as ‘crazy’and encouraged to act sick. The persongradually learns to accept and play thesick role, and functions in a disturbedmanner.

In addition to these models, one of themost widely accepted explanations ofabnormal behaviour has been provided bythe diathesis-stress model. This modelstates that psychological disorders developwhen a diathesis (biological predispositionto the disorder) is set off by a stressfulsituation. This model has threecomponents. The first is the diathesis orthe presence of some biological aberrationwhich may be inherited. The secondcomponent is that the diathesis may carrya vulnerability to develop a psychologicaldisorder. This means that the person is ‘atrisk’ or ‘predisposed’ to develop thedisorder. The third component is thepresence of pathogenic stressors, i.e.factors/stressors that may lead topsychopathology. If such “at risk” persons

Psychology76

are exposed to these stressors, theirpredisposition may actually evolve into adisorder. This model has been applied toseveral disorders including anxiety,depression, and schizophrenia.

MAJOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Anxiety Disorders

One day while driving home, Deb felt hisheart beating rapidly, he started sweatingprofusely, and even felt short of breath. Hewas so scared that he stopped the car andstepped out. In the next few months, theseattacks increased and now he was hesitantto drive for fear of being caught in trafficduring an attack. Deb started feeling thathe had gone crazy and would die. Soon heremained indoors and refused to move outof the house.

We experience anxiety when we arewaiting to take an examination, or to visita dentist, or even to give a soloperformance. This is normal and expectedand even motivates us to do our task well.On the other hand, high levels of anxietythat are distressing and interfere witheffective functioning indicate the presenceof an anxiety disorder — the most commoncategory of psychological disorders.

Everyone has worries and fears. Theterm anxiety is usually defined as adiffuse, vague, very unpleasant feeling offear and apprehension. The anxiousindividual also shows combinations of thefollowing symptoms: rapid heart rate,shortness of breath, diarrhoea, loss ofappetite, fainting, dizziness, sweating,sleeplessness, frequent urination andtremors. There are many types of anxietydisorders (see Table 4.2). They includegeneralised anxiety disorder, whichconsists of prolonged, vague, unexplainedand intense fears that are not attached toany particular object. The symptoms

include worry and apprehensive feelingsabout the future; hypervigilance, whichinvolves constantly scanning theenvironment for dangers. It is marked bymotor tension, as a result of which theperson is unable to relax, is restless, andvisibly shaky and tense.

Another type of anxiety disorder ispanic disorder, which consists ofrecurrent anxiety attacks in which theperson experiences intense terror. A panicattack denotes an abrupt surge of intenseanxiety rising to a peak when thoughts ofa particular stimuli are present. Suchthoughts occur in an unpredictablemanner. The clinical features includeshortness of breath, dizziness, trembling,palpitations, choking, nausea, chest painor discomfort, fear of going crazy, losingcontrol or dying.

You might have met or heard ofsomeone who was afraid to travel in a liftor climb to the tenth floor of a building, orrefused to enter a room if s/he saw alizard. You may have also felt it yourself orseen a friend unable to speak a word of awell-memorised and rehearsed speechbefore an audience. These kinds of fearsare termed as phobias. People who havephobias have irrational fears related tospecific objects, people, or situations.Phobias often develop gradually or beginwith a generalised anxiety disorder.Phobias can be grouped into three maintypes, i.e. specific phobias, social phobias,and agoraphobia.

Specific phobias are the mostcommonly occurring type of phobia. Thisgroup includes irrational fears such asintense fear of a certain type of animal, orof being in an enclosed space. Intense andincapacitating fear and embarrassmentwhen dealing with others characterisessocial phobias. Agoraphobia is the termused when people develop a fear ofentering unfamiliar situations. Many


agoraphobics are afraid of leaving theirhome. So their ability to carry out normallife activities is severely limited.

Have you ever noticed someonewashing their hands everytime they touchsomething, or washing even things likecoins, or stepping only within the patternson the floor or road while walking? Peopleaffected by obsessive-compulsivedisorder are unable to control theirpreoccupation with specific ideas or areunable to prevent themselves from

repeatedly carrying out a particular act orseries of acts that affect their ability tocarry out normal activities. Obsessivebehaviour is the inability to stop thinkingabout a particular idea or topic. The personinvolved, often finds these thoughts to beunpleasant and shameful. Compulsivebehaviour is the need to perform certainbehaviours over and over again. Manycompulsions deal with counting, ordering,checking, touching and washing.

Very often people who have been caughtin a natural disaster (such as tsunami) orhave been victims of bomb blasts byterrorists, or been in a serious accident orin a war-related situation, experience post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSDsymptoms vary widely but may includerecurrent dreams, flashbacks, impairedconcentration, and emotional numbing.

Somatoform Disorders

These are conditions in which there arephysical symptoms in the absence of aphysical disease. In somatoform disorders,the individual has psychological difficultiesand complains of physical symptoms, forwhich there is no biological cause.Somatoform disorders include paindisorders, somatisation disorders,conversion disorders, and hypochondriasis.

Recall how you felt before yourClass X Board examination. How didyou feel when the examinations weredrawing near (one month before theexaminations; one week before theexaminations; on the day of theexamination, and when you wereentering the examination hall)? Also tryto recollect what you felt when youwere awaiting your results. Write downyour experiences in terms of bodilysymptoms (e.g. ‘butterflies in thestomach’, clammy hands, excessiveperspiration, etc.) as well as mentalexperiences (e.g. tension, worry,pressure, etc.). Compare yoursymptoms with those of yourclassmates and classify them as Mild,Moderate, or Severe.

Activity4.3

1. Generalised Anxiety Disorder : prolonged, vague, unexplained and intense fears that have noobject, accompanied by hypervigilance and motor tension.

2. Panic Disorder : frequent anxiety attacks characterised by feelings of intense terror and dread;unpredictable ‘panic attacks’ along with physiological symptoms like breathlessness,palpitations, trembling, dizziness, and a sense of loosing control or even dying.

3. Phobias : irrational fears related to specific objects, interactions with others, and unfamiliarsituations.

4. Obsessive-compulsive Disorder : being preoccupied with certain thoughts that are viewed bythe person to be embarrassing or shameful, and being unable to check the impulse to repeatedlycarry out certain acts like checking, washing, counting, etc.

5. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) : recurrent dreams, flashbacks, impaired concentration,and emotional numbing followed by a traumatic or stressful event like a natural disaster,serious accident, etc.

Table 4.1 : Major Anxiety Disorders and their Symptoms

Psychology78

Pain disorders involve reports ofextreme and incapacitating pain, eitherwithout any identifiable biologicalsymptoms or greatly in excess of whatmight be expected to accompany biologicalsymptoms. How people interpret paininfluences their overall adjustment. Somepain sufferers can learn to use activecoping, i.e. remaining active and ignoringthe pain. Others engage in passive coping,which leads to reduced activity and socialwithdrawal.

Patients with somatisation disordershave multiple and recurrent or chronicbodily complaints. These complaints arelikely to be presented in a dramatic andexaggerated way. Common complaints areheadaches, fatigue, heart palpitations,fainting spells, vomiting, and allergies.Patients with this disorder believe that theyare sick, provide long and detailed historiesof their illness, and take large quantitiesof medicine.

The symptoms of conversion disordersare the reported loss of part or all of somebasic body functions. Paralysis, blindness,deafness and difficulty in walking aregenerally among the symptoms reported.

These symptoms often occur after astressful experience and may be quitesudden.

Hypochondriasis is diagnosed if aperson has a persistent belief that s/hehas a serious illness, despite medicalreassurance, lack of physical findings,and failure to develop the disease.Hypochondriacs have an obsessivepreoccupation and concern with thecondition of their bodily organs, and theycontinually worry about their health.

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociation can be viewed as severance ofthe connections between ideas andemotions. Dissociation involves feelings ofunreality, estrangement, depersonalisation,and sometimes a loss or shift of identity.Sudden temporary alterations ofconsciousness that blot out painfulexperiences are a defining characteristic ofdissociative disorders. Four conditionsare included in this group: dissociativeamnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociativeidentity disorder, and depersonalisation.Salient features of somatoform anddissociative disorders are given in Box 4.1.

Box4.1

Salient Features of Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative amnesia : The person is unableto recall important, personal informationoften related to a stressful and traumaticreport. The extent of forgetting is beyondnormal.

Dissociative fugue : The person suffers froma rare disorder that combines amnesia withtravelling away from a stressfulenvironment.

Dissociative identity (multiple personality) :The person exhibits two or more separateand contrasting personalities associatedwith a history of physical abuse.

Somatoform Disorders

Hypochondriasis : A person interpretsinsignificant symptoms as signs of a seriousillness despite repeated medical evaluationthat point to no pathology/disease.

Somatisation : A person exhibits vague andrecurring physical/bodily symptoms such aspain, acidity, etc., without any organic cause.

Conversion : The person suffers from a lossor impairment of motor or sensory function(e.g., paralysis, blindness, etc.) that has nophysical cause but may be a response tostress and psychological problems.


Dissociative amnesia is characterisedby extensive but selective memory loss thathas no known organic cause (e.g., headinjury). Some people cannot rememberanything about their past. Others can nolonger recall specific events, people, places,or objects, while their memory for otherevents remains intact. This disorder isoften associated with an overwhelmingstress.

Dissociative fugue has, as its essentialfeature, an unexpected travel away fromhome and workplace, the assumption of anew identity, and the inability to recall theprevious identity. The fugue usually endswhen the person suddenly ‘wakes up’ withno memory of the events that occurredduring the fugue.

Dissociative identity disorder, oftenreferred to as multiple personality, is themost dramatic of the dissociative disorders.It is often associated with traumaticexperiences in childhood. In this disorder,the person assumes alternate personalitiesthat may or may not be aware of eachother.

Depersonalisation involves adreamlike state in which the person has asense of being separated both from self andfrom reality. In depersonalisation, there isa change of self-perception, and theperson’s sense of reality is temporarily lostor changed.

Mood Disorders

Mood disorders are characterised bydisturbances in mood or prolongedemotional state. The most common mooddisorder is depression, which covers avariety of negative moods and behaviouralchanges. Depression can refer to asymptom or a disorder. In day-to-day life,we often use the term depression to referto normal feelings after a significant loss,such as the break-up of a relationship, orthe failure to attain a significant goal. The

main types of mood disorders includedepressive, manic and bipolar disorders.Major depressive disorder is defined as aperiod of depressed mood and/or loss ofinterest or pleasure in most activities,together with other symptoms which mayinclude change in body weight, constantsleep problems, tiredness, inability to thinkclearly, agitation, greatly slowed behaviour,and thoughts of death and suicide. Othersymptoms include excessive guilt orfeelings of worthlessness.

Factors Predisposing towardsDepression : Genetic make-up, or heredityis an important risk factor for majordepression and bipolar disorders. Age isalso a risk factor. For instance, women areparticularly at risk during youngadulthood, while for men the risk ishighest in early middle age. Similarlygender also plays a great role in thisdifferential risk addition. For example,women in comparison to men are morelikely to report a depressive disorder. Otherrisk factors are experiencing negative lifeevents and lack of social support.

Another less common mood disorder ismania. People suffering from maniabecome euphoric (‘high’), extremely active,excessively talkative, and easilydistractible. Manic episodes rarely appearby themselves; they usually alternate withdepression. Such a mood disorder, inwhich both mania and depression arealternately present, is sometimesinterrupted by periods of normal mood.This is known as bipolar mood disorder.Bipolar mood disorders were earlierreferred to as manic-depressive disorders.

Among the mood disorders, the lifetimerisk of a suicide attempt is highest in caseof bipolar mood disorders. Several riskfactors in addition to mental health statusof a person predict the likelihood ofsuicide. These include age, gender,ethnicity, or race and recent occurrence of

Psychology80

serious life events. Teenagers and youngadults are as much at high risk for suicide,as those who are over 70 years. Gender isalso an influencing factor, i.e. men have ahigher rate of contemplated suicide thanwomen. Other factors that affect suiciderates are cultural attitudes toward suicide.In Japan, for instance, suicide is theculturally appropriate way to deal withfeeling of shame and disgrace. Negativeexpectations, hopelessness, settingunrealistically high standards, and beingover -critical in self-evaluation areimportant themes for those who havesuicidal preoccupations.

Suicide can be prevented by beingalert to some of the symptoms whichinclude :• changes in eating and sleeping habits• withdrawal from friends, family and

regular activities• violent actions, rebellious behaviour,

running away• drug and alcohol abuse• marked personality change• persistent boredom• difficulty in concentration• complaints about physical symptoms,

and• loss of interest in pleasurable activities.

However, seeking timely help from aprofessional counsellor/psychologistcan help to prevent the likelihood ofsuicide.

Schizophrenic Disorders

Schizophrenia is the descriptive term fora group of psychotic disorders in whichpersonal, social and occupationalfunctioning deteriorate as a result ofdisturbed thought processes, strangeperceptions, unusual emotional states, andmotor abnormalities. It is a debilitatingdisorder. The social and psychologicalcosts of schizophrenia are tremendous,both to patients as well as to their familiesand society.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

The symptoms of schizophrenia can begrouped into three categories, viz. positivesymptoms (i.e. excesses of thought,emotion, and behaviour), negativesymptoms (i.e. deficits of thought,emotion, and behaviour), andpsychomotor symptoms.

Positive symptoms are ‘pathologicalexcesses’ or ‘bizarre additions’ to a person’sbehaviour. Delusions, disorganisedthinking and speech, heightenedperception and hallucinations, andinappropriate affect are the ones mostoften found in schizophrenia.

Many people with schizophreniadevelop delusions. A delusion is a falsebelief that is firmly held on inadequategrounds. It is not affected by rationalargument, and has no basis in reality.Delusions of persecution are the mostcommon in schizophrenia. People with thisdelusion believe that they are being plottedagainst, spied on, slandered, threatened,attacked or deliberately victimised. Peoplewith schizophrenia may also experiencedelusions of reference in which theyattach special and personal meaning to theactions of others or to objects and events.In delusions of grandeur, people believethemselves to be specially empoweredpersons and in delusions of control, they

You may have got some bad news inthe family (for example, death of aclose relative) or watched yourfavourite character dying in a film orgot less marks than you hoped for orlost your pet. This may have made yousad and depressed and hopelessabout the future. Try and recall suchincidents in your life. List thesituations that led to this reaction.Compare your list and reactions withthose of others in class.

Activity4.4


believe that their feelings, thoughts andactions are controlled by others.

People with schizophrenia may not beable to think logically and may speak inpeculiar ways. These formal thoughtdisorders can make communicationextremely difficult. These include rapidlyshifting from one topic to another so thatthe normal structure of thinking ismuddled and becomes illogical (looseningof associations, derailment), inventing newwords or phrases (neologisms), andpersistent and inappropriate repetition ofthe same thoughts (perseveration).

Schizophrenics may have hallucina-tions, i.e. perceptions that occur in theabsence of external stimuli. Auditoryhallucinations are most common inschizophrenia. Patients hear sounds orvoices that speak words, phrases andsentences directly to the patient (second-person hallucination) or talk to one anotherreferring to the patient as s/he (third-person hallucination). Hallucinations canalso involve the other senses. Theseinclude tactile hallucinations (i.e. formsof tingling, burning), somatic hallucina-tions (i.e. something happening inside thebody such as a snake crawling inside one’sstomach), visual hallucinations (i.e. vagueperceptions of colour or distinct visions ofpeople or objects), gustatory hallucina-tions (i.e. food or drink taste strange), andolfactory hallucinations (i.e. smell ofpoison or smoke).

People with schizophrenia also showinappropriate affect, i.e. emotions thatare unsuited to the situation.

Negative symptoms are ‘pathologicaldeficits’ and include poverty of speech,blunted and flat affect, loss of volition,and social withdrawal. People withschizophrenia show alogia or poverty ofspeech, i.e. a reduction in speech andspeech content. Many people withschizophrenia show less anger, sadness,

joy, and other feelings than most peopledo. Thus they have blunted affect. Someshow no emotions at all, a conditionknown as flat affect. Also patients withschizophrenia experience avolition, orapathy and an inability to start or completea course of action. People with thisdisorder may withdraw socially andbecome totally focused on their own ideasand fantasies.

People with schizophrenia also showpsychomotor symptoms. They move lessspontaneously or make odd grimaces andgestures. These symptoms may takeextreme forms known as catatonia. Peoplein a catatonic stupor remain motionlessand silent for long stretches of time. Someshow catatonic rigidity, i.e. maintaininga rigid, upright posture for hours. Othersexhibit catatonic posturing, i.e. assumingawkward, bizarre positions for long periods

Activity4.5

Can you list some characters in filmsyou have seen or books you have readwho suffered from any of the disorderswe have studied here like depressionor schizophrenia showing some ofthese delusions?

Can you identify which kind ofdelusion each of these is?1. A person who believes that s/he

is going to be the next President ofIndia.

2. One who believes that theintelligence agencies/police areconspiring to trap her/him in a spyscandal.

3. One who believes that s/he is theincarnation of God and can makethings happen.

4. One who believes that the tsunamioccurred to prevent her/him fromenjoying her/his holidays.

5. One who believes that her/hisactions are controlled by thesatellite through a chip implantedin her/his brain by someextraterrestrial beings.

Psychology82

of time. Sub-types of schizophrenia andtheir characteristics are described briefly inBox 4.2.

Behavioural and DevelopmentalDisorders

Apart from those mentioned above, thereare certain disorders that are specific tochildren and if neglected can lead toserious consequences later in life. Childrenhave less self-understanding and they havenot yet developed a stable sense of identitynor do they have an adequate frame ofreference regarding reality, possibility, andvalue. As a result, they are unable to copewith stressful events which might bereflected in behavioural and emotionalproblems. On the other hand, althoughtheir inexperience and lack of self-sufficiency make them easily upset byproblems that seem minor to an adult,children typically bounce back morequickly.

We will now discuss several disordersof childhood like Attention-deficitHyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), ConductDisorder, and Separation AnxietyDisorder. These disorders, if not attended,can lead to more serious and chronicdisorders as the child moves intoadulthood.

Classification of children’s disordershas followed a different path than that of

adult disorders. Achenbach has identifiedtwo factors, i.e. externalisation andinternalisation, which include the majorityof childhood behaviour problems. Theexternalising disorders, or undercontrolledproblems, include behaviours that aredisruptive and often aggressive and aversiveto others in the child’s environment. Theinternalising disorders, or overcontrolledproblems, are those conditions where thechild experiences depression, anxiety, anddiscomfort that may not be evident toothers.

There are several disorders in whichchildren display disruptive or externalisingbehaviours. We will now focus on threeprominent disorders, viz. Attention-deficitHyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), andConduct Disorder.

The two main features of ADHD areinattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity. Children who are inattentivefind it difficult to sustain mental effortduring work or play. They have a hard timekeeping their minds on any one thing orin following instructions. Commoncomplaints are that the child does notlisten, cannot concentrate, does not followinstructions, is disorganised, easilydistracted, forgetful, does not finishassignments, and is quick to lose interestin boring activities. Children who areimpulsive seem unable to control their

Box4.2

Sub-types of Schizophrenia

According to DSM-IV-TR, the sub-types of schizophrenia and their characteristics are :• Paranoid type : Preoccupation with delusions or auditory hallucinations; no

disorganised speech or behaviour or inappropriate affect.• Disorganised type : Disorganised speech and behaviour; inappropriate or flat affect;

no catatonic symptoms.• Catatonic type : Extreme motor immobility; excessive motor inactivity; extreme

negativism (i.e. resistance to instructions) or mutism (i.e. refusing to speak).• Undifferentiated type : Does not fit any of the sub-types but meets symptom criteria.• Residual type : Has experienced at least one episode of schizophrenia; no positive

symptoms but shows negative symptoms.


immediate reactions or to think before theyact. They find it difficult to wait or taketurns, have difficulty resisting immediatetemptations or delaying gratification. Minormishaps such as knocking things over arecommon whereas more serious accidentsand injuries can also occur. Hyperactivityalso takes many forms. Children withADHD are in constant motion. Sitting stillthrough a lesson is impossible for them.The child may fidget, squirm, climb andrun around the room aimlessly. Parentsand teachers describe them as ‘driven bya motor’, always on the go, and talkincessantly. Boys are four times morelikely to be given this diagnosis thangirls.

Children with Oppositional DefiantDisorder (ODD) display age-inappropriateamounts of stubbornness, are irritable,defiant, disobedient, and behave in ahostile manner. Unlike ADHD, the rates ofODD in boys and girls are not verydifferent. The terms Conduct Disorder andAntisocial Behaviour refer to age-inappropriate actions and attitudes thatviolate family expectations, societal norms,and the personal or property rights ofothers. The behaviours typical of conductdisorder include aggressive actions thatcause or threaten harm to people oranimals, non-aggressive conduct thatcauses property damage, majordeceitfulness or theft, and serious ruleviolations. Children show many differenttypes of aggressive behaviour, such asverbal aggression (i.e. name-calling,swearing), physical aggression (i.e. hitting,fighting), hostile aggression (i.e. directedat inflicting injury to others), andproactive aggression (i.e. dominating andbullying others without provocation).

Internalising disorders includeSeparation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) andDepression. Separation anxiety disorder isan internalising disorder unique tochildren. Its most prominent symptom is

excessive anxiety or even panicexperienced by children at being separatedfrom their parents. Children with SADmay have difficulty being in a room bythemselves, going to school alone, arefearful of entering new situations, and clingto and shadow their parents’ every move.To avoid separation, children with SADmay fuss, scream, throw severe tantrums,or make suicidal gestures.

The ways in which children expressand experience depression are related totheir level of physical, emotional, andcognitive development. An infant may showsadness by being passive andunresponsive; a pre-schooler may appearwithdrawn and inhibited; a school-agechild may be argumentative andcombative; and a teenager may expressfeelings of guilt and hopelessness.

Children may also have more seriousdisorders called Pervasive DevelopmentalDisorders. These disorders arecharacterised by severe and widespreadimpairments in social interaction andcommunication skills, and stereotypedpatterns of behaviours, interests andactivities. Autistic disorder or autism isone of the most common of these disorders.Children with autistic disorder have markeddifficulties in social interaction andcommunication, a restricted range ofinterests, and strong desire for routine.About 70 per cent of children with autismare also mentally retarded.

Children with autism experienceprofound difficulties in relating to otherpeople. They are unable to initiate socialbehaviour and seem unresponsive to otherpeople’s feelings. They are unable to shareexperiences or emotions with others. Theyalso show serious abnormalities incommunication and language that persistover time. Many autistic children neverdevelop speech and those who do, haverepetitive and deviant speech patterns.Children with autism often show narrow

Psychology84

patterns of interests and repetitivebehaviours such as lining up objects orstereotyped body movements such asrocking. These motor movements may beself-stimulatory such as hand flapping orself-injurious such as banging their headagainst the wall.

Another group of disorders which areof special interest to young people areeating disorders. These include anorexianervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating.In anorexia nervosa, the individual has adistorted body image that leads her/him tosee herself/himself as overweight. Oftenrefusing to eat, exercising compulsivelyand developing unusual habits such asrefusing to eat in front of others, theanorexic may lose large amounts of weightand even starve herself/himself to death.In bulimia nervosa, the individual may eatexcessive amounts of food, then purge her/his body of food by using medicines suchas laxatives or diuretics or by vomiting.The person often feels disgusted andashamed when s/he binges and is relievedof tension and negative emotions afterpurging. In binge eating, there arefrequent episodes of out-of-control eating.

Mental Retardation

You have already read about variationsin intelligence in Chapter 1. Mentalretardation refers to below averageintellectual functioning (with an IQ ofapproximately 70 or below), and deficits orimpairments in adaptive behaviour (i.e. inthe areas of communication, self-care,home living, social/interpersonal skills,functional academic skills, work, etc.)which are manifested before the age of 18years. Table 4.2 describes characteristicsof the mentally challenged persons.

Substance-use Disorders

Addictive behaviour, whether it involvesexcessive intake of high calorie food

resulting in extreme obesity or involvingthe abuse of substances such as alcoholor cocaine, is one of the most severeproblems being faced by society today.

Disorders relating to maladaptivebehaviours resulting from regular andconsistent use of the substance involvedare called substance abuse disorders.These disorders include problemsassociated with using and abusing suchdrugs as alcohol, cocaine and heroin,which alter the way people think, feel andbehave. There are two sub-groups ofsubstance-use disorders, i.e. those relatedto substance dependence and those relatedto substance abuse.

In substance dependence, there isintense craving for the substance to whichthe person is addicted, and the personshows tolerance, withdrawal symptomsand compulsive drug-taking. Tolerancemeans that the person has to use moreand more of a substance to get the sameeffect. Withdrawal refers to physicalsymptoms that occur when a person stopsor cuts down on the use of a psychoactivesubstance, i.e. a substance that has theability to change an individual’sconsciousness, mood and thinkingprocesses.

In substance abuse, there arerecurrent and significant adverseconsequences related to the use ofsubstances. People who regularly ingestdrugs damage their family and socialrelationships, perform poorly at work, andcreate physical hazards.

We will now focus on the three mostcommon forms of substance abuse, viz.alcohol abuse and dependence, heroinabuse and dependence, and cocaineabuse and dependence.

Alcohol Abuse and Dependence

People who abuse alcohol drink largeamounts regularly and rely on it to help


Box4.3

Effects of Alcohol : Some Facts

• All alcohol beverages contain ethyl alcohol.• This chemical is absorbed into the blood and carried into the central nervous system

(brain and spinal cord) where it depresses or slows down functioning.• Ethyl alcohol depresses those areas in the brain that control judgment and inhibition;

people become more talkative and friendly, and they feel more confident and happy.• As alcohol is absorbed, it affects other areas of the brain. For example, drinkers are

unable to make sound judgments, speech becomes less careful and less clear, andmemory falters; many people become emotional, loud and aggressive.

• Motor difficulties increase. For example, people become unsteady when they walk andclumsy in performing simple activities; vision becomes blurred and they have troublein hearing; they have difficulty in driving or in solving simple problems.

them face difficult situations. Eventuallythe drinking interferes with their socialbehaviour and ability to think and work.

For many people the pattern of alcoholabuse extends to dependence. That is, theirbodies build up a tolerance for alcohol and

Table 4.2 : Characteristics of Individuals with Different Levels of Mental Retardation

Area of Mild Moderate SevereFunctioning (IQ range = 50–70) (IQ range = 35–49) (IQ range = 20–34)

and Profound(IQ = below 20)

Self-help Skills Feeds and dresses Has difficulties and No skills to partialself and cares for requires training but skills, but some canown toilet needs can learn adequate care for personal needs

self-help skills on limited basis

Speech and Receptive and Receptive and Receptive languageCommunication expressive language expressive language is limited;

is adequate; is adequate; expressive languageunderstands has speech problems is poorcommunication

Academics Optimal learning Very few academic No academic skillsenvironment; third skills; first or secondto sixth grade grade is maximal

Social Skills Has friends; can Capable of making Not capable of havinglearn to adjust friends but has real friends; no socialquickly difficulty in many interactions

social situations

Vocational Can hold a job; Sheltered work Generally noAdjustment competitive to semi- environment; usually employment; usually

competitive; primarily needs consistent needs constant careunskilled work supervision

Adult Living Usually marries, Usually does not No marriage orhas children; needs marry or have children; alwayshelp during stress children; dependent dependent on others

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Box4.4

Commonly Abused Substances (Following the DSM-IV-TR Classification)

• Alcohol• Amphetamines: dextroamphetamines, metaamphetamines, diet pills• Caffeine: coffee, tea, caffeinated soda, analgesics, chocolate, cocoa• Cannabis: marijuana or ‘bhang’, hashish, sensimilla• Cocaine• Hallucinogens: LSD, mescaline• Inhalants: gasoline, glue, paint thinners, spray paints, typewriter correction fluid,

sprays• Nicotine: cigarettes, tobacco• Opioid: morphine, heroin, cough syrup, painkillers (analgesics, anaesthetics)• Phencyclidine• Sedatives

Key TermsAbnormal psychology, Antisocial behaviour, Anxiety, Autism, Deinstitutionalisation, Delusions, Diathesis-stress model, Eating disorders, Genetics, Hallucinations, Hyperactivity, Hypochondriasis, Mentalretardation, Mood disorders, Neurotransmitters, Norms, Obsessive-compulsive disorders, Phobias,Schizophrenia, Somatoform disorders, Substance abuses.

they need to drink even greater amountsto feel its effects. They also experiencewithdrawal responses when they stopdrinking. Alcoholism destroys millions offamilies, social relationships and careers.Intoxicated drivers are responsible formany road accidents. It also has seriouseffects on the children of persons with thisdisorder. These children have higher ratesof psychological problems, particularlyanxiety, depression, phobias andsubstance-related disorders. Excessivedrinking can seriously damage physicalhealth. Some of the ill-effects of alcohol onhealth and psychological functioning arepresented in Box 4.3.

danger of heroin abuse is an overdose,which slows down the respiratory centresin the brain, almost paralysing breathing,and in many cases causing death.

Cocaine Abuse and Dependence

Regular use of cocaine may lead to apattern of abuse in which the person maybe intoxicated throughout the day andfunction poorly in social relationships andat work. It may also cause problems inshort-term memory and attention.Dependence may develop, so that cocainedominates the person’s life, more of thedrug is needed to get the desired effects,

Heroin Abuse and Dependence

Heroin intake significantly interferes withsocial and occupational functioning. Mostabusers further develop a dependence onheroin, revolving their lives around thesubstance, building up a tolerance for it,and experiencing a withdrawal reactionwhen they stop taking it. The most direct

and stopping it results in feelings ofdepression, fatigue, sleep problems,irritability and anxiety. Cocaine posesserious dangers. It has dangerous effectson psychological functioning and physicalwell-being.

Some of the commonly abusedsubstances are given in Box 4.4.


Review Questions1. Identify the symptoms associated with depression and mania.2. Describe the characteristics of hyperactive children.3. What do you understand by substance abuse and dependence?4. Can a distorted body image lead to eating disorders? Classify the various forms of it.5. “Physicians make diagnosis looking at a person’s physical symptoms”. How are

psychological disorders diagnosed?6. Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions.7. Can a long-standing pattern of deviant behaviour be considered abnormal? Elaborate.8. While speaking in public the patient changes topics frequently, is this a positive or

a negative symptom of schizophrenia? Describe the other symptoms and sub-typesof schizophrenia.

9. What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’? Discuss its various forms.10. What are phobias? If someone had an intense fear of snakes, could this simple phobia

be a result of faulty learning? Analyse how this phobia could have developed.11. Anxiety has been called the “butterflies in the stomach feeling”. At what stage does

anxiety become a disorder? Discuss its types.

• Abnormal behaviour is behaviour that is deviant, distressing, dysfunctional, anddangerous. Those behaviours are seen as abnormal which represent a deviationfrom social norms and which interfere with optimal functioning and growth.

• In the history of abnormal behaviour, the three perspectives are, i.e. the supernatural,the biological or organic, and the psychological. In interactional or bio-psycho-socialapproach, all three factors, viz. biological, psychological and social play importantroles in psychological disorders.

• Classification of psychological disorders has been done by the WHO (ICD-10) andthe American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV-TR).

• A variety of models have been used to explain abnormal behaviour. These are thebiological, psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, humanistic-existential, diathesis-stress systems, and socio-cultural approaches.

• The major psychological disorders include anxiety, somatoform, dissociative, mood,schizophrenic, developmental and behavioural, and substance-use disorders.

ProjectIdeas

1. All of us have changes in mood or mood swings all day. Keep a small diary or notebook withyou and jot down your emotional experiences over 3–4 days. As you go through the day (forinstance, when you wake up, go to school/college, meet your friends, return home), youwill observe that there are many highs and lows, ups and downs in your moods. Note downwhen you felt happy or unhappy, felt joy or sadness, felt anger, irritation and other commonlyexperienced emotions. Also note down the situations which elicited these various emotions.After collecting this information, you will have a better understanding of your own moodsand how they fluctuate through the day.

2. Studies have shown that current standards of physical attractiveness have contributed toeating disorders. Thinness is valued in fashion models, actors, and dancers. To study this,observe the people around you. Select at least 10 people (they may include your family,friends and other acquaintances), and rate them in terms of Large, Average and Thin. Thenpick up any fashion or film magazine. Look at the pictures of models, winners of beautycompetitions, and film stars. Write a paragraph or two describing the magazine’s messageto its readers about the normal or acceptable male or female body. Does this view matchwhat you see as normal body types in the general population?

3. Make a list of movies, TV shows, or plays you have seen where a particular psychologicaldisorder has been highlighted. Match the symptoms shown to the ones you have read.Prepare a report.

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Pedagogical Hints1. The contents on psychological

disorders have to be handledsensitively. After becoming familiarwith various kinds of disorders andtheir symptoms, students maybegin to feel and may express thatthey are suffering from one or moreof the given disorders. It isimportant to explain to thestudents, not to draw any definiteconclusions on the basis of somesigns/symptoms experienced.

2. Students need to be made awarethat mere knowledge andinformation about psychologicaldisorders do not provide thenecessary skills for eitherdiagnosing or treating psychologicaldisorders.

3. Students should be discouragedfrom attempting to treat each other,as they are not qualified to do so.Specialised training in clinicalpsychology/counselling is requiredto undertake psycho-diagnostictesting.

Weblinkshttp://www.mental-health-matters.com/disordershttp://allpsych.comhttp://mentalhealth.com

Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches 89

THERTHERTHERTHERTHERAPEUTIC APPROACHESAPEUTIC APPROACHESAPEUTIC APPROACHESAPEUTIC APPROACHESAPEUTIC APPROACHES

Nature and Process of PsychotherapyTherapeutic Relationship

Type of TherapiesSteps in the Formulation of a Client’s Problem (Box 5.1)Psychodynamic TherapyBehaviour TherapyRelaxation Procedures (Box 5.2)Cognitive TherapyHumanistic-existential TherapyBiomedical TherapyAlternative Therapies

Rehabilitation of the Mentally IllCONTENTS


After reading this chapter, you would be able to:familiarise yourself with the basic nature and process of psychotherapy,appreciate that there are different types of therapies for helping people,understand the use of psychological forms of intervention, andknow how people with mental disorders can be rehabilitated.

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NATURE AND PROCESS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationshipbetween the one seeking treatment or theclient and the one who treats or thetherapist. The purpose of the relationshipis to help the client to solve thepsychological problems being faced by heror him. The relationship is conducive forbuilding the trust of the client so thatproblems may be freely discussed.Psychotherapies aim at changing themaladaptive behaviours, decreasing thesense of personal distress, and helping theclient to adapt better to her/hisenvironment. Inadequate marital,occupational and social adjustment alsorequires that major changes be made in anindividual’s personal environment.

All psychotherapeutic approaches havethe following characteristics : (i) there issystematic application of principlesunderlying the dif ferent theories oftherapy, (ii) persons who have receivedpractical training under expert supervisioncan practice psychotherapy, and not

In the preceding chapter, you have studied about major psychologicaldisorders and the distress caused by them to the patient and others. In thischapter, you will learn about the various therapeutic methods that are usedby psychotherapists to help their patients. There are various types ofpsychotherapy. Some of them focus on acquiring self-understanding; othertherapies are more action-oriented. All approaches hinge on the basic issueof helping the patient overcome her/his debilitating condition. Theeffectiveness of a therapeutic approach for a patient depends on a numberof factors such as severity of the disorder, degree of distress faced by others,and the availability of time, effort and money, among others.

All therapeutic approaches are corrective and helping in nature. All ofthem involve an interpersonal relationship between the therapist and theclient or patient. Some of them are directive in nature, such aspsychodynamic, while some are non-directive such as person-centred. Inthis chapter, we will briefly discuss some of the major forms ofpsychotherapy.

Introduction

everybody. An untrained person mayunintentionally cause more harm than anygood, (iii) the therapeutic situation involvesa therapist and a client who seeks andreceives help for her/his emotionalproblems (this person is the focus ofattention in the therapeutic process), and(iv) the interaction of these two persons —the therapist and the client — results inthe consolidation/formation of thetherapeutic relationship. This is aconfidential, interpersonal, and dynamicrelationship. This human relationship iscentral to any sort of psychological therapyand is the vehicle for change.

All psychotherapies aim at a few or allof the following goals :

(i) Reinforcing client’s resolve forbetterment.

(ii) Lessening emotional pressure.(iii) Unfolding the potential for positive

growth.(iv) Modifying habits.(v) Changing thinking patterns.(vi) Increasing self-awareness.(vii) Improving interpersonal relations and

communication.


(viii)Facilitating decision-making.(ix) Becoming aware of one’s choices in

life.(x) Relating to one’s social environment in

a more creative and self-awaremanner.

Therapeutic Relationship

The special relationship between the clientand the therapist is known as thetherapeutic relationship or alliance. It isneither a passing acquaintance, nor apermanent and lasting relationship. Thereare two major components of a therapeuticalliance. The first component is thecontractual nature of the relationship inwhich two willing individuals, the clientand the therapist, enter into a partnershipwhich aims at helping the client overcomeher/his problems. The second componentof therapeutic alliance is the limitedduration of the therapy. This alliance lastsuntil the client becomes able to deal withher/his problems and take control of her/his life. This relationship has severalunique properties. It is a trusting andconfiding relationship. The high level oftrust enables the client to unburdenherself/himself to the therapist and confideher/his psychological and personalproblems to the latter. The therapistencourages this by being accepting,empathic, genuine and warm to the client.The therapist conveys by her/his wordsand behaviours that s/he is not judgingthe client and will continue to show thesame positive feelings towards the clienteven if the client is rude or confides all the‘wrong’ things that s/he may have done orthought about. This is the unconditionalpositive regard which the therapist has forthe client. The therapist has empathy forthe client. Empathy is different fromsympathy and intellectual understandingof another person’s situation. In sympathy,one has compassion and pity towards the

suffering of another but is not able to feellike the other person. Intellectualunderstanding is cold in the sense that theperson is unable to feel like the otherperson and does not feel sympathy either.On the other hand, empathy is presentwhen one is able to understand the plightof another person, and feel like the otherperson. It means understanding thingsfrom the other person’s perspective, i.e.putting oneself in the other person’s shoes.Empathy enriches the therapeuticrelationship and transforms it into ahealing relationship.

The therapeutic alliance also requiresthat the therapist must keep strictconfidentiality of the experiences, events,feelings or thoughts disclosed by the client.The therapist must not exploit the trustand the confidence of the client in anyway.Finally, it is a professional relationship,and must remain so.

Activity5.1

A classmate or friend of yours or yourfavourite character in a TV serial mayhave recently experienced a negativeor a traumatic life event (e.g., deathof a loved one, break-up of animportant friendship or relationship)of which you are aware. Try to putyourself in the other person’s shoes,try to experience how that person isfeeling, what s/he is thinking and tryto take her/his perspective of theentire situation. This will help you tounderstand better how that person isfeeling.

(Note : This exercise may be done inclass, so that teachers can helpstudents in overcoming any distressexperienced).

TYPE OF THERAPIES

Though all psychotherapies aim atremoving human distress and fosteringeffective behaviour, they differ greatly in

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concepts, methods, and techniques.Psychotherapies may be classified intothree broad groups, viz. thepsychodynamic, behaviour, and existentialpsychotherapies. In terms of thechronological order, psychodynamictherapy emerged first followed bybehaviour therapy while the existentialtherapies which are also called the thirdforce, emerged last. The classification ofpsychotherapies is based on the followingparameters:

1. What is the cause, which has led to theproblem?Psychodynamic therapy is of the viewthat intrapsychic conflicts, i.e. theconflicts that are present within thepsyche of the person, are the source ofpsychological problems. According tobehaviour therapies, psychologicalproblems arise due to faulty learning ofbehaviours and cognitions. Theexistential therapies postulate that thequestions about the meaning of one’slife and existence are the cause ofpsychological problems.

2. How did the cause come into existence?In the psychodynamic therapy,unfulfilled desires of childhood andunresolved childhood fears lead tointrapsychic conflicts. The behaviourtherapy postulates that faultyconditioning patterns, faulty learning,and faulty thinking and beliefs lead tomaladaptive behaviours that, in turn,lead to psychological problems. Theexistential therapy places importanceon the present. It is the current feelingsof loneliness, alienation, sense of futilityof one’s existence, etc., which causepsychological problems.

3. What is the chief method of treatment?Psychodynamic therapy uses themethods of free association andreporting of dreams to elicit the

thoughts and feelings of the client. Thismaterial is interpreted to the client tohelp her/him to confront and resolvethe conflicts and thus overcomeproblems. Behaviour therapy identifiesthe faulty conditioning patterns andsets up alternate behaviouralcontingencies to improve behaviour.The cognitive methods employed in thistype of therapy challenge the faultythinking patterns of the client to helpher/him overcome psychologicaldistress. The existential therapyprovides a therapeutic environmentwhich is positive, accepting, and non-judgmental. The client is able to talkabout the problems and the therapistacts as a facilitator. The client arrivesat the solutions through a process ofpersonal growth.

4. What is the nature of the therapeuticrelationship between the client and thetherapist?Psychodynamic therapy assumes thatthe therapist understands the client’sintrapsychic conflicts better than theclient and hence it is the therapist whointerprets the thoughts and feelings ofthe client to her/him so that s/he gainsan understanding of the same. Thebehaviour therapy assumes that thetherapist is able to discern the faultybehaviour and thought patterns of theclient. It further assumes that thetherapist is capable of finding out thecorrect behaviour and thoughtpatterns, which would be adaptive forthe client. Both the psychodynamic andthe behaviour therapies assume thatthe therapist is capable of arriving atsolutions to the client’s problems. Incontrast to these therapies, theexistential therapies emphasise that thetherapist merely provides a warm,empathic relationship in which theclient feels secure to explore the nature


and causes of her/his problems byherself/himself.

5. What is the chief benefit to the client?Psychodynamic therapy valuesemotional insight as the importantbenefit that the client derives from thetreatment. Emotional insight is presentwhen the client understands her/hisconflicts intellectually; is able to acceptthe same emotionally; and is able tochange her/his emotions towards theconflicts. The client’s symptoms anddistresses reduce as a consequence ofthis emotional insight. The behaviourtherapy considers changing faultybehaviour and thought patterns toadaptive ones as the chief benefit of thetreatment. Instituting adaptive orhealthy behaviour and thoughtpatterns ensures reduction of distressand removal of symptoms. Thehumanistic therapy values personalgrowth as the chief benefit. Personalgrowth is the process of gainingincreasing understanding of oneself,

and one’s aspirations, emotions andmotives.

6. What is the duration of treatment?The duration of classical psycho-analysis may continue for several years.However, several recent versions ofpsychodynamic therapies are completedin 10–15 sessions. Behaviour andcognitive behaviour therapies as well asexistential therapies are shorter and arecompleted in a few months.

Thus, dif ferent types of psycho-therapies differ on multiple parameters.However, they all share the commonmethod of providing treatment forpsychological distress through psycho-logical means. The therapist, thetherapeutic relationship, and the processof therapy become the agents of change inthe client leading to the alleviation ofpsychological distress. The process ofpsychotherapy begins by formulating theclient’s problem. Steps involved in theformulation of a client’s problem are givenin Box 5.1.

Box5.1

Steps in the Formulation of a Client’s Problem

Clinical formulation refers to formulating the problem of the client in the therapeutic modelbeing used for the treatment. The clinical formulation has the following advantages:

1. Understanding of the problem : The therapist is able to understand the full implicationsof the distress being experienced by the client.

2. Identification of the areas to be targetted for treatment in psychotherapy : The theoreticalformulation clearly identifies the problem areas to be targetted for therapy. Thus, if aclient seeks help for inability to hold a job and reports inability to face superiors, theclinical formulation in behaviour therapy would state it as lack of assertiveness skillsand anxiety. The target areas have thus been identified as inability to assert oneselfand heightened anxiety.

3. Choice of techniques for treatment : The choice of techniques for treatment depends onthe therapeutic system in which the therapist has been trained. However, even withinthis broad domain, the choice of techniques, timing of the techniques, and expectationsof outcome of the therapy depend upon the clinical formulation.

The clinical formulation is an ongoing process. Formulations may require reformulationsas clinical insights are gained in the process of therapy. Usually the first one or two sessionsyield enough clinical material for the initial clinical formulation. It is not advisable to startpsychotherapy without a clinical formulation.

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The following sections explainrepresentative therapies from each of thethree major systems of psychotherapymentioned earlier.

Psychodynamic Therapy

As you have already read, thepsychodynamic therapy pioneered bySigmund Freud is the oldest form ofpsychotherapy. His close collaborator CarlJung modified it to what came to be knownas the analytical psychotherapy.Subsequently, Freud’s successors, knownas Neo-Freudians, established their ownversions of classical psychodynamictherapy. Broadly, the psychodynamictherapy has conceptualised the structureof the psyche, dynamics between differentcomponents of the psyche, and the sourceof psychological distress. You have alreadystudied these concepts in the chapters onSelf and Personality, and PsychologicalDisorders. The method of treatment, stepsin the treatment, nature of the therapeuticrelationship, and the expected outcomefrom the psychodynamic therapy areexplained below.

Methods of Eliciting the Nature ofIntrapsychic Conflict

Since the psychoanalytic approach viewsintrapsychic conflicts to be the cause ofpsychological disorder, the first step in thetreatment is to elicit this intrapsychicconflict. Psychoanalysis has invented freeassociation and dream interpretation astwo important methods for eliciting theintrapsychic conflicts. The free associationmethod is the main method forunderstanding the client’s problems. Once

a therapeutic relationship is established,and the client feels comfortable, thetherapist makes her/him lie down on thecouch, close her/his eyes and asks her/him to speak whatever comes to mindwithout censoring it in anyway. The clientis encouraged to freely associate onethought with another, and this method iscalled the method of free association. Thecensoring superego and the watchful egoare kept in abeyance as the client speakswhatever comes to mind in an atmospherethat is relaxed and trusting. As thetherapist does not interrupt, the free flowof ideas, desires and conflicts of theunconscious, which had been suppressedby the ego, emerge into the consciousmind. This free uncensored verbalnarrative of the client is a window into theclient’s unconscious to which the therapistgains access. Along with this technique,the client is asked to write down her/hisdreams upon waking up. Psychoanalystslook upon dreams as symbols of theunfulfilled desires present in theunconscious. The images of the dreams aresymbols which signify intrapsychic forces.Dreams use symbols because they areindirect expressions and hence would notalert the ego. If the unfulfilled desires areexpressed directly, the ever-vigilant egowould suppress them and that would leadto anxiety. These symbols are interpretedaccording to an accepted convention oftranslation as the indicators of unfulfilleddesires and conflicts.

Modality of Treatment

Transference and Interpretation are themeans of treating the patient. As theunconscious forces are brought into theconscious realm through free associationand dream interpretation described above,the client starts identifying the therapistwith the authority figures of the past,usually childhood. The therapist may be

Gather information about someinstitutions you know which offerpsychiatric/psychotherapeutic help.

Activity5.2


seen as the punitive father, or as thenegligent mother. The therapist maintainsa non-judgmental yet permissive attitudeand allows the client to continue with thisprocess of emotional identification. This isthe process of transference. The therapistencourages this process because ithelps her/him in understanding theunconscious conflicts of the client. Theclient acts out her/his frustrations, anger,fear, and depression that s/he harbouredtowards that person in the past, but couldnot express at that time. The therapistbecomes a substitute for that person inthe present. This stage is calledtransference neurosis. A full-blowntransference neurosis is helpful in makingthe therapist aware of the nature ofintrapsychic conflicts suffered by theclient. There is the positive transferencein which the client idolises, or falls inlove with the therapist, and seeksthe therapist’s approval. Negativetransference is present when the clienthas feelings of hostility, anger, andresentment towards the therapist.

The process of transference is met withresistance. Since the process oftransference exposes the unconsciouswishes and conflicts, thereby increasingthe distress levels, the client resiststransference. Due to resistance, the clientopposes the progress of therapy in orderto protect herself/himself from the recallof painful unconscious memories.Resistance can be conscious orunconscious. Conscious resistance ispresent when the client deliberately hidessome information. Unconscious resistanceis assumed to be present when the clientbecomes silent during the therapy session,recalls trivial details without recalling theemotional ones, misses appointments, andcomes late for therapy sessions. Thetherapist overcomes the resistance byrepeatedly confronting the patient about itand by uncovering emotions such as

anxiety, fear, or shame, which are causingthe resistance.

Interpretation is the fundamentalmechanism by which change is effected.Confrontation and clarification are thetwo analytical techniques of interpretation.In confrontation, the therapist points outto the client an aspect of her/his psychethat must be faced by the client.Clarification is the process by which thetherapist brings a vague or confusing eventinto sharp focus. This is done byseparating and highlighting importantdetails about the event from unimportantones. Interpretation is a more subtleprocess. It is considered to be the pinnacleof psychoanalysis. The therapist uses theunconscious material that has beenuncovered in the process of freeassociation, dream interpretation,transference and resistance to make theclient aware of the psychic contents andconflicts which have led to the occurrenceof certain events, symptoms and conflicts.Interpretation can focus on intrapsychicconflicts or on deprivations suffered inchildhood. The repeated process of usingconfrontation, clarification, and inter-pretation is known as working through.Working through helps the patient tounderstand herself/himself and the sourceof the problem and to integrate theuncovered material into her/his ego.

The outcome of working through isinsight. Insight is not a sudden event buta gradual process wherein the unconsciousmemories are repeatedly integrated intoconscious awareness; these unconsciousevents and memories are re-experienced intransference and are worked through. Asthis process continues, the client starts tounderstand herself/himself better at anintellectual and emotional level, and gainsinsight into her/his conflicts andproblems. The intellectual understandingis the intellectual insight. The emotionalunderstanding, acceptance of one’s

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irrational reaction to the unpleasant eventsof the past, and the willingness to changeemotionally as well as making the changeis emotional insight. Insight is the endpoint of therapy as the client has gaineda new understanding of herself/himself. Inturn, the conflicts of the past, defencemechanisms and physical symptoms areno longer present and the client becomesa psychologically healthy person.Psychoanalysis is terminated at thisstage.

Duration of Treatment

Psychoanalysis lasts for several years, withone hour session for 4–5 days per week.It is an intense treatment. There are threestages in the treatment. Stage one is theinitial phase. The client becomes familiarwith the routines, establishes a therapeuticrelationship with the analyst, and getssome relief with the process of recollectingthe superficial materials from theconsciousness about the past and presenttroublesome events. Stage two is themiddle phase, which is a long process. Itis characterised by transference, resistanceon the part of the client, and confrontationand clarification, i.e. working through onthe therapist’s part. All these processesfinally lead to insight. The third phase isthe termination phase wherein therelationship with the analyst is dissolvedand the client prepares to leave thetherapy.

Behaviour Therapy

Behaviour therapies postulate thatpsychological distress arises because offaulty behaviour patterns or thoughtpatterns. It is, therefore, focused on thebehaviour and thoughts of the client in thepresent. The past is relevant only to theextent of understanding the origins of thefaulty behaviour and thought patterns. Thepast is not activated or relived. Only the

faulty patterns are corrected in thepresent.

The clinical application of learningtheory principles constitute behaviourtherapy. Behaviour therapy consists of alarge set of specific techniques andinterventions. It is not a unified theory,which is applied irrespective of the clinicaldiagnosis or the symptoms present. Thesymptoms of the client and the clinicaldiagnosis are the guiding factors in theselection of the specific techniques orinterventions to be applied. Treatment ofphobias or excessive and crippling fearswould require the use of one set oftechniques while that of anger outburstswould require another. A depressed clientwould be treated differently from a clientwho is anxious. The foundation ofbehaviour therapy is on formulatingdysfunctional or faulty behaviours, thefactors which reinforce and maintain thesebehaviours, and devising methods bywhich they can be changed.

Method of Treatment

The client with psychological distress orwith physical symptoms, which cannot beattributed to physical disease, isinterviewed with a view to analyse her/hisbehaviour patterns. Behavioural analysis isconducted to find malfunctioningbehaviours, the antecedents of faultylearning, and the factors that maintainor continue faulty learning. Malfunctioningbehaviours are those behaviours whichcause distress to the client. Antecedentfactors are those causes which predisposethe person to indulge in that behaviour.Maintaining factors are those factors whichlead to the persistence of the faultybehaviour. An example would be a youngperson who has acquired themalfunctioning behaviour of smoking andseeks help to get rid of smoking.Behavioural analysis conducted by


interviewing the client and the familymembers reveals that the person startedsmoking when he was preparing for theannual examination. He had reported relieffrom anxiety upon smoking. Thus, anxiety-provoking situation becomes the causativeor antecedent factor. The feeling of reliefbecomes the maintaining factor for him tocontinue smoking. The client has acquiredthe operant response of smoking, which ismaintained by the reinforcing value of relieffrom anxiety.

Once the faulty behaviours whichcause distress, have been identified, atreatment package is chosen. The aim ofthe treatment is to extinguish or eliminatethe faulty behaviours and substitute themwith adaptive behaviour patterns. Thetherapist does this through establishingantecedent operations and consequentoperations. Antecedent operations controlbehaviour by changing something thatprecedes such a behaviour. The changecan be done by increasing or decreasingthe reinforcing value of a particularconsequence. This is called establishingoperation. For example, if a child givestrouble in eating dinner, an establishingoperation would be to decrease thequantity of food served at tea time. Thiswould increase the hunger at dinner and

thereby increase the reinforcing value offood at dinner. Praising the child whens/he eats properly tends to encourage thisbehaviour. The antecedent operation is thereduction of food at tea time and theconsequent operation is praising the childfor eating dinner. It establishes theresponse of eating dinner.

Behavioural Techniques

A range of techniques is available forchanging behaviour. The principles of thesetechniques are to reduce the arousal levelof the client, alter behaviour throughclassical conditioning or operantconditioning with different contingencies ofreinforcements, as well as to use vicariouslearning procedures, if necessary.

Negative reinforcement and aversiveconditioning are the two major techniquesof behaviour modification. As you havealready studied in Class XI, Negativereinforcement refers to following anundesired response with an outcome thatis painful or not liked. For example, theteacher reprimands a child who shouts inclass. This is negative reinforcement.Aversive conditioning refers to repeatedassociation of undesired response with anaversive consequence. For example, an

Box5.2

Relaxation Procedures

Anxiety is a manifestation of the psychological distress for which the client seeks treatment.The behavioural therapist views anxiety as increasing the arousal level of the client, therebyacting as an antecedent factor in causing the faulty behaviour. The client may smoke todecrease anxiety, may indulge in other activities such as eating, or be unable to concentratefor long hours on her/his study because of the anxiety. Therefore, reduction of anxietywould decrease the unwanted behaviours of excessive eating or smoking. Relaxationprocedures are used to decrease the anxiety levels. For instance, progressive muscularrelaxation and meditation induce a state of relaxation. In progressive muscular relaxation,the client is taught to contract individual muscle groups in order to give the awareness oftenseness or muscular tension. After the client has learnt to tense the muscle group suchas the forearm, the client is asked to let go the tension. The client is told that the tension iswhat the client has at present and that s/he has to get into the opposite state. With repeatedpractice the client learns to relax all the muscles of the body. You will learn about meditationat a later point in this chapter.

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alcoholic is given a mild electric shock andasked to smell the alcohol. With repeatedpairings the smell of alcohol is aversive asthe pain of the shock is associated with itand the person will give up alcohol. If anadaptive behaviour occurs rarely, positivereinforcement is given to increase thedeficit. For example, if a child does not dohomework regularly, positive reinforcementmay be used by the child’s mother bypreparing the child’s favourite dishwhenever s/he does homework at theappointed time. The positive reinforcementof food will increase the behaviour of doinghomework at the appointed time. Personswith behavioural problems can be given atoken as a reward every time a wantedbehaviour occurs. The tokens are collectedand exchanged for a reward such as anouting for the patient or a treat for thechild. This is known as token economy.

Unwanted behaviour can be reducedand wanted behaviour can be increasedsimultaneously through differentialreinforcement. Positive reinforcement forthe wanted behaviour and negativereinforcement for the unwanted behaviourattempted together may be one suchmethod. The other method is to positivelyreinforce the wanted behaviour and ignorethe unwanted behaviour. The latter methodis less painful and equally effective. Forexample, let us consider the case of a girlwho sulks and cries when she is not takento the cinema when she asks. The parentis instructed to take her to the cinema ifshe does not cry and sulk but not to takeher if she does. Further, the parent isinstructed to ignore the girl when she criesand sulks. The wanted behaviour ofpolitely asking to be taken to the cinemaincreases and the unwanted behaviour ofcrying and sulking decreases.

You read about phobias or irrationalfears in the previous chapter. Systematicdesensitisation is a technique introducedby Wolpe for treating phobias or irrational

fears. The client is interviewed to elicit fear-provoking situations and together with theclient, the therapist prepares a hierarchyof anxiety-provoking stimuli with the leastanxiety-provoking stimuli at the bottom ofthe hierarchy. The therapist relaxes theclient and asks the client to think aboutthe least anxiety-provoking situation.Box 5.2 gives details of relaxationprocedures. The client is asked to stopthinking of the fearful situation if theslightest tension is felt. Over sessions, theclient is able to imagine more severe fear-provoking situations while maintaining therelaxation. The client gets systematicallydesensitised to the fear.

The principle of reciprocal inhibitionoperates here. This principle states that thepresence of two mutually opposing forcesat the same time, inhibits the weaker force.Thus, the relaxation response is first builtup and mildly anxiety-provoking scene isimagined, and the anxiety is overcome bythe relaxation. The client is able to tolerateprogressively greater levels of anxietybecause of her/his relaxed state.Modelling is the procedure wherein theclient learns to behave in a certain way byobserving the behaviour of a role model orthe therapist who initially acts as the rolemodel. Vicarious learning, i.e. learning byobserving others, is used and through a

Activity5.3

Your friend is feeling very nervousand panicky before the examinations.S/he is pacing up and down, isunable to study and feels s/he hasforgotten all that s/he has learnt. Tryto help her/him to relax by inhaling(taking in a deep breath), holding itfor sometime (5–10 seconds), thenexhaling (releasing the breath). Askher/him to repeat this 5–10 times.Also ask her/him to remain focusedon her/his breathing. You can dothe same exercise when you feelnervous.


process of rewarding small changes in thebehaviour, the client gradually learns toacquire the behaviour of the model.

There is a great variety of techniques inbehaviour therapy. The skill of thetherapist lies in conducting an accuratebehavioural analysis and building atreatment package with the appropriatetechniques.

Cognitive Therapy

Cognitive therapies locate the cause ofpsychological distress in irrationalthoughts and beliefs. Albert Ellisformulated the Rational Emotive Therapy(RET). The central thesis of this therapy isthat irrational beliefs mediate between theantecedent events and their consequences.The first step in RET is the antecedent-belief-consequence (ABC) analysis.Antecedent events, which caused thepsychological distress, are noted. Theclient is also interviewed to find theirrational beliefs, which are distorting thepresent reality. Irrational beliefs may notbe supported by empirical evidence in theenvironment. These beliefs arecharacterised by thoughts with ‘musts’and ‘shoulds’, i.e. things ‘must’ and‘should’ be in a particular manner.Examples of irrational beliefs are, “Oneshould be loved by everybody all the time”,“Human misery is caused by externalevents over which one does not have anycontrol”, etc. This distorted perception ofthe antecedent event due to the irrationalbelief leads to the consequence, i.e.negative emotions and behaviours.Irrational beliefs are assessed throughquestionnaires and interviews. In theprocess of RET, the irrational beliefs arerefuted by the therapist through a processof non-directive questioning. The nature ofquestioning is gentle, without probing orbeing directive. The questions make theclient to think deeper into her/his

assumptions about life and problems.Gradually the client is able to change theirrational beliefs by making a change inher/his philosophy about life. The rationalbelief system replaces the irrational beliefsystem and there is a reduction inpsychological distress.

Another cognitive therapy is that ofAaron Beck. His theory of psychologicaldistress characterised by anxiety ordepression, states that childhoodexperiences provided by the family andsociety develop core schemas or systems,which include beliefs and action patternsin the individual. Thus, a client, who wasneglected by the parents as a child,develops the core schema of “I am notwanted”. During the course of life, a criticalincident occurs in her/his life. S/he ispublicly ridiculed by the teacher in school.This critical incident triggers the coreschema of “I am not wanted” leading to thedevelopment of negative automaticthoughts. Negative thoughts are persistentirrational thoughts such as “nobody lovesme”, “I am ugly”, “I am stupid”, “I will notsucceed”, etc. Such negative automaticthoughts are characterised by cognitivedistortions. Cognitive distortions are waysof thinking which are general in nature butwhich distort the reality in a negativemanner. These patterns of thoughtare called dysfunctional cognitivestructures. They lead to errors of cognitionabout the social reality.

Repeated occurrence of these thoughtsleads to the development of feelings ofanxiety and depression. The therapist usesquestioning, which is gentle, non-threatening disputation of the client’sbeliefs and thoughts. Examples of suchquestion would be, “Why should everyonelove you?”, “What does it mean to you tosucceed?”, etc. The questions make theclient think in a direction opposite to thatof the negative automatic thoughtswhereby s/he gains insight into the nature

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of her/his dysfunctional schemas, and isable to alter her/his cognitive structures.The aim of the therapy is to achieve thiscognitive restructuring which, in turn,reduces anxiety and depression.

Similar to behaviour therapy, cognitivetherapy focuses on solving a specificproblem of the client. Unlike psycho-dynamic therapy, behaviour therapy isopen, i.e. the therapist shares her/hismethod with the client. It is short, lastingbetween 10–20 sessions.

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy

The most popular therapy presently is theCognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT).Research into the outcome andeffectiveness of psychotherapy hasconclusively established CBT to be a shortand efficacious treatment for a wide rangeof psychological disorders such as anxiety,depression, panic attacks, and borderlinepersonality, etc. CBT adopts a bio-psychosocial approach to the delineation ofpsychopathology. It combines cognitivetherapy with behavioural techniques.

The rationale is that the client’s distresshas its origins in the biological,psychological, and social realms. Hence,addressing the biological aspects throughrelaxation procedures, the psychologicalones through behaviour therapy andcognitive therapy techniques and the socialones with environmental manipulationsmakes CBT a comprehensive techniquewhich is easy to use, applicable to a varietyof disorders, and has proven efficacy.

Humanistic-existential Therapy

The humanistic-existential therapiespostulate that psychological distress arisesfrom feelings of loneliness, alienation, andan inability to find meaning and genuinefulfilment in life. Human beings aremotivated by the desire for personal growth

and self-actualisation, and an innate needto grow emotionally. When these needs arecurbed by society and family, humanbeings experience psychological distress.Self-actualisation is defined as an innateor inborn force that moves the person tobecome more complex, balanced, andintegrated, i.e. achieving the complexityand balance without being fragmented.Integrated means a sense of whole, beinga complete person, being in essence thesame person in spite of the variety ofexperiences that one is subjected to. Justas lack of food or water causes distress,frustration of self-actualisation also causesdistress.

Healing occurs when the client is ableto perceive the obstacles to self-actualisation in her/his life and is able toremove them. Self-actualisation requiresfree emotional expression. The family andsociety curb emotional expression, as it isfeared that a free expression of emotionscan harm society by unleashingdestructive forces. This curb leads todestructive behaviour and negativeemotions by thwarting the process ofemotional integration. Therefore, thetherapy creates a permissive, non-judgmental and accepting atmosphere inwhich the client’s emotions can be freelyexpressed and the complexity, balance andintegration could be achieved. Thefundamental assumption is that the clienthas the freedom and responsibility tocontrol her/his own behaviour. Thetherapist is merely a facilitator and guide.It is the client who is responsible for thesuccess of therapy. The chief aim of thetherapy is to expand the client’s awareness.Healing takes place by a process ofunderstanding the unique personalexperience of the client by herself/himself.The client initiates the process of self-growth through which healing takesplace.


Existential Therapy

Victor Frankl, a psychiatrist andneurologist propounded the Logotherapy.Logos is the Greek word for soul andLogotherapy means treatment for the soul.Frankl calls this process of findingmeaning even in life-threateningcircumstances as the process of meaningmaking. The basis of meaning making is aperson’s quest for finding the spiritualtruth of one’s existence. Just as there isan unconscious, which is the repository ofinstincts (see Chapter 2), there is aspiritual unconscious, which is thestorehouse of love, aesthetic awareness,and values of life. Neurotic anxieties arisewhen the problems of life are attached tothe physical, psychological or spiritualaspects of one’s existence. Franklemphasised the role of spiritual anxietiesin leading to meaninglessness and henceit may be called an existential anxiety, i.e.neurotic anxiety of spiritual origin. Thegoal of logotherapy is to help the patientsto find meaning and responsibility intheir life irrespective of their lifecircumstances. The therapist emphasisesthe unique nature of the patient’s life andencourages them to find meaning in theirlife.

In Logotherapy, the therapist is openand shares her/his feelings, values andhis/her own existence with the client. Theemphasis is on here and now. Transferenceis actively discouraged. The therapistreminds the client about the immediacy ofthe present. The goal is to facilitate theclient to find the meaning of her/his being.

Client-centred Therapy

Client-centred therapy was given by CarlRogers. Rogers combined scientific rigourwith the individualised practice of client-centred psychotherapy. Rogers broughtinto psychotherapy the concept of self, withfreedom and choice as the core of one’sbeing. The therapy provides a warm

relationship in which the client canreconnect with her/his disintegratedfeelings. The therapist shows empathy, i.e.understanding the client’s experience as ifit were her/his own, is warm and hasunconditional positive regard, i.e. totalacceptance of the client as s/he is.Empathy sets up an emotional resonancebetween the therapist and the client.Unconditional positive regard indicatesthat the positive warmth of the therapistis not dependent on what the client revealsor does in the therapy sessions. Thisunique unconditional warmth ensures thatthe client feels secure and can trust thetherapist. The client feels secure enough toexplore her/his feelings. The therapistreflects the feelings of the client in a non-judgmental manner. The reflection isachieved by rephrasing the statements ofthe client, i.e. seeking simple clarificationsto enhance the meaning of the client’sstatements. This process of reflection helpsthe client to become integrated. Personalrelationships improve with an increase inadjustment. In essence, this therapy helpsa client to become her/his real self with thetherapist working as a facilitator.

Gestalt Therapy

The German word gestalt means ‘whole’.This therapy was given by Freiderick (Fritz)Perls together with his wife Laura Perls.The goal of gestalt therapy is to increasean individual’s self-awareness and self-acceptance. The client is taught torecognise the bodily processes and theemotions that are being blocked out fromawareness. The therapist does this byencouraging the client to act out fantasiesabout feelings and conflicts. This therapycan also be used in group settings.

Biomedical Therapy

Medicines may be prescribed to treatpsychological disorders. Prescription ofmedicines for treatment of mental

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disorders is done by qualified medicalprofessionals known as psychiatrists. Theyare medical doctors who have specialisedin the understanding, diagnosis andtreatment of mental disorders. The natureof medicines used depends on the natureof the disorders. Severe mental disorderssuch as schizophrenia or bipolar disorderrequire anti-psychotic drugs. Commonmental disorders such as generalisedanxiety or reactive depression may alsorequire milder drugs. The medicinesprescribed to treat mental disorders cancause side-ef fects which need to beunderstood and monitored. Hence, it isessential that medication is given underproper medical supervision. Even thedrugs which normal individuals use to stayawake to study for examinations or to geta ‘high’ at a party have dangerousside-ef fects. These drugs can causeaddiction, and harm the brain and thebody. Therefore, it is dangerous to self-medicate with drugs which affect the mind.

You must have seen people with mentalproblems being given electric shocks infilms. Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT)is another form of biomedical therapy. Mildelectric shock is given via electrodes to thebrain of the patient to induce convulsions.The shock is given by the psychiatrist onlywhen it is necessary for the improvementof the patient. ECT is not a routinetreatment and is given only when drugs arenot effective in controlling the symptomsof the patient.

Factors Contributing to Healing inPsychotherapy

As we have read, psychotherapy is atreatment of psychological distress. Thereare several factors which contribute to thehealing process. Some of these factors areas follows :1. A major factor in the healing is the

techniques adopted by the therapist

and the implementation of the samewith the patient/client. If thebehavioural system and the CBT schoolare adopted to heal an anxious client,the relaxation procedures and thecognitive restructuring largelycontribute to the healing.

2. The therapeutic alliance, which isformed between the therapist and thepatient/client, has healing properties,because of the regular availability of thetherapist, and the warmth andempathy provided by the therapist.

3. At the outset of therapy while thepatient/client is being interviewed inthe initial sessions to understand thenature of the problem, s/he unburdensthe emotional problems being faced.This process of emotional unburdeningis known as catharsis, and it hashealing properties.

4. There are several non-specific factorsassociated with psychotherapy. Someof these factors are attributed to thepatient/client and some to thetherapist. These factors are callednon-specific because they occur acrossdifferent systems of psychotherapy andacross different clients/patients anddifferent therapists. Non-specific factorsattributable to the client/patient aremotivation for change, expectation ofimprovement due to the treatment, etc.These are called patient variables.Non-specific factors attributable to thetherapist are positive nature, absenceof unresolved emotional conflicts,presence of good mental health,etc. These are called therapistvariables.

Ethics in Psychotherapy

Some of the ethical standards that need tobe practiced by professional psycho-therapists are :1. Informed consent needs to be taken.


2. Confidentiality of the client should bemaintained.

3. Alleviating personal distress andsuffering should be the goal of allattempts of the therapist.

4. Integrity of the practitioner-clientrelationship is important.

5. Respect for human rights and dignity.6. Professional competence and skills are

essential.

Alternative Therapies

Alternative therapies are so called, becausethey are alternative treatment possibilitiesto the conventional drug treatment orpsychotherapy. There are many alternativetherapies such as yoga, meditation,acupuncture, herbal remedies and so on.In the past 25 years, yoga and meditationhave gained popularity as treatmentprogrammes for psychological distress.

Yoga is an ancient Indian techniquedetailed in the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali’sYoga Sutras. Yoga as it is commonly calledtoday either refers to only the asanas orbody posture component or to breathingpractices or pranayama, or to acombination of the two. Meditation refersto the practice of focusing attention onbreath or on an object or thought or amantra. Here attention is focused. InVipasana meditation, also known asmindfulness-based meditation, there is nofixed object or thought to hold theattention. The person passively observesthe various bodily sensations and thoughtsthat are passing through in her or hisawareness.

The rapid breathing techniques toinduce hyperventilation as in SudarshanaKriya Yoga (SKY) is found to be abeneficial, low-risk, low-cost adjunct to thetreatment of stress, anxiety, post-traumaticstress disorder (PTSD), depression, stress-related medical illnesses, substance abuse,and rehabilitation of criminal offenders.

SKY has been used as a public healthintervention technique to alleviate PTSD insurvivors of mass disasters. Yogatechniques enhance well-being, mood,attention, mental focus, and stresstolerance. Proper training by a skilledteacher and a 30-minute practice every daywill maximise the benefits. Researchconducted at the National Institute ofMental Health and Neurosciences(NIMHANS), India, has shown that SKYreduces depression. Further, alcoholicpatients who practice SKY have reduceddepression and stress levels. Insomnia istreated with yoga. Yoga reduces the timeto go to sleep and improves the quality ofsleep.

Kundalini Yoga taught in the USA hasbeen found to be effective in treatment ofmental disorders. The Institute for Non-linear Science, University of California, SanDiego, USA has found that Kundalini Yogais effective in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Kundalini Yogacombines pranayama or breathingtechniques with chanting of mantras.Prevention of repeated episodes ofdepression may be helped by mindfulness-based meditation or Vipasana. Thismeditation would help the patients toprocess emotional stimuli better and henceprevent biases in the processing of thesestimuli.

REHABILITATION OF THE MENTALLY ILL

The treatment of psychological disordershas two components, i.e. reduction ofsymptoms, and improving the level offunctioning or quality of life. In the caseof milder disorders such as generalisedanxiety, reactive depression or phobia,reduction of symptoms is associated withan improvement in the quality of life.However, in the case of severe mentaldisorders such as schizophrenia, reductionof symptoms may not be associated with

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Review Questions1. Describe the nature and scope of psychotherapy. Highlight the importance of

therapeutic relationship in psychotherapy.2. What are the different types of psychotherapy? On what basis are they classified?3. A therapist asks the client to reveal all her/his thoughts including early childhood

experiences. Describe the technique and type of therapy being used.4. Discuss the various techniques used in behaviour therapy.5. Explain with the help of an example how cognitive distortions take place.6. Which therapy encourages the client to seek personal growth and actualise their

potential? Write about the therapies which are based on this principle.

Key TermsAlternative therapy, Behaviour therapy, Biomedical therapy, Client-centred therapy, Cognitive behaviourtherapy, Empathy, Gestalt therapy, Humanistic therapy, Psycho dynamic therapy, Psychotherapy,Rehabilitation, Resistance, Self-actualisation, Therapeutic alliance, Transference, Unconditional positiveregard.

• Psychotherapy is a treatment for the healing of psychological distress. It is not ahomogenous treatment method. There are about 400 different types of psychotherapy.

• Psychoanalysis, behavioural, cognitive and humanistic-existential are the importantsystems of psychotherapy. There are many schools within each of the above systems.

• The important components of psychotherapy are the clinical formulation, i.e. statementof the client’s problem and treatment in the framework of a particular therapy.

• Therapeutic alliance is the relation between the therapist and the client in which theclient has trust in the therapist and the therapist has empathy for the client.

• The predominant mode of psychotherapy for adults with psychological distress isindividual psychotherapy. The therapist requires to be professionally trained beforeembarking on the journey of psychotherapy.

• Alternative therapies such as some yogic and meditative practices have been foundto be effective in treating certain psychological disorders.

• Rehabilitation of the mentally ill is necessary to improve their quality of life once theiractive symptoms are reduced.

an improvement in the quality of life. Manypatients suffer from negative symptomssuch as disinterest and lack of motivationto do work or to interact with people.Rehabilitation is required to help suchpatients become self-sufficient. The aim ofrehabilitation is to empower the patient tobecome a productive member of society tothe extent possible. In rehabilitation, thepatients are given occupational therapy,social skills training, and vocationaltherapy. In occupational therapy, thepatients are taught skills such as candle

making, paper bag making and weaving tohelp them to form a work discipline. Socialskills training helps the patients to developinterpersonal skills through role play,imitation and instruction. The objective isto teach the patient to function in a socialgroup. Cognitive retraining is given toimprove the basic cognitive functions ofattention, memory and executive functions.After the patient improves sufficiently,vocational training is given wherein thepatient is helped to gain skills necessaryto undertake productive employment.


Weblinkshttp://www.sciencedirect.comhttp://allpsych.comhttp://mentalhealth.com

Pedagogical Hints1. Students could be asked to connect

the dif ferent therapeuticapproaches to some of the theoriesof personality they have studied inChapter 2 on Self and Personality.

2. Role-play and dramatisation ofcertain student-related behaviouralissues, such as break-up ofrelationship with a friend wouldevoke interest among the studentsand also emphasise the applicationof psychology.

3. As therapy is a highly skilledprocess requiring professionaltraining, students should berefrained from treating it in afrivolous manner.

4. Any activity/discussion, which mayhave a serious impact on the psycheof the students, should be properlytransacted in the presence of theteacher.

ProjectIdeas

• In school at times you get good points (or gold points or stars) when you do well andbad or black points when you do something wrong. This is an example of a tokensystem. With the help of your classmates make a list of all those school and classroomactivities for which you are rewarded or receive praise from your teacher or appreciationfrom your friends. Also make a list of all those activities for which your teacher scoldsyou or your classmates get angry with you.

• Describe a person in your past or present who has consistently demonstratedunconditional positive regard towards you. What effect, if any, did (or does) this haveon you? Explain. Gather the same information from more friends and prepare a report.

7. What are the factors that contribute to healing in psychotherapy? Enumerate someof the alternative therapies.

8. What are the techniques used in the rehabilitation of the mentally ill?9. How would a social learning theorist account for a phobic fear of lizards/cockroaches?

How would a psychoanalyst account for the same phobia?10. Should Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) be used in the treatment of mental disorders?11. What kind of problems is cognitive behaviour therapy best suited for?

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ATATATATATTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITIONTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITIONTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITIONTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITIONTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITION

IntroductionExplaining Social BehaviourNature and Components of Attitudes

A ‘Green Environment’ : The A-B-C Components of anAttitude (Box 6.1)

Attitude Formation and ChangeAttitude FormationAttitude ChangeTelling a Lie for Twenty Dollars (Box 6.2)Attitude-Behaviour Relationship

Prejudice and DiscriminationStrategies for Handling PrejudiceSocial CognitionSchemas and StereotypesImpression Formation and ExplainingBehaviour of Others through Attributions

Impression FormationAttribution of Causality

Behaviour in the Presence of OthersPro-social Behaviour

Factors Affecting Pro-social Behaviour

CONTENTS


After reading this chapter, you would be able to:understand what are attitudes, how they are formed and changed,analyse how people interpret and explain the behaviour of others,comprehend how the presence of others influences our behaviour,explain why people help or do not help others in distress, andunderstand the concept of pro-social behaviour and factors affecting it.

Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 107

EXPLAINING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Social behaviour is a necessary part ofhuman life, and being social means muchmore than merely being in the company ofothers. You may recall from what youstudied in Class XI that social psychologydeals with all behaviour that takes place inthe actual, imagined, or implied presenceof others. Take this simple example: if youhave to memorise a poem and recite it, youmay have no problem in doing this whenyou are by yourself. But if you have to recitethis poem to an audience, your performancemight get influenced, because you are nowin a social situation. Even imagining thatpeople are listening to your recitation(although they may not be physicallypresent) may change your performance.This is just one example that demonstrateshow our social environment influences ourthoughts, emotions and behaviour incomplex ways. Social psychologists examinevarious forms of social behaviour, and tryto explain their basis. Because of socialinfluences, people form views, or attitudesabout people, and about different issues inlife, that exist in the form of behaviouraltendencies. When we meet people, we makeinferences about their personal qualities.This is called impression formation. Weare also interested in why people behave in

Social psychology is that branch of psychology which investigates how thebehaviour of individuals is affected by others and the social environment.All of us form attitudes, or ways of thinking about specific topics and people.We also form impressions about persons we meet, and assign causes totheir behaviour. Besides, our own behaviour gets influenced by otherindividuals and groups. In some situations, people show pro-socialbehaviour, that is, helping the needy and the distressed, without expectinganything in return. Many of these social behaviours seem to be simple. Yet,explaining the processes that lie behind these behaviours is a complex matter.This chapter will describe the basic ideas related to attitudes, social cognitionand pro-social behaviour as explained by social psychologists.

Introduction

the ways they do — that is, we assign causesto the behaviour shown in specific socialsituations. This process is calledattribution. Very often, impressionformation and attributions are influencedby attitudes. These three processes areexamples of mental activities related to thegathering and interpretation of informationabout the social world, collectively calledsocial cognition. Moreover, social cognitionis activated by cognitive units calledschemas. Cognitive processes cannot bedirectly seen; they have to be inferred onthe basis of externally shown behaviour.There are other examples of social influencethat are in the form of observable behaviour.Two such examples are social facilitation/inhibition, i.e. the improvement/decline inperformance in the presence of others, andhelping, or pro-social behaviour, i.e.responding to others who are in need ordistress. In order to understand completelyhow the social context influences theindividual, it is necessary to study bothsocial-cognitive processes and socialbehaviour. Social psychologists have shownthat one must go beyond common senseand folk wisdom in order to explain howpeople observe and make sense of their ownand others’ diverse behaviours. Throughsystematic and objective observations, andby adopting scientific methods, it is possible

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to establish logical cause-and-effectrelationships that explain social behaviour.

This chapter will give an account of thefundamental aspects of the topicsmentioned above. We will begin with adescription of attitudes.

NATURE AND COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES

For a few minutes quietly do the followingmental exercise. Today, how many times didyou tell yourself : “In my opinion…” or“Others may say so and so, but I feel…”?

What you fill in the blanks are calledopinions. Now continue the exercise : howimportant are these opinions to you? Thetopics of some of these opinions may be onlymoderately important to you; they aresimply ways of thinking, and it does notmatter much to you that others agree ordisagree with your views. On the otherhand, you may find that some other topicsare extremely important to you. If someoneopposes or challenges your views aboutthese topics, you get emotional. You mayhave made some of these views part of yourbehaviour. In other words, if your views arenot merely thoughts, but also haveemotional and action components, then

these views are more than ‘opinions’; theyare examples of attitudes.

All definitions of attitudes agree that anattitude is a state of the mind, a set of views,or thoughts, regarding some topic (calledthe ‘attitude object’), which have anevaluative feature (positive, negative orneutral quality). It is accompanied by anemotional component, and a tendency toact in a particular way with regard to theattitude object. The thought component isreferred to as the cognitive aspect, theemotional component is known as theaffective aspect, and the tendency to actis called the behavioural (or conative)aspect. Taken together, these three aspectshave been referred to as the A-B-Ccomponents (Affective-Behavioural-Cognitive components) of attitude. Note thatattitudes are themselves not behaviour, butthey represent a tendency to behave or actin certain ways. They are part of cognition,along with an emotional component, andcannot be observed from outside. Box 6.1presents an example of an attitude towardsthe environment, showing the relationshipbetween the three components.

Attitudes have to be distinguished fromtwo other closely related concepts, namely,

Box6.1 A ‘Green Environment’ : The A-B-C Components of an Attitude

Suppose a group of people in your neighbourhood start a tree plantation campaign as partof a ‘green environment’ movement. Based on sufficient information about the environment,your view towards a ‘green environment’ is positive (cognitive or ‘C’ component, along withthe evaluative aspect). You feel very happy when you see greenery. You feel sad and angrywhen you see trees being cut down. These aspects reflect the affective (emotional), or ‘A’component of the same attitude. Now suppose you also actively participate in the treeplantation campaign. This shows the behavioural or ‘B’ component of your attitudes towardsa ‘green environment’. In general, we expect all three components to be consistent witheach other, that is, in the same direction. However, such consistency may not necessarilybe found in all situations. For example, it is quite possible that the cognitive aspect of your‘green environment’ attitude is very strong, but the affective and behavioural componentsmay be relatively weaker. Or, the cognitive and affective components may be strong andpositive, but the behavioural component may be neutral. Therefore, predicting onecomponent on the basis of the other two may not always give us the correct picture aboutan attitude.


beliefs and values. Beliefs refer to thecognitive component of attitudes, and formthe ground on which attitudes stand, suchas belief in God, or belief in democracy as apolitical ideology. Values are attitudes orbeliefs that contain a ‘should’ or ‘ought’aspect, such as moral or ethical values. Oneexample of a value is the idea that oneshould work hard, or that one shouldalways be honest, because honesty is thebest policy. Values are formed when aparticular belief or attitude becomes aninseparable part of the person’s outlook onlife. Consequently, values are difficult tochange.

What is the purpose served by anattitude? We find that attitudes provide abackground that makes it easier for aperson to decide how to act in newsituations. For example, our attitudetowards foreigners may indirectly providea mental ‘layout’ or ‘blueprint’ for the wayin which we should behave whenever wemeet one.

In addition to the affective, cognitive andbehavioural components, attitudes alsohave other properties. Four significantfeatures of attitudes are : Valence (positivityor negativity), Extremeness, Simplicity orComplexity (multiplexity), and Centrality.

Valence (positivity or negativity) : Thevalence of an attitude tells us whether anattitude is positive or negative towards theattitude object. Suppose an attitude (say,towards nuclear research) has to beexpressed on a 5-point scale, ranging from1 (Very bad), 2 (Bad), 3 (Neutral — neithergood nor bad), and 4 (Good), to 5 (Verygood). If an individual rates her/his viewtowards nuclear research as 4 or 5, this isclearly a positive attitude. This means thatthe person likes the idea of nuclear researchand thinks it is something good. On theother hand, if the rating is 1 or 2, theattitude is negative. This means that theperson dislikes the idea of nuclear research,and thinks it is something bad. We also

allow for neutral attitudes. In this example,a neutral attitude towards nuclear researchwould be shown by a rating of 3 on the samescale. A neutral attitude would have neitherpositive nor negative valence.

Extremeness : The extremeness of anattitude indicates how positive or negativean attitude is. Taking the nuclearresearch example given above, a rating of1 is as extreme as a rating of 5 : they areonly in the opposite directions (valence).Ratings of 2 and 4 are less extreme. Aneutral attitude, of course, is lowest onextremeness.

Simplicity or Complexity (multiplexity) :This feature refers to how many attitudesthere are within a broader attitude. Thinkof an attitude as a family containing several‘member’ attitudes. In case of various topics,such as health and world peace, people holdmany attitudes instead of single attitude.An attitude system is said to be ‘simple’ if itcontains only one or a few attitudes, and‘complex’ if it is made up of many attitudes.Consider the example of attitude towardshealth and well-being. This attitude systemis likely to consist of several ‘member’attitudes, such as one’s concept of physicaland mental health, views about happinessand well-being, and beliefs about how oneshould achieve health and happiness. Bycontrast, the attitude towards a particularperson is likely to consist of mainly oneattitude. The multiple member-attitudeswithin an attitude system should not beconfused with the three componentsdescribed earlier. Each member attitudethat belongs to an attitude system also hasA-B-C components.

Centrality : This refers to the role of aparticular attitude in the attitude system.An attitude with greater centrality wouldinfluence the other attitudes in the systemmuch more than non-central (or peripheral)attitudes would. For example, in theattitude towards world peace, a negative

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attitude towards high military expendituremay be present as a core or central attitudethat influences all other attitudes in themultiple attitude system.

ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE

Attitude Formation

One important question that psychologistsare interested in answering is : how areattitudes formed? Like many other thoughtsand concepts that develop and become partof our cognitive system, attitudes towardsdifferent topics, things and people also areformed as we interact with others. However,there are specific conditions that lead to theformation of specific attitudes.

In general, attitudes are learnedthrough one’s own experiences, andthrough interaction with others. There area few research studies that show some sortof inborn aspect of attitudes, but suchgenetic factors influence attitudes onlyindirectly, along with learning. Therefore,most social psychologists have focused onthe conditions which lead to the learningof attitudes.

Process of Attitude Formation

The processes and conditions of learningmay be different, resulting in varyingattitudes among people.• Learning attitudes by association : You

might have seen that students oftendevelop a liking for a particular subjectbecause of the teacher. This is becausethey see many positive qualities in thatteacher; these positive qualities getlinked to the subject that s/he teaches,and ultimately get expressed in the formof liking for the subject. In other words,a positive attitude towards the subjectis learned through the positiveassociation between a teacher and astudent.

• Learning attitudes by being rewarded orpunished : If an individual is praised forshowing a particular attitude, chancesare high that s/he will develop thatattitude further. For example, if ateenager does yogasanas regularly, andgets the honour of being ‘Miss GoodHealth’ in her school, she may developa positive attitude towards yoga andhealth in general. Similarly, if a childconstantly falls ill because s/he eatsjunk food instead of proper meals, thenthe child is likely to develop a negativeattitude towards junk food, and also apositive attitude towards eating healthyfood.

• Learning attitudes through modelling(observing others) : Often it is notthrough association, or through rewardand punishment, that we learnattitudes. Instead, we learn them byobserving others being rewarded orpunished for expressing thoughts, orshowing behaviour of a particular kindtowards the attitude object. Forexample, children may form a respectfulattitude towards elders, by observingthat their parents show respect forelders, and are appreciated for it.

• Learning attitudes through group orcultural norms : Very often, we learnattitudes through the norms of ourgroup or culture. Norms are unwrittenrules about behaviour that everyone issupposed to show under specificcircumstances. Over time, these normsmay become part of our social cognition,in the form of attitudes. Learningattitudes through group or culturalnorms may actually be an example ofall three forms of learning describedabove — learning through association,reward or punishment, and modelling.For example, offering money, sweets,fruit and flowers in a place of worship isa normative behaviour in some religions.


When individuals see that suchbehaviour is shown by others, isexpected and socially approved, theymay ultimately develop a positiveattitude towards such behaviour and theassociated feelings of devotion.

• Learning through exposure toinformation : Many attitudes are learnedin a social context, but not necessarilyin the physical presence of others.Today, with the huge amount ofinformation that is being providedthrough various media, both positiveand negative attitudes are being formed.By reading the biographies of self-actualised persons, an individual maydevelop a positive attitude towards hardwork and other aspects as the means ofachieving success in life.

Factors that Influence Attitude Formation

The following factors provide the context forthe learning of attitudes through theprocesses described above.

1. Family and School Environment :Particularly in the early years of life,parents and other family members playa significant role in shaping attitudeformation. Later, the schoolenvironment becomes an importantbackground for attitude formation.Learning of attitudes within the familyand school usually takes place byassociation, through rewards andpunishments, and through modelling.

2. Reference Groups : Reference groupsindicate to an individual the normsregarding acceptable behaviour andways of thinking. Thus, they reflectlearning of attitudes through group orcultural norms. Attitudes towardsvarious topics, such as political,religious and social groups,occupations, national and other issuesare often developed through reference

groups. Their influence is noticeableespecially during the beginning ofadolescence, at which time it isimportant for the individual to feel thats/he belongs to a group. Therefore, therole of reference groups in attitudeformation may also be a case of learningthrough reward and punishment.

3. Personal Experiences : Many attitudesare formed, not in the familyenvironment or through referencegroups, but through direct personalexperiences which bring about a drasticchange in our attitude towards peopleand our own life. Here is a real-lifeexample. A driver in the army wentthrough a personal experience thattransformed his life. On one mission, henarrowly escaped death although all hiscompanions got killed. Wondering aboutthe purpose of his own life, he gave uphis job in the army, returned to hisnative village in Maharashtra, andworked actively as a community leader.Through a purely personal experiencethis individual evolved a strong positiveattitude towards community upliftment.His efforts completely changed the faceof his village.

4. Media-related Influences : Technologicaladvances in recent times have madeaudio-visual media and the Internet verypowerful sources of information thatlead to attitude formation and change.In addition, school level textbooks alsoinfluence attitude formation. Thesesources first strengthen the cognitiveand affective components of attitudes,and subsequently may also affect thebehavioural component. The media canexert both good and bad influences onattitudes. On one hand, the media andInternet make people better informedthan other modes of communication. Onthe other hand, there may be no checkon the nature of information being

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gathered, and therefore no control overthe attitudes that are being formed, orthe direction of change in the existingattitudes. The media can be used tocreate consumerist attitudes wherenone existed, and can also be harnessedto create positive attitudes to facilitatesocial harmony.

Attitude Change

During the process of attitude formation,and also after this process, attitudes maybe changed and modified through variousinfluences. Some attitudes change morethan others do. Attitudes that are still inthe formative stage, and are more likeopinions, are much more likely to changecompared to attitudes that have becomefirmly established, and have become a partof the individual’s values. From a practicalpoint of view, bringing about a change inpeople’s attitudes is of interest tocommunity leaders, politicians, producersof consumer goods, advertisers, and others.Unless we find out how attitudes change,and what conditions account for suchchange, it would not be possible to takesteps to bring about attitude change.

Process of Attitude Change

Three major concepts that draw attentionto some important processes in attitudechange are described below :

(a) The concept of balance, proposed byFritz Heider is sometimes described in theform of the ‘P-O-X ’ triangle, whichrepresents the relationships between threeaspects or components of the attitude. P isthe person whose attitude is being studied,O is another person, and X is the topictowards which the attitude is being studied(attitude object). It is also possible that allthree are persons.

The basic idea is that an attitudechanges if there is a state of imbalance

between the P-O attitude, O-X attitude, andP-X attitude. This is because imbalance islogically uncomfortable. Therefore, theattitude changes in the direction of balance.

Imbalance is found when (i) all threesides of the P-O-X triangle are negative, or(ii) two sides are positive, and one side isnegative. Balance is found when (i) all threesides are positive, or (ii) two sides arenegative, and one side is positive.

Consider the example of dowry as anattitude topic (X). Suppose a person (P) hasa positive attitude towards dowry (P-Xpositive). P is planning to get his sonmarried to the daughter of some person (O)who has a negative attitude towards dowry(O-X negative). What would be the natureof the P-O attitude, and how would itdetermine balance or imbalance in thesituation? If O initially has a positiveattitude towards P, the situation would beunbalanced. P-X is positive, O-P is positive,but O-X is negative. That is, there are twopositives and one negative in the triangle.This is a situation of imbalance. One of thethree attitudes will therefore have tochange. This change could take place in theP-X relationship (P starts disliking dowryas a custom), or in the O-X relationship (Ostarts liking dowry as a custom), or in theO-P relationship (O starts disliking P). Inshort, an attitude change will have to takeplace so that there will be three positiverelationships, or two negative and onepositive relationship, in the triangle.

(b) The concept of cognitive dissonancewas proposed by Leon Festinger. Itemphasises the cognitive component. Herethe basic idea is that the cognitivecomponents of an attitude must be‘consonant’ (opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e.,they should be logically in line with eachother. If an individual finds that twocognitions in an attitude are dissonant,then one of them will be changed inthe direction of consonance. For example,


think about the following ideas(‘cognitions’) :

Cognition I : Pan masala causesmouth cancer which is fatal.Cognition II : I eat pan masala.Holding these two ideas or cognitions

will make any individual feel that somethingis ‘out of tune’, or dissonant, in the attitudetowards pan masala. Therefore, one of theseideas will have to be changed, so thatconsonance can be attained. In the examplegiven above, in order to remove or reducethe dissonance, I will stop eating panmasala (change Cognition II). This wouldbe the healthy, logical and sensible way ofreducing dissonance.

Festinger and Carlsmith, two socialpsychologists, conducted an experimentthat showed how cognitive dissonanceworks (see Box 6.2).

Both balance and cognitive dissonanceare examples of cognitive consistency.Cognitive consistency means that twocomponents, aspects or elements of the

attitude, or attitude system, must be in thesame direction. Each element shouldlogically fall in line with other elements. Ifthis does not happen, then the personexperiences a kind of mental discomfort, i.e.the sense that ‘something is not quite right’in the attitude system. In such a state, someaspect in the attitude system changes inthe direction of consistency, because ourcognitive system requires logicalconsistency.

(c) The two-step concept was proposed byS.M. Mohsin, an Indian psychologist.According to him, attitude change takesplace in the form of two steps. In the firststep, the target of change identifies with thesource. The ‘target’ is the person whoseattitude is to be changed. The ‘source’ isthe person through whose influence thechange is to take place. Identificationmeans that the target has liking and regardfor the source. S/he puts herself/himselfin the place of the target, and tries to feellike her/him. The source must also have a

Box6.2

Telling a Lie for Twenty Dollars

After participating in a very boring experiment, a group of students were asked to tellanother group of students waiting outside that the experiment was very interesting. Fortelling this lie to the waiting students, half of the first group of students was paid $ 1, andthe other half were paid $ 20. After some weeks, the participants of the boring experimentwere asked to recall the experiment, and to say how interesting they had found thatexperiment to be. The responses showed that the $ 1 group described the experiment asmore interesting than the $ 20 group. The explanation was : the $ 1 students changedtheir attitude towards the experiment because they experienced cognitive dissonance.

In the $ 1 group,The initial cognitions would be : The changed cognitions would be:

(Dissonant cognitions) (Dissonance reduced)“The experiment was very boring” ; “The experiment was actually interesting” ;“I told the waiting students that it “I told the waiting students that it waswas interesting”; interesting” ;“I told a lie for only $ 1.” “I would not have told a lie for only $ 1.”

The $ 20 group did not experience cognitive dissonance. So, they did not change theirattitude towards the experiment, and rated it as very boring.The cognitions in the $ 20 (No dissonance) group would be :

“The experiment was very boring”;“I told the waiting students that it was interesting”;“I told a lie because I was paid $ 20.”

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positive attitude towards the target, and theregard and attraction becomes mutual. Inthe second step, the source herself/himselfshows an attitude change, by actuallychanging her/him behaviour towards theattitude object. Observing the source’schanged attitude and behaviour, the targetalso shows an attitude change throughbehaviour. This is a kind of imitation orobservational learning.

Consider the following example of two-step attitude change. Preeti reads in thenewspapers that a particular soft drink thatshe enjoys is extremely harmful. But Preetisees that her favourite sportsperson hasbeen advertising the same soft drink. Shehas identified herself with the sportsperson,and would like to imitate her/him. Now,suppose the sportsperson wishes to changepeople’s attitude towards this soft drinkfrom positive to negative. The sportspersonmust first show positive feelings for her/his fans, and then actually change her/hisown habit of consuming that soft drink(Step I) — perhaps by substituting it with ahealth drink. If the sportsperson actuallychanges her/his behaviour, it is very likelythat now Preeti will also change her attitudeand behaviour, and stop consuming theharmful soft drink (Step II).

Factors that Influence Attitude Change

Whether attitudes will change, and if so, towhat extent, is a question that puzzles manypsychologists. However, most of them agreeupon the following major factors thatinfluence attitude change :

• Characteristics of the existing attitude :All four properties of attitudes mentionedearlier, namely, valence (positivity ornegativity), extremeness, simplicity orcomplexity (multiplexity), and centralityor significance of the attitude, determineattitude change. In general, positiveattitudes are easier to change than negativeattitudes are. Extreme attitudes, and

central attitudes are more difficult to changethan the less extreme, and peripheral (lesssignificant) attitudes are. Simple attitudesare easier to change than multipleattitudes are.

In addition, one must also consider thedirection and extent of attitude change. Anattitude change may be congruent — it maychange in the same direction as the existingattitude (for example, a positive attitudemay become more positive, or a negativeattitude may become more negative). Forinstance, suppose a person has a somewhatpositive attitude towards empowerment ofwomen. Reading about a successful womanmay make this attitude more positive. Thiswould be a congruent change. On the otherhand, an attitude change may beincongruent — it may change in a directionopposite to the existing attitude (for example,a positive attitude becomes less positive, ornegative, or a negative attitude becomes lessnegative, or positive). In the example justgiven, after reading about successful women,a person may think that women might soonbecome too powerful, and neglect theirfamily responsibilities. This may make theperson’s existing positive attitude towardsempowerment of women, less positive, oreven negative. If this happens, then it wouldbe a case of incongruent change. It has beenfound that, in general, congruent changesare easier to bring about than are theincongruent changes in attitudes.

Moreover, an attitude may change in thedirection of the information that ispresented, or in a direction opposite to thatof the information presented. Postersdescribing the importance of brushing one’steeth would strengthen a positive attitudetowards dental care. But if people are shownfrightening pictures of dental cavities, theymay not believe the pictures, and maybecome less positive about dental care.Research has found that fear sometimesworks well in convincing people but if amessage generates too much fear, it turns


off the receiver and has little persuasiveeffect.• Source characteristics : Sourcecredibility and attractiveness are twofeatures that affect attitude change.Attitudes are more likely to change whenthe message comes from a highly crediblesource rather than from a low-crediblesource. For example, adults who areplanning to buy a laptop are more convincedby a computer engineer who points out thespecial features of a particular brand oflaptop, than they would be by a schoolchildwho might give the same information. But,if the buyers are themselves schoolchildren,they may be convinced more by anotherschoolchild advertising a laptop than theywould be by a professional giving the sameinformation (see Figure 6.1). In the case ofsome products such as cars, sales mayincrease if they are publicised, notnecessarily by experts, but by popularpublic figures.

• Message characteristics : The messageis the information that is presented in orderto bring about an attitude change. Attitudeswill change when the amount of informationthat is given about the topic is just enough,neither too much nor too little. Whether themessage contains a rational or anemotional appeal, also makes a difference.For example, an advertisement for cookingfood in a pressure cooker may point outthat this saves fuel such as cooking gas(LPG) and is economical (rational appeal).Alternatively, the advertisement may saythat pressure-cooking preserves nutrition,and that if one cares for the family, nutritionwould be a major concern (emotionalappeal) (see Figure 6.2).

The motives activated by the messagealso determine attitude change. Forexample, drinking milk may be said tomake a person healthy and good-looking,or more energetic and more successful atone’s job.

Fig.6.1 : Which Picture will Make You More Eager to Buy a Laptop – Picture A, or Picture B ? Why?

My laptop is my keyto success — 100 GBstorage capacity,light in weight, cando wonders for me !!Buy one now, andsee how you grow !!

My laptop is my keyto success — 100 GBstorage capacity,light in weight, cando wonders for me !!Buy one now, andsee how you grow !!

Picture A Picture B

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Finally, the mode of spreadingthe message plays a significant role.Face-to-face transmission of the messageis usually more effective than indirecttransmission, as for instance, through

letters and pamphlets, or even throughmass media. For example, a positiveattitude towards Oral Rehydration Salts(ORS) for young children is more effectivelycreated if community social workers and

Fig.6.3 : Face-to-face Interaction versus Media Transmission. Which one works better? Why?

“ORS willprotectyour childfrom heatin thesummer”

“ORS willprotect yourchild fromheat in thesummer”

Fig.6.2 : Rational and Emotional Appeals

Emotional appeal(caring for your family)

If you care for yourfamily, nothing ismore important thannutrition. Switch tothe pressure cooker,and ensure healthyeating!

Are you spending toomuch on cooking gas?Switch to the pressurecooker, and saygoodbye to yourbudget problems!

Rational appeal(saving money)


doctors spread the message by talking topeople directly, than by only describing thebenefits of ORS on the radio (see Figure 6.3).These days transmission through visualmedia such as television and the Internetare similar to face-to-face interaction, butnot a substitute for the latter.

• Target characteristics : Qualities of thetarget, such as persuasibility, strongprejudices, self-esteem, and intelligenceinfluence the likelihood and extent ofattitude change. People, who have a moreopen and flexible personality, change moreeasily. Advertisers benefit most from suchpeople. People with strong prejudices areless prone to any attitude change than thosewho do not hold strong prejudices. Personswho have a low self-esteem, and do not havesufficient confidence in themselves, changetheir attitudes more easily than those whoare high on self-esteem. More intelligentpeople may change their attitudes less easilythan those with lower intelligence. However,sometimes more intelligent persons changetheir attitudes more willingly than lessintelligent ones, because they base theirattitude on more information and thinking.

Attitude-Behaviour Relationship

We usually expect behaviour to followlogically from attitudes. However, anindividual’s attitudes may not always beexhibited through behaviour. Likewise,one’s actual behaviour may be contrary toone’s attitude towards a particular topic. Psychologists have found that therewould be consistency between attitudes andbehaviour when :• the attitude is strong, and occupies a

central place in the attitude system,• the person is aware of her/his attitude,• there is very little or no external pressure

for the person to behave in a particularway. For example, when there is nogroup pressure to follow a particularnorm,

• the person’s behaviour is not beingwatched or evaluated by others, and

• the person thinks that the behaviourwould have a positive consequence, andtherefore, intends to engage in thatbehaviour.

In the days when Americans were saidto be prejudiced against the Chinese,Richard LaPiere, an American socialpsychologist, conducted the followingstudy. He asked a Chinese couple to travelacross the United States, and stay indifferent hotels. Only once during theseoccasions they were refused service by oneof the hotels. Sometime later, LaPiere sentout questionnaires to managers of hotelsand tourist homes in the same areas wherethe Chinese couple had travelled, askingthem if they would give accommodation toChinese guests. A very large percentage saidthat they would not do so. This responseshowed a negative attitude towards theChinese, which was inconsistent with thepositive behaviour that was actually showntowards the travelling Chinese couple.Thus, attitudes may not always predictactual pattern of one’s behaviour.

Activity6.1

Cut out an advertisement from anewspaper or magazine, thatcontains something special andcatches your attention. Write downthe following details about thatadvertisement, and present it to yourclass.• The topic of the advertisement

(for example, whether theadvertisement is about aconsumer product, some food, acompany, a health matter, anational theme, etc.).

• Good and bad consequences ofthe advertisement.

• Whether it contains an emotionalappeal or a rational appeal.

• Whether it contains a popularfigure : an expert source, or awell-liked person.

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Sometimes it is behaviour that decidesthe attitude. In the experiment by Festingerand Carlsmith (see Box 6.2), students whogot only one dollar for telling others thatthe experiment was interesting, discoveredthat they liked the experiment. That is, onthe basis of their behaviour (telling othersthat the experiment was interesting, for onlya small amount of money), they concludedthat their attitude towards the experimentwas positive (“I would not have told a lie forthis small amount of money, which meansthat the experiment was actuallyinteresting”).

PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION

Prejudices are examples of attitudestowards a particular group. They areusually negative, and in many cases, maybe based on stereotypes (the cognitivecomponent) about the specific group. As willbe discussed below in the section on socialcognition, a stereotype is a cluster of ideasregarding the characteristics of a specificgroup. All members belonging to thisgroup are assumed to possess thesecharacteristics. Often, stereotypes consistof undesirable characteristics about thetarget group, and they lead to negativeattitudes or prejudices towards membersof specific groups. The cognitive componentof prejudice is frequently accompanied bydislike or hatred, the affective component.Prejudice may also get translated intodiscrimination, the behavioural component,whereby people behave in a less positiveway towards a particular target groupcompared to another group which theyfavour. History contains numerousexamples of discrimination based on raceand social class or caste. The genocidecommitted by the Nazis in Germany againstJewish people is an extreme example of howprejudice can lead to hatred, discriminationand mass killing of innocent people.

Prejudices can exist without beingshown in the form of discrimination.Similarly, discrimination can be shownwithout prejudice. Yet, the two go togethervery often. Wherever prejudice anddiscrimination exist, conflicts are verylikely to arise between groups within thesame society. Our own society haswitnessed many deplorable instances ofdiscrimination, with and without prejudice,based on gender, religion, community,caste, physical handicap, and illnesses suchas AIDS. Moreover, in many casesdiscriminatory behaviour can be curbed bylaw. But, the cognitive and emotionalcomponents of prejudice are more difficultto change.

Social psychologists have shown thatprejudice has one or more of the followingsources :• Learning : Like other attitudes,

prejudices can also be learned throughassociation, reward and punishment,observing others, group or culturalnorms and exposure to information thatencourages prejudice. The family,reference groups, personal experiencesand the media may play a role in thelearning of prejudices (see section on‘Attitude Formation and Change’).People who learn prejudiced attitudesmay develop a ‘prejudiced personality’,and show low adjusting capacity,anxiety, and feelings of hostility againstthe outgroup.

• A strong social identity and ingroup bias :Individuals who have a strong sense ofsocial identity and have a very positiveattitude towards their own group boostthis attitude by holding negativeattitudes towards other groups. Theseare shown as prejudices.

• Scapegoating : This is a phenomenon bywhich the majority group places theblame on a minority outgroup for its ownsocial, economic or political problems.The minority is too weak or too small in


number to defend itself against suchaccusations. Scapegoating is a group-based way of expressing frustration, andit often results in negative attitudes orprejudice against the weaker group.

• Kernel of truth concept : Sometimespeople may continue to hold stereotypesbecause they think that, after all, theremust be some truth, or ‘kernel of truth’in what everyone says about the othergroup. Even a few examples aresufficient to support the ‘kernel of truth’idea.

• Self-fulfilling prophecy : In some cases,the group that is the target of prejudiceis itself responsible for continuing theprejudice. The target group may behavein ways that justify the prejudice, thatis, confirm the negative expectations.For example, if the target group isdescribed as ‘dependent’ and thereforeunable to make progress, the membersof this target group may actually behavein a way that proves this description tobe true. In this way, they strengthenthe existing prejudice.

STRATEGIES FOR HANDLING PREJUDICE

Knowing about the causes or sources wouldbe the first step in handling prejudice. Thus,the strategies for handling prejudice wouldbe effective if they aim at :(a) minimising opportunities for learning

prejudices,(b) changing such attitudes,(c) de-emphasising a narrow social identity

based on the ingroup, and(d) discouraging the tendency towards self-

fulfilling prophecy among the victims of prejudice.

These goals can be accomplishedthrough :• Education and information

dissemination, for correcting stereotypesrelated to specific target groups, and

tackling the problem of a strong ingroupbias.

• Increasing intergroup contact allows fordirect communication, removal ofmistrust between the groups, and evendiscovery of positive qualities in theoutgroup. However, these strategies aresuccessful only if :- the two groups meet in a cooperative

rather than competitive context,- close interactions between the

groups helps them to know eachother better, and

- the two groups are not different inpower or status.

• Highlighting individual identity ratherthan group identity, thus weakening theimportance of group (both ingroup andoutgroup) as a basis of evaluating theother person. More details about socialidentity and intergroup conflict havebeen presented in the next chapter onSocial Influence and Group Processes.

SOCIAL COGNITION

‘Cognition’ refers to all those mentalprocesses that deal with obtaining andprocessing of information. Extending thisidea to the social world, the term ‘socialcognition’ refers to all those psychologicalprocesses that deal with the gathering andprocessing of information related to socialobjects. These include all the processes thathelp in understanding, explaining andinterpreting social behaviour.

The processing of information related tosocial objects (particularly individuals,groups, people, relationships, social issues,and the like) differs from the processing ofinformation related to physical objects.People as social objects may themselveschange as the cognitive process takes place.For instance, a teacher who observes astudent in school may draw conclusionsabout her/him that are quite different fromthe conclusions drawn by the student’s

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mother, who observes her/him at home. Thestudent may show a difference in her/hisbehaviour, depending on who is watchingher/him — the teacher or the mother.Social cognition is guided by mental unitscalled schemas.

SCHEMAS AND STEREOTYPES

A schema is defined as a mental structurethat provides a framework, set of rules orguidelines for processing information aboutany object. Schemas (or ‘schemata’) are thebasic units stored in our memory, andfunction as shorthand ways of processinginformation, thus reducing the time andmental effort required in cognition. In thecase of social cognition, the basic units aresocial schemas. Some attitudes may alsofunction like social schemas. We use manydifferent schemas, and come to know aboutthem through analysis and examples.

Most of the schemas are in the form ofcategories or classes. Schemas thatfunction in the form of categories are calledprototypes, which are the entire set offeatures or qualities that help us to definean object completely. In social cognition,category-based schemas that are related togroups of people are called stereotypes.These are category-based schemas that areovergeneralised, are not directly verified,and do not allow for exceptions. Forexample, suppose you have to define agroup G. If you have never directly knownor interacted with a member of this group,you will most likely use your ‘generalknowledge’ about the typical member ofgroup G. To that information you will addyour likes and dislikes. If you have heardmore positive things about group G, thenyour social schema about the whole groupwill be more positive than negative. On theother hand, if you have heard more negativethings about group G, your social schemawill be in the form of a negative stereotype.

The inferences you have drawn are not theresult of your logical thinking or directexperience, but are based on pre-conceivedideas about a particular group. The nexttime you actually meet a member ofgroup G, your impression of this person,and your behaviour towards her/him willbe influenced by your stereotype. It wasmentioned earlier that stereotypes providefertile ground for the growth of prejudicesand biases against specific groups. Butprejudices can also develop withoutstereotypes.

IMPRESSION FORMATION AND EXPLAINING

BEHAVIOUR OF OTHERS THROUGH

ATTRIBUTIONS

Every social interaction begins with theformation of an impression about theperson(s) we meet. Public figures andapplicants appearing for job interviews aregood examples that show it is veryimportant to ‘make a good impression’ onothers. The process of coming to know aperson can be broadly divided intotwo parts : (a) Impression formation, and(b) Attribution.

The person who forms the impressionis called the perceiver. The individualabout whom the impression is formed iscalled the target. The perceiver gathersinformation, or responds to a giveninformation, about the qualities of thetarget, organises this information, anddraws inferences about the target.

In attribution, the perceiver goes further,and explains why the target behaved in aparticular way. Attaching or assigning acause for the target’s behaviour is the mainidea in attribution. Often perceivers mayform only an impression about the target,but if the situation requires it, they mayalso make attributions to the target. Impression formation and attribution areinfluenced by :


• the nature of information available tothe perceiver,

• social schemas in the perceiver(including stereotypes),

• personality characteristics of theperceiver, and

• situational factors.

Impression Formation

The following aspects have been found inimpression formation :• The process of impression formation

consists of the following three sub-processes :(a) Selection : we take into account only

some bits of information about thetarget person,

(b) Organisation : the selectedinformation is combined in asystematic way, and

(c) Inference : we draw a conclusionabout what kind of person thetarget is.

• Some specific qualities influenceimpression formation more than othertraits do.

• The order or sequence in whichinformation is presented affects the kindof impression formed. Mostly, theinformation presented first has astronger effect than the informationpresented at the end. This is called theprimacy effect (first impressions are thelasting impressions). However, if theperceiver may be asked to pay attentionto all the information, and not merelyto the first information, whateverinformation comes at the end may havea stronger influence. This is known asthe recency effect.

• We have a tendency to think that a targetperson who has one set of positivequalities must also be having otherspecific positive qualities that areassociated with the first set. This isknown as the halo effect. For example,

if we are told that a person is ‘tidy’ and‘punctual’, we are likely to think thatthis person must also be ‘hard-working’.

Activity6.2

This exercise will help you to see thefactors in impression formation. Youwill need two participants, a girl anda boy (who are not students in yourclass, and who have not read aboutthis topic).

Give the following instruction tothe participants. For the femaleparticipant, please write a male namein the blank. For the male participant,please write a female name.

“_________ is a hard-workingstudent. In your opinion, which of thefollowing qualities would also befound in this student? Pleaseunderline all those qualities.”

Intelligent Helpful SelfishFriendly Punctual DishonestNervous Hot-tempered

See (a) what qualities have beenchosen?, and (b) whether there is adifference between the female andthe male participants?

Attribution of Causality

After forming an impression, we often gothrough the process of assigning causes toa person’s behaviour. This is also asystematic process, as indicated by theresearches done on attribution. Thefollowing aspects of attribution have beenfound.• When we assign a cause to a person’s

behaviour, we can broadly classify thecause as being internal — somethingwithin the person, or external —something outside the person. Forexample, if we see a person A hittinganother person B, as observers we mayexplain the hitting behaviour by sayingthat (i) A hit B because A is a hot-tempered person, which is an internal(personality-related) cause, or that (ii) Ahit B because B behaved in a nasty way,

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which is an external, situationalcause.

• When people make attributions forsuccess and failure, the causes they givecan be classified into internal or externalfactors, and also into stable or unstablefactors. Bernard Wiener suggesteda classification which is shown inFigure 6.4. Stable factors refer to thosecauses that do not change with time,while unstable factors are those that dochange.

• In making attributions, there is anoverall tendency for people to givegreater weightage to internal ordispositional factors, than to external orsituational factors. This is called thefundamental attribution error. Thistendency is stronger in some culturesthan it is in others. For instance,research shows that Indians tend tomake more external (situational)attributions than Americans do.

• There is a difference between theattribution made for success, and theattribution made for failure. In general,people attribute success to internalfactors, such as their ability or hardwork. They attribute failure to externalfactors, such as bad luck, the difficultyof the task, and so on.

• A distinction is also found between theattribution that a person makes for her/

his own positive and negative experiences(actor-role), and the attribution made foranother person’s positive and negativeexperiences (observer-role). This is calledthe actor-observer effect. For example,if you yourself get good marks in a test,you will attribute it to your own abilityor hard work (actor -role, internalattribution for a positive experience). Ifyou get bad marks, you will say that thiswas because you were unlucky, or thatthe test was too difficult (actor-role,external attribution for a negativeexperience). On the other hand, if oneof your classmates gets good marks inthe test, you will attribute her/hissuccess to good luck or an easy test(observer-role, external attribution fora positive experience). If the sameclassmate gets bad marks, you are likelyto say that her/his failure was becauseof low ability or lack of effort (observer-role, internal attribution for a negativeexperience). The basic reason for thedif ference between the actor andobserver roles is that people want tohave a nice image of themselves, ascompared to others.So far in this chapter, we have

highlighted the cognitive, or thought-relatedaspects of social behaviour. Let us nowexamine some aspects of actual behaviourthat can be observed from outside.

Fig.6.4 : Wiener’s Classification of Causal Factors


BEHAVIOUR IN THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS

One of the first observations made aboutsocial behaviour was that performance onspecific tasks is influenced by the merepresence of others. This is called socialfacilitation. For example, Reena is aboutto participate in a music contest. She is verytalented, yet she is feeling very nervousabout the event. If you were in Reena’splace, would you perform better in front ofan audience, or when you are alone? Asearly as 1897, Norman Triplett observedthat individuals show better performancein the presence of others, than when theyare performing the same task alone. Forinstance, cyclists racing with each otherperform better than when they cycle alone.With time more details came to be knownabout this phenomenon.• Better performance in the presence of

others is because the person experiencesarousal, which makes the person reactin a more intense manner. Thisexplanation was given by Zajonc (thisname is pronounced to rhyme with‘science’).

• The arousal is because the person feelsshe or he is being evaluated. Cottrellcalled this idea evaluationapprehension. The person will bepraised if the performance is good(reward), or criticised if it is bad(punishment). We wish to get praise andavoid criticism, therefore we try toperform well and avoid mistakes.

• The nature of the task to be performedalso affects the performance in thepresence of others. For example, in thecase of a simple or familiar task, theperson is more sure of performing well,and the eagerness to get praise or rewardis stronger. So the individual performsbetter in the presence of others thans/he does when alone. But in the caseof a complex or new task, the personmay be afraid of making mistakes. The

fear of criticism or punishment isstronger. So the individual performsworse in the presence of others thans/he does when alone.

• If the others present are also performingthe same task, this is called a situationof co-action. In this situation, there issocial comparison and competition.Once again, when the task is simple ora familiar one, performance is betterunder co-action than when the personis alone.In short, task performance can be

facilitated and improved, or inhibited andworsened by the presence of others. Manyother kinds of social influence have beennoticed. For example, if we are workingtogether in a group, the larger the group,the less effort each member puts in. This

Activity6.3

Consider these two situations :Situation X. A person is performing asolo dance in front of an audience.Situation Y. A person is running in arace with five other athletes.

Which of the following factors ispresent in Situation Y, but not inSituation X?

(a) Arousal(b) Evaluation apprehension(c) Competition(d) Difficult taskBased on the given situations,

choose the correct alternative.In the presence of an audience,

evaluation apprehension leads to :A. Improvement in

performance of bothfamiliar and new tasks. Yes No

B. Decline inperformance of bothfamiliar and new tasks. Yes No

C. Improvement inperformance offamiliar tasks, anddecline in performanceof new tasks. Yes No

D. Arousal, which leadsto C. Yes No

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phenomenon is called social loafing, basedon diffusion of responsibility. You will readabout social loafing in the next chapter.

Diffusion of responsibility, which is oftenthe basis of social loafing, can also befrequently seen in situations where peopleare expected to help. We will look into thisaspect and other factors in helpingbehaviour in the section that follows.

PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Throughout the world, doing good to othersand being helpful is described as a virtue.All religions teach us that we should helpthose who are in need. This behaviour iscalled helping or pro-social behaviour. Pro-social behaviour is very similar to ‘altruism’,which means doing something for orthinking about the welfare of others withoutany self-interest (in Latin ‘alter’ means‘other’, the opposite of ‘ego’ which means‘self’). Some common examples of pro-socialbehaviour are sharing things, cooperatingwith others, helping during naturalcalamities, showing sympathy, doingfavours to others, and making charitabledonations.

Pro-social behaviour has the followingcharacteristics. It must :• aim to benefit or do good to another

person or other persons,• be done without expecting anything in

return,• be done willingly by the person, and not

because of any kind of pressure, and• involve some difficulty or ‘cost’ to the

person giving help.

For instance, if a rich person donates alot of money that is obtained illegally, withthe idea that her/his photograph and namewill appear in the newspapers, this cannotbe called ‘pro-social behaviour’ although thedonation may do good to many people.

In spite of the great value andimportance attached to pro-social

behaviour, people do not show suchbehaviour very often. Immediately after theMumbai blasts on 11 July, 2006, thecommunity stepped forward to help theblast victims in any way they could. Bycontrast, on an earlier occasion, nobodycame forward to help a girl on a movingsuburban train in Mumbai, when her pursewas being snatched. The other passengersdid nothing to help, and the girl was thrownout of the train. Even as the girl was lyinginjured on the railway tracks, people livingin the buildings around the area did notcome to help her.

The question then is : under whatconditions, and with what motives do peoplehelp others? Research on pro-socialbehaviour has brought out several factorsthat affect pro-social behaviour.

Factors Influencing Pro-social Behaviour

• Pro-social behaviour is based on aninborn, natural tendency in humanbeings to help other members of theirown species. This inborn tendencyfacilitates survival of the species.

• Pro-social behaviour is influenced bylearning. Individuals who are broughtup in a family environment that setsexamples of helping others, emphasiseshelping as a value, and praiseshelpfulness, and showing more pro-social behaviour than individuals whoare brought up in a family environmentdevoid of these features.

• Cultural factors influence pro-socialbehaviour. Some cultures activelyencourage people to help the needy anddistressed. In cultures that encourageindependence, individuals will show lesspro-social behaviour, because people areexpected to take care of themselves, andnot to depend on help from others.Individuals in cultures suffering from ashortage of resources may not show ahigh level of pro-social behaviour.


• Pro-social behaviour is expressed whenthe situation activates certain socialnorms that require helping others.Three norms have been mentioned inthe context of pro-social behaviour :(a) The norm of social responsibility :

We should help anyone who needshelp, without considering any otherfactor.

(b) The norm of reciprocity : We shouldhelp those persons who have helpedus in the past.

(c) The norm of equity : We should helpothers whenever we find that it is fairto do so. For example, many of usmay feel that it is more fair to help aperson who has lost all belongingsin a flood, than to help a person whohas lost everything throughgambling.

• Pro-social behaviour is affected by theexpected reactions of the person who isbeing helped. For example, people mightbe unwilling to give money to a needyperson because they feel that the personmight feel insulted, or may becomedependent.

• Pro-social behaviour is more likely to beshown by individuals who have a highlevel of empathy, that is, the capacityto feel the distress of the person who isto be helped, such as Baba Saheb Amteand Mother Teresa. Pro-social behaviouris also more likely in situations thatarouse empathy, such as the picture ofstarving children in a famine.

• Pro-social behaviour may be reduced byfactors such as a bad mood, being busywith one’s own problems, or feeling thatthe person to be helped is responsiblefor her/his own situation (that is, whenan internal attribution is made for theneed state of the other person).

• Pro-social behaviour may also bereduced when the number of bystandersis more than one. For example, thevictim of a road accident sometimes does

not get help because there are manypeople standing around the scene of theaccident. Each person thinks that it isnot her/his responsibility alone to givehelp, and that someone else may takethe responsibility. This phenomenon iscalled diffusion of responsibility. Onthe other hand, if there is only onebystander, this person is more likely totake the responsibility and actually helpthe victim.In this chapter, you have learnt about

the basic concepts of attitudes and socialcognition, and got a glimpse of some formsof social behaviour. In the next chapter, youwill read about the influence of groups onthe individual.

Activity6.4

A. Go to the school library with a pileof heavy books and other articles.Outside the library, at a convenientpoint, when you find that (a) onlyone person (bystander) is present,(b) more than one person(bystanders) is present, drop thebooks and articles as though thathappened accidentally. Observethe following :(a) when there was only one

bystander, did that personcome forward to help you topick up the fallen articles ?

(b) when there was more than onebystander, how many of themcame forward to help you topick up the fallen articles?

Have a detailed class discussion.Go through some recent

newspapers and magazines. Collect atleast one report of bystanders givinghelp. Make sure you attachnewspaper/ magazine clippings alongwith the report. Discuss why thebystanders gave help in the situationthat is described. You can also presentdescriptions about people you knowpersonally, who have helped others inemergencies. Write a brief descriptionof those reports and present them inyour class.

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Review Questions1. Define attitude. Discuss the components of an attitude.2. Are attitudes learnt? Explain how?3. What are the factors that influence the formation of an attitude?4. Is behaviour always a reflection of one’s attitude? Explain with a relevant example.5. Highlight the importance of schemas in social cognition.6. Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype.7. Prejudice can exist without discrimination and vice versa. Comment.8. Describe the important factors that influence impression formation.9. Explain how the attribution made by an ‘actor’ would be different from that of an

‘observer’.10. How does social facilitation take place?11. Explain the concept of pro-social behaviour.12. Your friend eats too much junk food, how would you be able to bring about a change

in her/his attitude towards food?

Key TermsActor-observer effect, Arousal, Attitudes, Attribution, Balance, Beliefs, Centrality of attitude, Co-action,Cognitive consistency, Cognitive dissonance, Congruent attitude change, Diffusion of responsibility,Discrimination, Empathy, Evaluation apprehension, Extremeness of attitude, Fundamental attributionerror, Halo effect, Identification, Incongruent attitude change, Kernel of truth, Persuasibility, Prejudice,Primacy effect, Pro-social behaviour, Prototype, Recency effect, Scapegoating, Schema, Self-fulfillingprophecy, Simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) of attitude, Social facilitation, Social loafing, Stereotype,Valence of attitude, Values.

• Human beings have a need to interact with and relate to others, and to explain theirown as well as others’ behaviour.

• People develop attitudes, or thoughts and behavioural tendencies, through learningprocesses, family and school influences, reference groups and the media. Attitudeshave an affective, cognitive and behavioural component, and can be understood interms of valence, extremeness, simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) and centrality.

• Attitude change takes according to the balance concept, cognitive consonance andthe two-step concept. Attitude change is affected by characteristics of the source, thetarget, and the message. Negative attitudes (prejudices) towards a group often createconflicts within a society, and are expressed through discrimination, but there arepractical strategies for handling prejudice.

• The entire set of processes involved in understanding the social world around us iscalled social cognition, which is guided by mental structures known as social schemas.One kind of social schema, a stereotype, contains overgeneralised beliefs about aparticular group, often leads to and strengthens prejudices.

• Impression formation takes place in a systematic way, and exhibits effects such asprimacy and recency, and the halo effect.

• People also assign causes to their own and others’ behaviour, and to experiencessuch as success and failure, by attributing internal or external causes. Attributionshows effects such as the fundamental attribution error and actor-observer effect.

• Because of arousal and evaluation apprehension in the presence of others,performance of familiar tasks may improve (social facilitation) and performance ofunfamiliar or new tasks may decline (social inhibition).

• People respond to others who are in need by helping them (pro-social behaviour),but this is determined by several factors.


ProjectIdeas

1. Attitudes Towards and Awareness of Waste Management : A SurveyThe problem of household garbage (domestic waste) is common in most Indian cities.The concern for a clean environment is increasing, but we do not know to what extentcitizens know how to dispose of the garbage that collects in their household. Alongwith some of your classmates, conduct a survey in your own colony to find out whatpeople do about household garbage. Each student may visit two houses in their colony,and ask the heads of the household the following questions. Their answers must bewritten down.1. What do you do with old newspapers, magazines, tins, and bottles ?2. What do you do with plastic packets, and other plastic objects (for example, toys,

containers etc.)?3. How do you dispose of kitchen waste (e.g., vegetable and fruit peels, used tea leaves

or tea-bags, left-over food that cannot be eaten etc.)?4. How do you dispose of other used objects that contain chemical substances (e.g.

torch cells, used or damaged CDs, cassettes, insecticide and pesticide containersetc.)?

5. Do you put all the garbage collected in your house everyday in the same place, or doyou put different kinds of garbage in separate dustbins/waste-baskets?

6. What happens to the garbage that is collected from your house and neighbourhoodand where is it taken?

7. What is the meaning of ‘recycling’?8. What can you do (personally) to make your colony/neighbourhood more clean?

Compare the responses collected by all the students, and see what kind of attitudesand awareness people show about waste management at the household level.

2. Interpersonal Judgment ExerciseThe following exercise will help you to see how well you and your best friend know eachother.

For each quality listed below, give ratings for yourself (Column 1) and for your bestfriend in your class (Column 2). Also ask your friend to do the same kind of rating, forhimself/herself (Column 1) and for you (Column 2). Use the following rating scale :

1 2 3 4 5

Very low Low Neither low High Very highon the quality nor high on the quality

After you and your friend have completed the ratings, copy Column 2 ratings fromyour friend’s sheet on your sheet, under Column 3. Compare Column 3 ratings withColumn 1 ratings in the case of each quality. Ask your friend to do the same task – thatis, copy Column 2 ratings from your sheet on her/his sheet, under Column 3, andcompare these ratings with her/his Column 1 ratings. Enter Column 3 minusColumn 1 under Column 4.

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

You rate You rate Rating of you Column 3yourself your friend by your friend minus Column 1

FriendlyTenseSincerePleasantOpen to new ideas

Examine the following. Are there any zeros in Column 4? On which quality is thedifference greatest? On which quality is the difference smallest (other than zero)?

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Weblinkshttp://tip.psychology.org/attitude.htmlhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/schema.htmhttp://www.12manage.com/methods_heider_attribution_theory.htmlhttp://www.answers.com/topic/social-facilitation

In general, have you given yourself a higher or lower rating than what your friend has givenyou? Has your friend given herself/himself a higher or lower rating than what you have givenyour friend? The sign of the difference (plus or minus) should be noted only to see the directionof the difference.

The closer the ratings between Column 1 and Column 3 for both of you, the better youknow each other. You can also compare your Column 1 with your friend’s Column 1. The moresimilar these two ratings are, the greater the similarity between you and your friend.

Pedagogical Hints1. In the topic of attitudes, students

should be made to understand thedistinction between attitudes assuch (with the A-B-C components)on one hand, and behaviour relatedto the attitude, on the other.

2. To explain attitude change, studentsmay be encouraged to think of real-life examples of attitude change, forinstance, attempts made byadvertisers to promote theirproducts through media. Thendiscuss whether these attempts tochange attitude are actuallysuccessful or not.

3. To enable students to understandthe relationships among schemas,prototypes and prejudice, giveexamples of how stereotypes, asforms of prototypes, may lead toprejudice.

4. In the topic of social cognition,students should be able tounderstand that impressionformation and attribution are basiccognitive processes that help inprocessing information about otherpersons. The role of schemas has tobe emphasised in this context.

5. Social facilitation and pro-socialbehaviour must be discussed asaspects that highlight thebehavioural rather than cognitiveaspects of social life.

SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSESSOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSESSOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSESSOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSESSOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES

IntroductionNature and Formation of Groups

Groupthink (Box 7.1)Type of Groups

The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments (Box 7.2)Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour

Social LoafingGroup Polarisation

Conformity, Compliance, and ObedienceThe Autokinetic Effect (Box 7.3)Group Pressure and Conformity : The Asch Experiment (Box 7.4)

Cooperation and CompetitionSherif’s Summer Camp Experiments (Box 7.5)Determinants of Cooperation and Competition

Social IdentityIntergroup Conflict : Nature and CausesConflict Resolution Strategies

CONTENTS


After reading this chapter, you would be able to:understand the nature and types of groups and know how they are formed,examine the influence of group on individual behaviour,describe the process of cooperation and competition,reflect on the importance of social identity, andunderstand the nature of intergroup conflict and examine conflict resolution strategies.

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NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS

What is a Group?

The preceding introduction illustrates theimportance of groups in our lives. Onequestion that comes to mind is: “How aregroups (e.g., your family, class, and thegroup with which you play) different fromother collections of people?” For example,people who have assembled to watch acricket match or your school function areat one place, but are not interdependenton each other. They do not have definedroles, status and expectations from eachother. In the case of your family, class, andthe group with which you play, youwill realise that there is mutualinterdependence, each member has roles,there are status differentials, and there areexpectations from each other. Thus, your

Think about your day-to-day life and the various social interactions youhave. In the morning, before going to school, you interact with your familymembers; in school, you discuss topics and issues with your teachers andclassmates; and after school you phone up, visit or play with your friends.In each of these instances, you are part of a group which not only providesyou the needed support and comfort but also facilitates your growth anddevelopment as an individual. Have you ever been away to a place whereyou were without your family, school, and friends? How did you feel? Didyou feel there was something vital missing in your life? Our lives are influenced by the nature of group membership we have. Itis, therefore, important to be part of groups which would influence uspositively and help us in becoming good citizens. In this chapter, we shalltry to understand what groups are and how they influence our behaviour.At this point, it is also important to acknowledge that not only do othersinfluence us, but we, as individuals, are also capable of changing othersand the society. The benefits of cooperation and competition and how theyinfluence our personal and social lives will also be examined. We will alsosee how identity develops — how we come to know ourselves. Similarly,we would try to understand why sometimes group conflicts arise; examinethe perils of group conflict and apprise ourselves of various conflict resolutionstrategies so that we are able to contribute towards making a harmoniousand cohesive society.

Introduction

family, class and playgroup are examplesof groups and are different from othercollections of people.

A group may be defined as an organisedsystem of two or more individuals, who areinteracting and interdependent, who havecommon motives, have a set of rolerelationships among its members, and havenorms that regulate the behaviour of itsmembers. Groups have the following salientcharacteristics :• A social unit consisting of two or more

individuals who perceive themselvesas belonging to the group. Thischaracteristic of the group helps indistinguishing one group from theother and gives the group its uniqueidentity.

• A collection of individuals who havecommon motives and goals. Groups

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function either working towards a givengoal, or away from certain threatsfacing the group.

• A collection of individuals who areinterdependent, i.e. what one is doingmay have consequences for others.Suppose one of the fielders in a cricketteam drops an important catch duringa match — this will have consequencefor the entire team.

• Individuals who are trying to satisfy aneed through their joint associationalso influence each other.

• A gathering of individuals who interactwith one another either directly orindirectly.

• A collection of individuals whoseinteractions are structured by a set ofroles and norms. This means that thegroup members perform the samefunctions every time the group meetsand the group members adhere togroup norms. Norms tell us how weought to behave in the group andspecify the behaviours expected fromgroup members.Groups can be differentiated from other

collections of people. For example, a crowd

is also a collection of people who may bepresent at a place/situation by chance.Suppose you are going on the road and anaccident takes place. Soon a large numberof people tend to collect. This is an exampleof a crowd. There is neither any structurenor feeling of belongingness in a crowd.Behaviour of people in crowds is irrationaland there is no interdependence amongmembers.

Teams are special kinds of groups.Members of teams often have comple-mentary skills and are committed to acommon goal or purpose. Members aremutually accountable for their activities. Inteams, there is a positive synergy attainedthrough the coordinated efforts of themembers. The main differences betweengroups and teams are:• In groups, performance is dependent

on contributions of individualmembers. In teams, both individualcontributions and teamwork matter.

• In groups, the leader or whoever isheading the group holds responsibilityfor the work. However in teams,although there is a leader, membershold themselves responsible.

Fig.7.1 : Look at these Two PicturesPicture A shows a football team — a group in which members interact with one another, have roles andgoals. Picture B depicts an audience watching the football match — a mere collection of people who bysome coincidence (may be their interest in football) happened to be in the same place at the same time.

Picture A Picture B

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An audience is also a collection ofpeople who have assembled for a specialpurpose, may be to watch a cricket matchor a movie. Audiences are generally passivebut sometimes they go into a frenzy andbecome mobs. In mobs, there is a definitesense of purpose. There is polarisation inattention, and actions of persons are in acommon direction. Mob behaviour ischaracterised by homogeneity of thoughtand behaviour as well as impulsivity.

Why Do People Join Groups?

All of you are members of your family,class and groups with which you interactor play. Similarly, other people are alsomembers of a number of groups at anygiven time. Dif ferent groups satisfydifferent needs, and therefore, we aresimultaneously members of differentgroups. This sometimes creates pressuresfor us because there may be competingdemands and expectations. Most often weare able to handle these competingdemands and expectations. People joingroups because these groups satisfy arange of needs. In general, people joingroups for the following reasons :• Security : When we are alone, we feel

insecure. Groups reduce thisinsecurity. Being with people gives asense of comfort, and protection. As aresult, people feel stronger, and are lessvulnerable to threats.

• Status : When we are members of agroup that is perceived to be importantby others, we feel recognised andexperience a sense of power. Supposeyour school wins in an inter -institutional debate competition, youfeel proud and think that you are betterthan others.

• Self-esteem : Groups provide feelings ofself-worth and establish a positive socialidentity. Being a member of prestigiousgroups enhances one’s self-concept.

• Satisfaction of one’s psychologicaland social needs : Groups satisfy one’ssocial and psychological needs such assense of belongingness, giving andreceiving attention, love, and powerthrough a group.

• Goal achievement : Groups help inachieving such goals which cannot beattained individually. There is power inthe majority.

• Provide knowledge and information :Group membership provides knowledgeand information and thus broadens ourview. As individuals, we may not haveall the required information. Groupssupplement this information andknowledge.

Group Formation

In this section, we will see how groups areformed. Basic to group formation is somecontact and some form of interactionbetween people. This interaction isfacilitated by the following conditions:• Proximity : Just think about your

group of friends. Would you have beenfriends if you were not living in thesame colony, or going to the sameschool, or may be playing in the sameplayground? Probably your answerwould be ‘No’. Repeated interactionswith the same set of individuals give usa chance to know them, and theirinterests and attitudes. Commoninterests, attitudes, and backgroundare important determinants of yourliking for your group members.

• Similarity : Being exposed to someoneover a period of time makes us assessour similarities and paves the way forformation of groups. Why do we likepeople who are similar? Psychologistshave given several explanations for this.One explanation is that people preferconsistency and like relationships thatare consistent. When two people are


similar, there is consistency and theystart liking each other. For example,you like playing football and anotherperson in your class also loves playingfootball; there is a matching of yourinterests. There are higher chances thatyou may become friends. Anotherexplanation given by psychologists isthat when we meet similar people, theyreinforce and validate our opinions andvalues, we feel we are right and thus westart liking them. Suppose you are ofthe opinion that too much watching oftelevision is not good, because it showstoo much violence. You meet someonewho also has similar views. Thisvalidates your opinion, and you startliking the person who was instrumentalin validating your opinion.

• Common motives and goals : Whenpeople have common motives or goals,they get together and form a groupwhich may facilitate their goalattainment. Suppose you want to teachchildren in a slum area who are unableto go to school. You cannot do thisalone because you have your ownstudies and homework. You, therefore,form a group of like-minded friends andstart teaching these children. So youhave been able to achieve what youcould not have done alone.

Stages of Group Formation

Remember that, like everything else in life,groups develop. You do not become agroup member the moment you cometogether. Groups usually go throughdifferent stages of formation, conflict,stabilisation, performance, and dismissal.Tuckman suggested that groups passthrough five developmental sequences.These are: forming, storming, norming,performing and adjourning.• When group members first meet, there

is a great deal of uncertainty about the

group, the goal, and how it is to beachieved. People try to know each otherand assess whether they will fit in.There is excitement as well asapprehensions. This stage is called theforming stage.

• Often, after this stage, there is a stageof intragroup conflict which is referredto as storming. In this stage, there isconflict among members about how thetarget of the group is to be achieved,who is to control the group and itsresources, and who is to perform whattask. When this stage is complete, somesort of hierarchy of leadership in thegroup develops and a clear vision as tohow to achieve the group goal.

• The storming stage is followed byanother stage known as norming.Group members by this time developnorms related to group behaviour. Thisleads to development of a positive groupidentity.

• The fourth stage is performing. By thistime, the structure of the group hasevolved and is accepted by groupmembers. The group moves towardsachieving the group goal. For somegroups, this may be the last stage ofgroup development.

• However, for some groups, for example,in the case of an organising committee

Activity7.1

Identifying Stages of GroupFormation

Select 10 members from your classrandomly and form a committee toplan an open house. See how they goahead. Give them full autonomy to doall the planning. Other members of theclass observe them as they function.

Do you see any of these stagesemerging? Which were those? Whatwas the order of stages? Which stageswere skipped?

Discuss in the class.

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for a school function, there may beanother stage known as adjourningstage. In this stage, once the functionis over, the group may be disbanded.

However, it must be stated that allgroups do not always proceed from onestage to the next in such a systematicmanner. Sometimes several stages go onsimultaneously, while in other instancesgroups may go back and forth through thevarious stages or they may just skip someof the stages.

During the process of group formation,groups also develop a structure. We shouldremember that group structure developsas members interact. Over time thisinteraction shows regularities indistribution of task to be performed,responsibilities assigned to members, andthe prestige or relative status of members.

Four important elements of groupstructure are :• Roles are socially defined expectations

that individuals in a given situation areexpected to fulfil. Roles refer to thetypical behaviour that depicts a personin a given social context. You have therole of a son or a daughter and with thisrole, there are certain role expectations,i.e. including the behaviour expected ofsomeone in a particular role. As adaughter or a son, you are expected torespect elders, listen to them, and beresponsible towards your studies.

• Norms are expected standards ofbehaviour and beliefs established,agreed upon, and enforced by groupmembers. They may be considered asa group’s ‘unspoken rules’. In yourfamily, there are norms that guide thebehaviour of family members. These

Box7.1 Groupthink

Generally teamwork in groups leads to beneficial results. However, Irving Janis has suggestedthat cohesion can interfere with effective leadership and can lead to disastrous decisions.Janis discovered a process known as “groupthink” in which a group allows its concerns forunanimity. They, in fact, “override the motivation to realistically appraise courses of action”.It results in the tendency of decision makers to make irrational and uncritical decisions.Groupthink is characterised by the appearance of consensus or unanimous agreementwithin a group. Each member believes that all members agree upon a particular decisionor a policy. No one expresses dissenting opinion because each person believes it wouldundermine the cohesion of the group and s/he would be unpopular. Studies have shownthat such a group has an exaggerated sense of its own power to control events, and tendsto ignore or minimise cues from the real world that suggest danger to its plan. In order topreserve the group’s internal harmony and collective well-being, it becomes increasinglyout-of-touch with reality. Groupthink is likely to occur in socially homogenous, cohesivegroups that are isolated from outsiders, that have no tradition of considering alternatives,and that face a decision with high costs or failures. Examples of several group decisions atthe international level can be cited as illustrations of groupthink phenomenon. Thesedecisions turned out to be major fiascos. The Vietnam War is an example. From 1964 to1967, President Lyndon Johnson and his advisors in the U.S. escalated the Vietnam Warthinking that this would bring North Vietnam to the peace table. The escalation decisionswere made despite warnings. The grossly miscalculated move resulted in the loss of 56,000American and more than one million Vietnamese lives and created huge budget deficits.Some ways to counteract or prevent groupthink are: (i) encouraging and rewarding criticalthinking and even disagreement among group members, (ii) encouraging groups to presentalternative courses of action, (iii) inviting outside experts to evaluate the group’s decisions,and (iv) encouraging members to seek feedback from trusted others.


norms represent shared ways ofviewing the world.

• Status refers to the relative socialposition given to group members byothers. This relative position or statusmay be either ascribed (given may bebecause of one’s seniority) or achieved(the person has achieved statusbecause of expertise or hard work). Bybeing members of the group, we enjoythe status associated with that group.All of us, therefore, strive to bemembers of such groups which arehigh in status or are viewed favourablyby others. Even within a group,dif ferent members have dif ferentprestige and status. For example, thecaptain of a cricket team has a higherstatus compared to the other members,although all are equally important forthe team’s success.

• Cohesiveness refers to togetherness,binding, or mutual attraction amonggroup members. As the group becomesmore cohesive, group members start tothink, feel and act as a social unit, andless like isolated individuals. Membersof a highly cohesive group have agreater desire to remain in the group incomparison to those who belong to lowcohesive groups. Cohesiveness refers tothe team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a senseof belongingness to the group. It isdifficult to leave a cohesive group or togain membership of a group which ishighly cohesive. Extreme cohesivenesshowever, may sometimes not be in agroup’s interest. Psychologists haveidentified the phenomenon ofgroupthink (see Box 7.1) which is aconsequence of extreme cohesiveness.

TYPE OF GROUPS

Groups differ in many respects; some havea large number of members (e.g., acountry), some are small (e.g., a family),

some are short-lived (e.g., a committee),some remain together for many years (e.g.,religious groups), some are highlyorganised (e.g., army, police, etc.), andothers are informally organised (e.g.,spectators of a match). People may belongto different types of group. Major types ofgroups are enumerated below :• primary and secondary groups• formal and informal groups• ingroup and outgroup.

Primary and Secondary Groups

A major difference between primary andsecondary groups is that primary groupsare pre-existing formations which areusually given to the individual whereassecondary groups are those which theindividual joins by choice. Thus, family,caste, and religion are primary groupswhereas membership of a political party isan example of a secondary group. In aprimary group, there is a face-to-faceinteraction, members have close physicalproximity, and they share warm emotionalbonds. Primary groups are central toindividual’s functioning and have a verymajor role in developing values and idealsof the individual during the early stages ofdevelopment. In contrast, secondarygroups are those where relationshipsamong members are more impersonal,indirect, and less frequent. In the primarygroup, boundaries are less permeable, i.e.members do not have the option to chooseits membership as compared to secondarygroups where it is easy to leave and joinanother group.

Formal and Informal Groups

These groups differ in the degree to whichthe functions of the group are statedexplicitly and formally. The functions of aformal group are explicitly stated as in thecase of an office organisation. The roles tobe performed by group members are stated

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in an explicit manner. The formal andinformal groups differ on the basis ofstructure. The formation of formal groupsis based on some specific rules or laws andmembers have definite roles. There are aset of norms which help in establishingorder. A university is an example of aformal group. On the other hand, theformation of informal groups is not basedon rules or laws and there is closerelationship among members.

Ingroup and Outgroup

Just as individuals compare themselveswith others in terms of similarities anddifferences with respect to what they haveand what others have, individuals alsocompare the group they belong to withgroups of which they are not a member.The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s owngroup, and ‘outgroup’ refers to anothergroup. For ingroup members, we use theword ‘we’ while for outgroup members, theword ‘they’ is used. By using the wordsthey and we, one is categorising people assimilar or different. It has been found thatpersons in the ingroup are generallysupposed to be similar, are viewedfavourably, and have desirable traits.Members of the outgroup are viewed

differently and are often perceived negativelyin comparison to the ingroup members.Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affectour social lives. These differences can beeasily understood by studying Tajfel’sexperiments given in Box 7.2.

Although it is common to make thesecategorisations, it should be appreciatedthat these categories are not real and arecreated by us. In some cultures, pluralityis celebrated as has been the case in India.We have a unique composite culture whichis reflected not only in the lives we live, butalso in our art, architecture, and music.

Box7.2 The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments

Tajfel and his colleagues were interested in knowing the minimal conditions for intergroupbehaviour. ‘Minimal group paradigm’ was developed to answer this question. British school-boys expressed their preference for paintings by two artists — Vassily Kandinsky and PaulKlee. Children were told that it was an experiment on decision-making. They knew thegroups in which they were grouped (Kandinsky group and Klee group). The identity of othergroup members was hidden using code numbers. The children then distributed moneybetween recipients only by code number and group membership.

Sample distribution matrix :Ingroup member — 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19Outgroup member — 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25

You will agree that these groups were created on a flimsy criterion (i.e. preference forpaintings by two artists) which had no past history or future. Yet, results showed thatchildren favoured their own group.

Activity7.2

Ingroup and OutgroupDistinctions

Think of any interinstitutionalcompetition held in the near past. Askyour friends to write a paragraphabout your school and its students,and about another school andstudents of that school. Ask the classand list the behaviour andcharacteristics of your schoolmates,and students of the other school onthe board. Observe the differencesand discuss in the class. Do you alsosee similarities? If yes, discuss themtoo.


INFLUENCE OF GROUP ON INDIVIDUAL

BEHAVIOUR

We have seen that groups are powerful asthey are able to influence the behaviour ofindividuals. What is the nature of thisinfluence? What impact does the presenceof others have on our performance? We willdiscuss two situations : (i) an individualperforming an activity alone in thepresence of others (social facilitation),and (ii) an individual performing an activityalong with the others as part of a largergroup (social loafing). Since socialfacilitation has been briefly discussed inChapter 6, we would try to understand thephenomenon of social loafing in thissection.

Social Loafing

Social facilitation research suggests thatpresence of others leads to arousal and canmotivate individuals to enhance theirperformance if they are already good atsolving something. This enhancementoccurs when a person’s ef forts areindividually evaluated. What would happenif efforts of an individual in a group arepooled so that you look at the performanceof the group as a whole? Do you knowwhat often happens? It has been foundthat individuals work less hard in a groupthan they do when performing alone. Thispoints to a phenomenon referred to as‘social loafing’. Social loafing is a reductionin individual effort when working on acollective task, i.e. one in which outputsare pooled with those of other groupmembers. An example of such a task is thegame of tug-of-war. It is not possible foryou to identify how much force eachmember of the team has been exerting.Such situations give opportunities to groupmembers to relax and become a free rider.This phenomenon has been demonstratedin many experiments by Latane and his

associates who asked group of malestudents to clap or cheer as loudly aspossible as they (experimenters) wereinterested in knowing how much noisepeople make in social settings. They variedthe group size; individuals were eitheralone, or in groups of two, four and six.The results of the study showed thatalthough the total amount of noise rose up,as size increased, the amount of noiseproduced by each participant dropped. Inother words, each participant put in lesseffort as the group size increased. Whydoes social loafing occur? The explanationsoffered are:• Group members feel less responsible for

the overall task being performed andtherefore exert less effort.

• Motivation of members decreasesbecause they realise that theircontributions will not be evaluated onindividual basis.

• The performance of the group is not tobe compared with other groups.

• There is an improper coordination (orno coordination) among members.

• Belonging to the same group is notimportant for members. It is only anaggregate of individuals.

Social loafing may be reduced by:• Making the efforts of each person

identifiable.• Increasing the pressure to work hard

(making group members committed tosuccessful task performance).

• Increasing the apparent importance orvalue of a task.

• Making people feel that their individualcontribution is important.

• Strengthening group cohesivenesswhich increases the motivation forsuccessful group outcome.

Group Polarisation

We all know that important decisions aretaken by groups and not by individuals

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alone. For example, a decision is to betaken whether a school has to beestablished in a village. Such a decisionhas to be a group decision. We have alsoseen that when groups take decisions,there is a fear that the phenomenon ofgroupthink may sometimes occur (seeBox 7.1). Groups show another tendencyreferred to as ‘group polarisation’. It hasbeen found that groups are more likely totake extreme decisions than individualsalone. Suppose there is an employee whohas been caught taking bribe or engagingin some other unethical act. Her/hiscolleagues are asked to decide on whatpunishment s/he should be given. Theymay let her/him go scot-free or decide toterminate her/his services instead ofimposing a punishment which may becommensurate with the unethical act s/hehad engaged in. Whatever the initialposition in the group, this position becomesmuch stronger as a result of discussions inthe group. This strengthening of the group’sinitial position as a result of groupinteraction and discussion is referred to asgroup polarisation. This may sometimeshave dangerous repercussions as groupsmay take extreme positions, i.e. from veryweak to very strong decisions.

Why does group polarisation occur? Letus take an example whether capitalpunishment should be there. Suppose youfavour capital punishment for heinouscrimes, what would happen if you wereinteracting with and discussing this issuewith like-minded people? After thisinteraction, your views may becomestronger. This firm conviction is because ofthe following three reasons:• In the company of like-minded people,

you are likely to hear newer argumentsfavouring your viewpoints. This willmake you more favourable towardscapital punishment.

• When you find others also favouringcapital punishment, you feel that this

view is validated by the public. This isa sort of bandwagon effect.

• When you find people having similarviews, you are likely to perceive themas ingroup. You start identifying withthe group, begin showing conformity,and as a consequence your viewsbecome strengthened.

Activity7.3

Assessing Polarisation

Give the class a short, 5-item attitudescale developed by your teacher toassess attitudes towards capitalpunishment. Based on their responses,divide the class into two groups, i.e.those pro-capital punishment andthose anti-capital punishment. Nowseat these groups into two differentrooms and ask them to discuss a recentcase in which death sentence has beengiven by the court. See how thediscussion proceeds in the two groups.After the discussion, re-administer theattitude scale to the group members.Examine if, in both groups, positionshave hardened in comparison to theirinitial position as a result of groupdiscussion.

CONFORMITY, COMPLIANCE, AND

OBEDIENCE

Groups and individuals exert influence onus. This influence may force us to changeour behaviours in a particular direction.The term ‘social influence’ refers to thoseprocesses whereby our attitudes andbehaviours are influenced by the real orimagined presence of other people.Throughout the day you may encounter anumber of situations where others havetried to influence you and make you thinkin ways they want. Your parents, teachers,friends, radio and television commercialscreate one or the other kind of socialinfluence. Social influence is a part of ourlife. In some situations, social influence on


us is very strong as a result of which wetend to do things which we otherwisewould have not done. On other occasions,we are able to defy influence of others andmay even influence them to adopt our ownviewpoint. This section describes threeimportant group influence processes, i.e.conformity, compliance and obedience.

Imagine the following situation in yourschool. Some of your friends come to youwith a letter of protest against a rule thathas been recently announced, i.e. banninguse of mobile phones in the school.Personally you believe that the rule is verysensible and should be enforced. But youalso know that if you do not sign the letter,you will lose many friends and get a badname for not keeping ‘student unity’. Whatwould you do in such a situation? Whatdo you think most people of your agewould do? If your answer is that you wouldagree to sign the letter, you have expresseda form of social influence called‘conformity’ which means behavingaccording to the group norm, i.e. theexpectations of other group members.Persons who do not conform (called‘deviants’ or ‘non-conformists’) get noticedmore than those who do conform.

Kelman distinguished three forms ofsocial influence, viz. compliance,identification, and internalisation. Incompliance, there are external conditionsthat force the individual to accept theinfluence of the significant other.Compliance also refers to behaving in aparticular way in response to a requestmade by someone. Thus, in the exampledescribed above, you may sign the letterwith the thought that you were acceptingthe request, not because you agree withother students, but because you have beenrequested to do so by a significant member.This would be a case of compliance alsocalled ‘external/public conformity’.Compliance could take place even without

a norm. For example, a member of acommunity group for ‘clean environment’requests you to put a sticker on your bikethat reads, ‘Say No to Plastic Bags’. Youagree to do so, not because of a groupnorm, or even because you personallybelieve in banning plastic bags, but becauseyou see no harm or problem in putting sucha sticker on your bike. At the same time,you find it easier to say ‘yes’ rather than ‘no’to such a harmless (and eventuallymeaningful) request. Identification,according to Kelman, refers to influenceprocess based on agreement-seeking oridentity-seeking. Internalisation, on theother hand, is a process based oninformation-seeking.

Yet another form of behaviour is‘obedience’. A distinguishing feature ofobedience is that such behaviour is aresponse to a person in authority. In theexample given above, you may sign theletter more readily if a senior teacher or astudent leader asks you to do so. In sucha situation, you are not necessarilyfollowing a group norm but rather carryingout an instruction or an order. The presenceof an authority figure immediately makesthis behaviour different from conformity.For instance, you may stop talking loudlyin the classroom when the teacher asks youto keep quiet, but not when your classmatetells you to do the same thing.

We can see that there are somesimilarities between conformity,compliance, and obedience, but there arealso some differences. All three indicate theinfluence of others on an individual’sbehaviour. Obedience is the most directand explicit form of social influence,whereas compliance is less direct thanobedience because someone has requestedand thus you comply (here, the probabilityof refusal is there). Conformity is the mostindirect form (you are conforming becauseyou do not want to deviate from the norm).

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Conformity

Why do people follow group norms, whenthe only ‘punishment’ they may face if theydo not, is the displeasure of the group, orbeing perceived as ‘different’? Why dopeople conform even when they know thatthe norm itself is not desirable?

It seems that the tendency to follow anorm is natural, and does not need anyspecial explanation. Yet, we need tounderstand why such a tendency appearsto be natural or spontaneous. First,norms represent a set of unwritten andinformal ‘rules’ of behaviour that provideinformation to members of a group aboutwhat is expected of them in specificsituations. This makes the whole situationclearer, and allows both the individual andthe group to function more smoothly.Second, in general, people feel un-comfortable if they are considered‘different’ from others. Behaving in a waythat differs from the expected form ofbehaviour may lead to disapproval ordislike by others, which is a form of socialpunishment. This is something that mostpeople fear, often in an imagined way.Recall the question we ask so often: “Whatwill people (‘then’) say?” Following thenorm is, thus, the simplest way of avoiding

disapproval and obtaining approval fromothers. Third, the norm is seen asreflecting the views and beliefs of themajority. Most people believe that themajority is more likely to be right ratherthan wrong. An instance of this is oftenobserved in quiz shows on television. Whena contestant is at a loss for the correctanswer to a question, s/he may opt for anaudience opinion, the person most oftentends to choose the same option that themajority of the audience chooses. By thesame reasoning, people conform to thenorm because they believe that themajority must be right. The pioneering experiments onconformity were carried out by Sherif andAsch. They illustrate some of theconditions that determine the extent ofconformity, and also methods that may beadopted for the study of conformity ingroups. These experiments demonstratewhat Sherif called the ‘autokineticeffect’ (Box 7.3) and the ‘Asch technique’(Box 7.4). What lessons are to be learned fromthe results of these experiments onconformity? The main lesson is that thedegree of conformity among the groupmembers is determined by many factorswhich are situation-specific.

Box7.3 The Autokinetic Effect

Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms,and members make their judgments according to these norms.

Participants were seated in a darkroom, and asked to concentrate on a point of light.After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance throughwhich the point had moved. This kind of judgment had to be made over a number of trials.After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by themembers. It was observed that on subsequent trials, subjects modified their judgments ina way that made them more similar to the group average. The interesting aspect of thisexperiment was that the point of light actually did not move at all. The light was only seenas moving by the participant (therefore, the effect has been called the ‘autokinetic effect’).Yet in response to instructions from the experimenter, the participants not only judged thedistance the light moved, but also created a norm for this distance. Note that the participantswere not given any information regarding the nature of change, if any, in their judgmentsover trials.


Determinants of Conformity

(i) Size of the group : Conformity isgreater when the group is small than whenthe group is large. Why does it happen? Itis easier for a deviant member (one whodoes not conform) to be noticed in a smallgroup. However, in a large group, if thereis strong agreement among most of themembers, this makes the majoritystronger, and therefore, the norm is alsostronger. In such a case, the minoritymember(s) would be more likely to conformbecause the group pressure would bestronger.

(ii) Size of the minority : Take the caseof the Asch experiment (see Box 7.4).

Suppose the subject finds that after somerounds of judgment of the lines, there isanother participant who starts agreeingwith the subject’s answer. Would thesubject now be more likely to conform, orless likely to do so? When the dissentingor deviating minority size increases, thelikelihood of conformity decreases. In fact,it may increase the number of dissentersor non-conformists in the group.

(iii) Nature of the task : In Asch’sexperiment, the task required an answerthat could be verified, and could be corrector incorrect. Suppose the task involvesgiving an opinion about some topic. Insuch a case, there is no correct or incorrect

Box7.4Group Pressure and Conformity : The Asch Experiment

Asch examined how much conformity there would be when one member of a groupexperiences pressure from the rest of the group to behave in a specific way, or to give aparticular judgment. A group of seven persons participated in an experiment that was a‘vision test’. There was actually only one true subject. The other six participants wereassociates of the experimenter, or ‘confederates’ as they are called in social psychology.These confederates were given instructions to give specific responses. Of course, this wasnot known to the true subject. All participants were shown a vertical line (standard line)that had to be compared with three vertical lines of different lengths, A, B, and C (comparisonlines). Participants had to state which of the comparison lines, A, B, or C, was equal to thestandard line.

Standard Line Comparison Lines

A B C

When the experiment began, each participant, by turn, announced her/his answer.The first five persons gave wrong answers (as they had been instructed to do so). The truesubject’s turn came last-but-one in each round. So the true subject had the experience of5 persons giving incorrect answers before her/him. The last person (also a confederate)gave the same incorrect answer as the first five persons. Even if the true subject felt thatthese answers were incorrect, a norm had been presented to her/him. There were twelvetrials. Did the true subject conform to the majority answer, or did s/he give her/his ownjudgments ?

It was observed that 67 per cent subjects showed conformity, and gave the same incorrectanswer as the majority. Remember that this was a situation in which the answers were tobe given publicly.

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answer. In which situation is there likelyto be more conformity, the first one wherethere is something like a correct or anincorrect answer, or the second one whereanswers can vary widely without anyanswer being correct or incorrect? You mayhave guessed right; conformity would beless likely in the second situation.

(iv) Public or private expression ofbehaviour : In the Asch technique, thegroup members are asked to give theiranswers publicly, i.e. all members knowwho has given which response. However,there can be other situations (for example,voting by secret ballot) in which thebehaviour of members is private (notknown to others). Less conformity is foundunder private expression than it is seenunder public expression.

(v) Personality : The conditions describedabove show how the features of thesituation are important in determining thedegree of conformity shown. We also findthat some individuals have a conformingpersonality. Such persons have a tendencyto change their behaviour according towhat others say or do in most situations.By contrast, there are individuals who areindependent, and do not look for a normin order to decide how to behave in aspecific situation. Research has shownthat highly intelligent people, those whoare confident of themselves, those who arestrongly committed and have a high self-esteem are less likely to conform.

Conformity takes place because ofinformational influence, i.e. influence thatresults from accepting evidence ratherthan reality. This kind of rationalconformity can be thought of as learningabout the world from the actions of others.We learn by observing people, who are thebest source of information about manysocial conventions. New group memberslearn about the group’s customs byobserving the actions of other group

members. Conformity may also occurbecause of normative influence, i.e.influence based on a person’s desire to beaccepted or admired by others. In suchcases, people conform because deviationfrom group may lead to rejection or at theleast, non-acceptance of some form ofpunishment. It is generally observed thatthe group majority determines the finaldecision, but in certain conditions, aminority may be more influential. Thisoccurs when the minority takes a firm anduncompromising stand, thereby creating adoubt on the correctness of the majority’sviewpoint. This creates a conflict within thegroup (see Box 7.4).

Compliance

It was stated earlier that compliance referssimply to behaving in response to a requestfrom another person or group even in theabsence of a norm. A good example ofcompliance is the kind of behaviour shownwhen a salesperson comes to our door.Very often, this person comes with somegoods that we really do not wish to buy.Yet, sometimes to our own surprise, wefind that the salesperson has spoken to usfor a few minutes and the conversation hasended with a purchase of what he or shewished to sell. So why do people comply?

In many situations, this happensbecause it is an easy way out of thesituation. It is more polite and the otherparty is pleased. In other situations, therecould be other factors at work. Thefollowing techniques have been found towork when someone wants another personto comply.• The foot-in-the-door technique : The

person begins by making a smallrequest that the other person is notlikely to refuse. Once the other personcarries out the request, a bigger requestis made. Simply because the otherperson has already complied with the


smaller request, he or she may feeluncomfortable refusing the secondrequest. For example, someone maycome to us on behalf of a group andgive us a gift (something free), sayingthat it is for promotion. Soonafterwards, another member of thesame group may come to us again, andask us to buy a product made by thegroup.

• The deadline technique : In thistechnique, a ‘last date’ is announceduntil which a particular product or ‘anoffer’ will be available. The aim is tomake people ‘hurry’ and make thepurchase before they miss the rareopportunity. It is more likely thatpeople will buy a product under thisdeadline condition than if there is nosuch deadline.

• The door-in-the-face technique : Inthis technique, you begin with a largerequest and when this is refused a laterrequest for something smaller, the onethat was actually desired, is made,which is usually granted by the person.

Obedience

When compliance is shown to aninstruction or order from a person inauthority, such as parents, teachers,leaders, or policemen, that behaviour iscalled obedience. Why people showobedience is easy to understand. Mostoften it is because if we disobey, somepunishment might follow. Sometimes, it isbecause we believe that persons inauthority must be obeyed. People inauthority have ef fective means forenforcing their orders. Milgram conductedan experiment to show that individualsobey commands from people who arestrangers. The experimenter informed therespondents in the study that they wereparticipating in an experiment to study theeffects of punishment on learning. The

experiment was conducted on pairs. Oneperson in each pair was the “learner”,whose work was to memorise pairs ofwords. The other participant was the“teacher”, who would read these wordsaloud and punish the learner when s/hemade errors by giving her/him shock. Thelearner would make errors according toprearranged instructions. The teacher wasasked to deliver a shock each time thelearner made errors. The teacher wasfurther told to increase the strength of theshock each time the learner made an error.In reality, no shocks were given. Theinstructions were so arranged that theteacher was faced with a dilemma —should s/he continue shocks even whenthey were increasingly painful? Theexperimenter kept on motivating theteacher to continue. In all, 65 per centshowed total obedience. Some participants,however, protested and asked the sessionto end. Milgram’s study suggests that evenordinary people are willing to harm aninnocent person if ordered by someone inauthority.

Why do people obey even when theyknow that their behaviour is harmingothers? Psychologists have identifiedseveral reasons for this. Some of thesereasons are :• People obey because they feel that they

are not responsible for their ownactions, they are simply carrying outorders from the authority.

• Authority generally possesses symbolsof status (e.g., uniform, title) whichpeople find difficult to resist.

• Authority gradually increasescommands from lesser to greater levelsand initial obedience binds thefollowers for commitment. Once youobey small orders, slowly there is anescalation of commitment for theperson who is in authority and onestarts obeying bigger orders.

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• Many times, events are moving at sucha fast speed, for example in a riotsituation, that one has no time to think,just obey orders from above.

example, you can come first in acompetition only if others do not performto such a level that they can be judged asfirst. A cooperative goal, on the other hand,is one in which each individual can attainthe goal only if other members of the groupalso attain the goal. Let us try tounderstand this from an example fromathletics. In a hundred metres racebetween six people, only one can be thewinner. Success depends on individualperformance. In a relay race, victorydepends on the collective performance ofall members of a team. Deutschinvestigated cooperation and competitionwithin groups. College students wereassigned to groups of five persons andwere required to solve puzzles andproblems. One set of groups, referred to asthe ‘cooperative group’, were told that theywould be rewarded collectively for theirperformance. The other set of groups,labelled as ‘competitive group’ were toldthat there was a reward for individualexcellence. Results showed that incooperative groups, there was morecoordination, there was acceptance foreach other’s ideas, and members weremore friendly than those in the competitivegroup. The main concern of the membersof the cooperative group was to see that thegroup excels.

Although competition betweenindividuals within a group may result inconflict and disharmony, competitionbetween groups may increase within groupcohesion and solidarity.

Prisoner’s Dilemma Game, which is atwo person game in which both parties arefaced with cooperation or competition, anddepending upon their choices both can winor lose, is often used to study cooperationor competition. This game is based on ananecdote. Two suspects were quizzed bydetectives separately. The detectives hadonly enough evidence to convict them fora small offence. Separately the two convicts

Demonstrating Obedience inDaily Life

Do you believe the results of Milgramstudies on obedience to authority? Seefor yourself whether obedience occursor not.

Take permission from your teacherto go to one of the junior classes. Goand make a series of requests to thestudents. Some examples of suchrequests are :

Ask students to change their seatswith another student.Ask students to croak like a frog.Ask students to say ‘jai hind’.Ask students to put their hands up.(Feel free to add your own ideas)What did you see? Did students

obey you? Ask them why they did so?Explain to them that you were studyingwhy we obey seniors. Come back anddiscuss what you saw in the class withyour teacher and classmates.

Activity7.4

COOPERATION AND COMPETITION

People interact with each other in differentcontexts. Behaviours in most socialsituations are characterised by either‘cooperation’ or ‘competition’. When groupswork together to achieve shared goals, werefer to it as cooperation. The rewards incooperative situations are group rewardsand not individual rewards. However, whenmembers try to maximise their ownbenefits and work for the realisation of self-interest, competition is likely to result.Social groups may have both competitiveas well as cooperative goals. Competitivegoals are set in such a way that eachindividual can get her/his goal only ifothers do not attain their goals. For


Box7.5Sherif’s Summer Camp Experiments : A Journey from Ingroup Formation to

Intergroup Competition and Finally Intergroup Cooperation

Sherif conducted a series of experiments on 11–12 year old boys who did not know eachother. The boys were attending a summer camp. Unknown to the boys, there wereresearchers in the camp who examined their (the boys) behaviour. The experiment consistedof four phases, viz. friendship formation, group formation, intergroup competition, andintergroup cooperation.

• Friendship formation : When the boys arrived at the camp, they spent their initialtime together. They mixed freely with each other and chose their friends for games andother activities.

• Ingroup formation : The boys were then divided into two groups by the experimenter.The boys belonging to the two groups lived separately. Members within the groupengaged in cooperative projects to increase cohesiveness. The groups were given separatenames. Over time, they developed their own norms.

• Intergroup competition : The two groups were brought together in several competitivesituations. Matches were organised in which the groups competed against each other.This competition brought in tension and hostility against each other as a group; somuch so that the groups started calling each other names. At the same time, ingroupcohesion and loyalty became stronger.

• Intergroup cooperation : To reduce the hostility generated by intergroup competition,the researchers created a problem which affected both the groups, and both groupswanted to solve them. Superordinate goals could be achieved only through cooperationbetween the groups. The water supply of both groups was disrupted. Members of bothgroups helped each other to overcome this. This intergroup cooperation phase reducedthe hostility. This resulted in the development of a superordinate goal, i.e. a goal towhich personal goals were subordinated.

This research is important as it showed that antagonistic and hostile behaviour can begenerated by group situations. At the same time, it shows that hostility between groupscan be reduced by focusing on superordinate goals, which are important and beneficial toboth groups alike.

Player A Cooperation Competition

3 5

3 0

0 2

5 2

Fig.7.2 : Cooperation vs. Competition

Pla

yer

B C

ooper

ati

on C

ompet

itio

n

were offered a chance to confess. If oneconfesses and the other does not, the onewho confesses will get no punishment andher/his confession will be used to convictthe other with a serious offence. If bothconfess, the punishment to both will bemild. If neither confesses, each will receivea light sentence. This game has been usedin hundreds of experiments to demonstratethat when two parties are involved, thereis a conflict between motive to cooperateand motive to compete (see Figure 7.2).

For example, there are two players, Aand B. If both cooperate, both get threepoints each. If player A competes and wins,

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s/he gets 5 points and B gets 0 points. IfB competes and wins s/he gets 5 pointsand A gets 0 points. If both A and Bcompete, both get two points each. Whatoutcomes do you expect? Why do youexpect so? Give reasons.

Determinants of Cooperation andCompetition

What factors determine whether people willcooperate or compete? Some of theimportant ones are given below:(i) Reward structure : Psychologists

believe that whether people will co-operate or compete will depend on thereward structure. Cooperative rewardstructure is one in which there ispromotive interdependence. Each isbeneficiary of the reward and reward ispossible only if all contribute. Acompetitive reward structure is one inwhich one can get a reward only ifothers do not get it.

(ii) Interpersonal communication : Whenthere is good interpersonalcommunication, then cooperation is thelikely consequence. Communicationfacilitates interaction, and discussion.As a result, group members canconvince each other and learn abouteach other.

(iii)Reciprocity : Reciprocity means thatpeople feel obliged to return what theyget. Initial cooperation may encouragemore cooperation. Competition mayprovoke more competition. If someonehelps, you feel like helping that person;on the other hand, if someone refusesto help you when you need help, youwould not like to help that person also.

SOCIAL IDENTITY

Have you ever asked the question “whoam I?” What was your answer to thisquestion? Probably your answer was that

you are a hard-working, happy-go-luckygirl/boy. This answer tells you about yoursocial identity which is one’s self-definitionof who s/he is. This self-definition mayinclude both personal attributes, e.g. hardworking, happy-go-lucky, or attributeswhich you share with others, e.g. girl orboy. Although some aspects of our identityare determined by physical characteristics,we may acquire other aspects as aconsequence of our interaction with othersin society. Sometimes we perceive ourselvesas unique individuals and at other times weperceive ourselves as members of groups.Both are equally valid expressions of self.Our personal identities derived from viewsof oneself as a unique individual, and socialidentities derived from groups we perceiveourselves to be members of, are bothimportant to us. The extent to which wedefine ourselves either at personal or atsocial levels is flexible. From your ownexperience, you would realise thatidentification with social groups can havea great deal of importance for your self-concept. How do you feel when India winsa cricket match? You feel elated and proud.You feel so because of your social identityas an Indian. Social identity is, thus, thataspect of our self-concept which is basedon our group membership. Social identityplaces us, i.e. tells us what and where weare in the larger social context, and thushelps us to locate ourselves in society. Youhave a social identity of a student of yourschool. Once you have this identity of astudent of your school, you internalise thevalues emphasised in your school andmake these values your own. You strive tofulfil the motto of your school. Socialidentity provides members with a sharedset of values, beliefs and goals aboutthemselves and about their social world.Once you internalise the values of yourschool, this helps to coordinate andregulate your attitudes and behaviour. You


work hard for your school to make it thebest school in your city/state. When wedevelop a strong identity with our owngroup, the categorisation as ingroup andoutgroup becomes salient. The group withwhich you identify yourself becomes theingroup and others become the outgroup.The negative aspect of this own group andoutgroup categorisation is that we startshowing favouritism towards our ingroup byrating it more favourably in comparison tothe outgroup, and begin devaluating theoutgroup. This devaluation of the outgroupis the basis of a number of intergroupconflicts.

INTERGROUP CONFLICT : NATURE AND

CAUSES

Conflict is a process in which either anindividual or a group perceives that others(individual or group) have opposinginterests, and both try to contradict eachother. There is this intense feeling of ‘we’and ‘other’ (also referred to as ‘they’).There is also a belief by both parties thatthe other will protect only its own interests;their (the other side’s) interests will,therefore, not be protected. There is notonly opposition of each other, but they alsotry to exert power on each other. Groupshave been found to be more aggressivethan individuals. This often leads toescalation of conflict. All conflicts are costlyas there is a human price for them. Inwars, there are both victories and defeats,but the human cost of war is far beyondall this. Various types of conflict arecommonly seen in society, which turn outto be costly for both sides as well as forsociety.

Mentioned below are some of the majorreasons for group conflicts.• One major reason is lack of

communication and faulty communi-cation by both parties. This kind ofcommunication leads to suspicion, i.e.

there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflictresults.

• Another reason for intergroup conflictis relative deprivation. It arises whenmembers of a group comparethemselves with members of anothergroup, and perceive that they do nothave what they desire to have, whichthe other group has. In other words,they feel that they are not doing well incomparison to other groups. This maylead to feelings of deprivation anddiscontentment, which may trigger offconflict.

• Another cause of conflict is one party’sbelief that it is better than the other,and what it is saying should be done.When this does not happen, bothparties start accusing each other. Onemay often witness a tendency tomagnify even smaller differences,thereby conflict gets escalated becauseevery member wants to respect thenorms of her/his group.

• A feeling that the other group does notrespect the norms of my group, andactually violates those norms becauseof a malevolent intent.

• Desire for retaliation for some harmdone in the past could be anotherreason for conflict.

• Biased perceptions are at the root ofmost conflicts. As already mentionedearlier, feelings of ‘they’ and ‘we’ lead tobiased perceptions.

• Research has shown that when actingin groups, people are more competitiveas well as more aggressive than whenthey are on their own. Groups competeover scarce resources, both materialresources, e.g. territory, and money aswell as social resources, e.g. respectand esteem.

• Perceived inequity is another reason forconflict. Equity refers to distribution ofrewards in proportion to an individual’scontributions, if:

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=

But, if you contribute more and getless, you are likely to feel irritated andexploited.

Conflicts between groups give impetusto a series of social and cognitive processes.These processes harden the stand of eachside leading to ingroup polarisation. Thismay result in coalition formation of like-minded parties, thereby increasing theapprehensions of both parties resulting inmisperceptions, and biased interpretationsand attributions. The result is increasedconflict. Present-day society is fraught withvarious intergroup conflicts. These arerelated to caste, class, religion, region,language, just to name a few of them.Gardner Murphy wrote a book entitled‘In the Minds of Men’. Most conflicts beginin the minds of men and then go to the field.Explanations of such conflicts can be at thestructural, group, and individual levels.Structural conditions include high rates ofpoverty, economic and social stratification,inequality, limited political and socialopportunity, etc. Research on group levelfactors has shown that social identity,realistic conflict between groups overresources, and unequal power relationsbetween groups lead to escalation ofconflict. At the individual level, beliefs,biased attitudes, and personalitycharacteristics are important determinants.It has been found that at the individuallevel, there is a progression along acontinuum of violence. Very small acts thatinitially may have no significance, likecalling the other group a name, may leadto psychological changes that make furtherdestructive actions possible.

Deutsch identified the followingconsequences of intergroup conflict.

• Communication between the groupsbecomes poor. The groups do not trusteach other, thereby leading to abreakdown in communication and thisgenerates suspicion for each other.

• Groups start magnifying theirdifferences and start perceiving theirbehaviour as fair and the other’sbehaviour as unfair.

• Each side tries to increase its ownpower and legitimacy. As a conse-quence, the conflict gets escalatedshifting from few specific issues tomuch larger issues.

• Once conflict starts, several otherfactors lead to escalation of conflict.Hardening of ingroup opinion, explicitthreats directed at the outgroup, eachgroup retaliating more and more, andother parties also choosing to take sideslead to escalation of conflict.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES

Conflicts can be reduced if we know abouttheir causes. The processes that increaseconflict can be turned around to reduce italso. A number of strategies have beensuggested by psychologists. Some of theseare :

Introduction of superordinate goals :Sherif’s study, already mentioned in thesection on cooperation and competition,showed that by introducing superordinategoals, intergroup conflict can be reduced.A superordinate goal is mutually beneficialto both parties, hence both groups workcooperatively.

Altering perceptions : Conflicts can alsobe reduced by altering perceptions andreactions through persuasion, educationaland media appeals, and portrayal of groupsdifferently in society. Promoting empathyfor others should be taught to everyoneright from the beginning.

Your rewards

Your contributions

Your friends’rewards

Your friends’contributions


Key TermsArbitration, Cohesiveness, Competition, Compliance, Conflict, Conformity, Cooperation, Goal achievement,Group, Group formation, Groupthink, Identity, Ingroup, Interdependence, Intergroup, Negotiation, Norms,Obedience, Outgroup, Proximity, Roles, Social facilitation, Social influence, Social inhibition, Socialloafing, Status, Structure, Superordinate goals.

Increasing intergroup contacts : Conflictcan also be reduced by increasing contactsbetween the groups. This can be done byinvolving groups in conflict on neutralgrounds through community projects andevents. The idea is to bring them togetherso that they become more appreciative ofeach other’s stand. However, for contactsto be successful, they need to bemaintained, which means that they shouldbe supported over a period of time.

Redrawing group boundaries : Anothertechnique that has been suggested bysome psychologists is redrawing the groupboundaries. This can be done by creatingconditions where groups boundaries areredefined and groups come to perceivethemselves as belonging to a commongroup.

Negotiations : Conflict can also beresolved through negotiations and thirdparty interventions. Warring groups canresolve conflict by trying to find mutuallyacceptable solutions. This requiresunderstanding and trust. Negotiation refersto reciprocal communications so as toreach an agreement in situations in which

there is a conflict. Sometimes it is difficultto dissipate conflict through negotiations;at that time mediation and arbitration bya third party is needed. Mediators helpboth parties to focus their discussions onthe relevant issues and reach a voluntaryagreement. In arbitration, the third partyhas the authority to give a decision afterhearing both parties.

Structural solutions : Conflict can also bereduced by redistributing the societalresources according to principles based onjustice. Research on justice has identifiedseveral principles of justice. Some of theseare : equality (allocating equally to everyone), need (allocating on the basis ofneeds), and equity (allocating on the basisof contributions of members).

Respect for other group’s norms : In apluralist society like India, it is necessaryto respect and be sensitive to the strongnorms of various social and ethnic groups.It has been noticed that a number ofcommunal riots between different groupshave taken place because of suchinsensitivity.

• Groups are different from other collections of people. Mutual interdependence, roles,status, and expectations are the main characteristics of groups.

• Groups are organised systems of two or more individuals.• People join groups because they provide security, status, self-esteem, satisfaction of

one’s psychological and social needs, goal achievement, and knowledge andinformation.

• Proximity, similarity, and common motives and goals facilitate group formation.• Generally, group work leads to beneficial results. However, sometimes in cohesive

and homogeneous groups, the phenomenon of groupthink may occur.• Groups are of different types, i.e. primary and secondary, formal and informal, and

ingroup and outgroup.

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Weblinkshttp://www.mapnp.org/library/grp_skill/theory/theory.htmhttp://www.socialpsychology.org/social.htmhttp://www.stanleymilgram.com/main.htmhttp://www.psychclassics.yorku.ca/sheriff/chap1.htm

Review Questions1. Compare and contrast formal and informal groups, and ingroups and outgroups.2. Are you a member of a certain group? Discuss what motivated you to join that

group.3. How does Tuckman’s stage model help you to understand the formation of groups?4. How do groups influence our behaviour?5. How can you reduce social loafing in groups? Think of any two incidents of social

loafing in school. How did you overcome it?6. How often do you show conformity in your behaviour? What are the determinants of

conformity?7. Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour may be harming

others? Explain.8. What are the benefits of cooperation?9. How is one’s identity formed?

10. What are some of the causes of intergroup conflict? Think of any international conflict.Reflect on the human price of this conflict.

ProjectIdeas

1. “S/he who does not ask will never get a bargain.” Collect the newspapers of last onemonth. List the different bargains that were offered by shopkeepers. What compliancetechniques were used by them? Ask your friends how many were attracted by thesebargains.

2. Make a list of different conflicts that have occurred among different houses in theschool. How were these conflicts resolved?

3. Identify any Test series in cricket which India played recently. Collect the newspapersof that period. Evaluate the reviews of the matches and comments made by Indian andrival commentators. Do you see any difference between the comments?

4. Imagine that you have to collect money to help an NGO working for the girl child. Whattechniques of social influence would you use? Try any two techniques and see thedifference.

• Groups influence individual behaviour. Social facilitation and social loafing are twoimportant influences of groups.

• Conformity, compliance, and obedience are three important forms of social influence.• Conformity is the most indirect form of social influence; obedience the most direct

form; compliance is in-between the two.• People interact in social situations by either cooperating or competing.• One’s self-definition of who s/he is referred to as social identity.• Group conflicts occur in all societies.• Group conflicts can be reduced if we know the causes of such conflicts.


Pedagogical Hints1. In the topic of nature and formation

of groups, students should be madeto understand the importance ofgroups in real-life. Here, it needs tobe emphasised that they should becareful in choosing groups.Teachers can ask a few studentshow they have become members ofdifferent groups, and what do theyget from membership in thesegroups.

2. For explaining social loafing, simpleexperiments can be conducted inthe class by asking students toperform some activities in groupsand then asking them about theircontributions in the activitiesundertaken. Learning experiencefor students should be on ways toavoid social loafing.

3. In the topic of cooperation andcompetition, students should betold the benefits of both cooperationand competition. They should beable to appreciate that cooperationis a better strategy in society. Somecases of real-life where cooperativeefforts have been successful can bediscussed.

4. Students should be able toappreciate that identities areimportant and how our identitiesinfluence our social behaviour.

5. In the section on intergroup conflict,emphasis should be on conflictresolution strategies rather thanconflict per se.

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PSYPSYPSYPSYPSYCHOLOGCHOLOGCHOLOGCHOLOGCHOLOGY AND LIFEY AND LIFEY AND LIFEY AND LIFEY AND LIFE

IntroductionHuman-Environment Relationship

Different Views of the Human-Environment RelationshipThe Bishnois and the Chipko Movement (Box 8.1)

Environmental Effects on Human BehaviourHuman Influence on the EnvironmentNoisePollutionCrowdingNatural Disasters

Promoting Pro-environmental BehaviourPsychology and Social Concerns

Poverty and DiscriminationAggression, Violence, and PeaceMahatma Gandhi on Non-violence : Why DoesNon-violence Work (Box 8.2)HealthImpact of Television on Behaviour

CONTENTS


After reading this chapter, you would be able to:understand how psychology can be applied to common problems in our lives,appreciate the relationship between human beings and the environment,analyse how pro-environmental behaviour helps to deal with environmental stressors,explain the causes and consequences of social problems from a psychological perspective,andlearn about the possible remedies of problems such as poverty, aggression, and health.

Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life 153

HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP

Take a moment and try to answer thesequestions : Can a tree be your ‘best friend’?When it gets hot, or when it is crowded,do people become more aggressive? If riversare said to be holy, why do people makethem dirty? How can one remedy thetraumatic effects of a natural disaster suchas an earthquake or tsunami, or of a man-made disaster such as a poisonous gasleak in a factory? Compare two childrenwho grow up in dif ferent physicalenvironments, one in an environment filledwith colourful toys, pictures and books,and the other in an environment thatcontains only the bare necessities of life.Will the two children develop the samekind of cognitive skills? People might givedifferent answers to these questions.

In the previous two chapters, you read about some topics related to socialbehaviour and groups. We will now reflect on a set of social concerns witha wider scope, which are linked to each other and involve psychologicalaspects. These issues have to be understood and resolved at the level ofthe community rather than the individual. It is now known that besidesaffecting our physical health, the environment also influences ourpsychological processes and behaviour. Human beings also influence theenvironment through their behaviour, and some of these effects aredemonstrated in stress-producing environmental conditions, such as noise,pollution and crowding. At the same time, environmental stressors such asnatural disasters are not under human control. Many damagingenvironmental effects can be reduced with the help of environment-friendlybehaviour and a state of preparedness. You will read about the causes andconsequences of some social problems such as aggression and violence,health, and poverty and discrimination. You will also get a glimpse of howpoverty and deprivation can make people victims of discrimination andsocial exclusion. An environment of poverty and deprivation has far-reachingimplications for developing human potential, social harmony and mentalhealth. Some ways of reducing poverty are also described. In addition,psychological aspects of health, and the impact of television viewing onviolence as well as other forms of behaviour are explained. This chapterwill show you how psychological understanding can be applied practicallyto aspects such as pro-environmental behaviour, the reduction of violenceand discrimination, and promotion of positive health attitudes.

Introduction

A common idea that comes out of thesequestions is that the relationship betweenhuman behaviour and the environmentplays a special role in our lives. Thesedays, there is a growing awareness thatenvironmental problems such as noise,air, water and soil pollution, andunsatisfactory ways of garbage disposalhave damaging effects on physical health.Less known is the fact that these forms ofpollution, along with many other hiddenfactors in the environment, influencepsychological health and functioning aswell. A branch of psychology calledenvironmental psychology deals withvarious psychological issues pertaining tothe human-environment interaction in avery broad sense of the term. The word ‘environment’ refers to allthat is around us, literally everything that

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surrounds us, including the physical,social, work, and cultural environment. Ingeneral, it includes all the forces outsidehuman beings to which they respond insome way. In the present section, thediscussion will centre around the physicalenvironment. ‘Ecology’ is the study of therelationships between living beings andtheir environment. In psychology, the focusis on the interdependence betweenthe environment and people, as theenvironment becomes meaningful withreference to the human beings who live init. In this context, a distinction can bemade between the natural environmentand the built environment. As the nameitself suggests, that part of nature whichremains untouched by human hand is thenatural environment. On the other hand,whatever has been created by humanbeings within the natural environment isthe built environment. Cities, houses,offices, factories, bridges, shopping malls,railway tracks, roads, dams, and evenartificially created parks and ponds aresome examples of the built environmentwhich show how human beings have madechanges in the environment given bynature. The built environment usually involvesthe concept of environmental design.The idea of ‘design’ contains somepsychological features, such as :• The creativity of the human mind, as

expressed in the work of architects,town planners and civil engineers.

• The sense of human control over thenatural environment, as shown in thebuilding of dams to regulate the naturalflow of rivers.

• The influence on the kind of socialinteraction that takes place in thedesigned environment. This feature isreflected, for instance, in the distancebetween houses in a colony, thelocation of rooms within a home, or inthe arrangement of work desks and

seats in an office for formal andinformal gatherings.

Different Views of the Human-Environment Relationship

There is more than one way of looking atthe human-environment relationship,depending largely on how this relationshipis perceived by human beings. Apsychologist named Stokols (1990)describes three approaches that may beadopted to describe the human-environment relationship.(a) The minimalist perspective assumes

that the physical environment hasminimal or negligible influence onhuman behaviour, health and well-being. The physical environment andhuman beings exist as parallelcomponents.

(b) The instrumental perspectivesuggests that the physical environmentexists mainly for use by human beingsfor their comfort and well-being. Mostof the human influences on theenvironment reflect the instrumentalperspective.

(c) The spiritual perspective refers to theview of the environment as somethingto be respected and valued rather thanexploited. It implies that human beingsrecognise the interdependent relation-ship between themselves and theenvironment, i.e. human beings willexist and will be happy only as long asthe environment is kept healthy andnatural.

The traditional Indian view about theenvironment supports the spiritualperspective. We have at least two examplesof this perspective in our country, viz. thecustoms of the Bishnoi community ofRajasthan, and the Chipko movement inthe Uttarakhand region (see Box 8.1). Bycontrast, we also find examples of peopledamaging or destroying the environment,


Box8.1The Bishnois and the Chipko Movement

The Bishnois, a small community in Rajasthan, value their trees and wildlife as muchas their lives. Following one of the 29 rules given by their guru, the Bishnois would doanything to prevent the destruction of trees by human beings, including hugging the treesif they are threatened in any way; the destroyer cannot cut the trees without cutting thesehuman bodies. Similarly, the forest cover in the Himalayan Uttarakhand region has beenprotected through the Chipko movement (‘chipko’ literally means ‘sticking to’ or huggingtrees). The aim of this movement is to conserve forests, prevent landslides and soil erosionin the region, and to support the livelihood of the inhabitants. In the 1960s, when theforest department of the government was not quite successful in curbing the indiscriminatefelling of trees in large numbers, people of the economically backward Uttarakhand regionexpressed their concern through the Chipko movement, which became stronger becauseof devastating floods in 1970.

The Chipko movement’s memorandum of demands included six principles: (a) onlyspecific trees and vegetation suitable for a particular geographical region should be grown,(b) forests in landslide and soil erosion zones need to be identified and renewed, (c) thosewho have been customarily living near the forests and depending on them for survivalshould be given the right to do so, (d) the contractor system for commercial timberexploitation should be abolished, (e) trees used by the villagers must be planted near thevillages, and (f) village cottage industries based on minor forest products should be setup to provide jobs to locals for checking migration from villages. This movement has beenrecognised by environmentalists in India and abroad as well as by the government.

which is a negative instance of theinstrumental perspective.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON HUMAN

BEHAVIOUR

The human-environment relationship canbe appreciated fully by understanding thatthe two influence each other, and dependon each other for their survival andmaintenance. When we focus our attentionon the effects of the natural environmenton human beings, we find a variety ofenvironmental influences, ranging fromphysical effects such as a change ofclothing in response to climate changes tosevere psychological ef fects such asserious depression after a natural disaster.Some of the ef fects pointed out bypsychologists are described below.

• Environmental influences onperception : Some aspects of theenvironment influence human

perception. For example, as you havestudied in Class XI, a tribal society ofAfrica lives in circular huts, that is, inhouses without angular walls. Theyshow less error in a geometric illusion(the Muller-Lyer illusion) than peoplefrom cities, who live in houses withangular walls.

• Environmental influences onemotions : The environment affects ouremotional reactions as well. Watchingnature in any form, whether it is aquietly flowing river, a smiling flower, ora tranquil mountain top, provides akind of joy that cannot be matched byany other experience. Natural disasters,such as floods, droughts, landslides,quakes on the earth or under theocean, can affect people’s emotions tosuch an extent that they experiencedeep depression and sorrow, a sense ofcomplete helplessness and lack ofcontrol over their lives. Such an

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influence on human emotions is atraumatic experience that changespeople’s lives forever, and can last fora very long time after the actual eventin the form of post-traumatic stressdisorder (PTSD).

• Ecological influences on occupation,living style and attitudes : Thenatural environment of a particularregion determines whether people livingin that region rely on agriculture (asin the plains), or on other occupationssuch as hunting and gathering (as inforest, mountainous or desert regions),or on industries (as in areas that arenot fertile enough for agriculture). Inturn, the occupation determines thelifestyle and attitudes of the residentsof a particular geographical region.Compare the daily routine followed bya person living in a desert with oneliving in a mountainous region, andwith one living on the plains. It hasbeen observed that an agriculturalsociety has to depend on the collectiveefforts of its members. Therefore, themembers of an agricultural societydevelop an attitude of cooperativeness,and consider group interests moreimportant than the individual’s wishes.They are also closer to nature, moredependent on natural events such asthe monsoon, and may face situationsin which necessary natural resourcessuch as water are in limited supply.Accordingly, the members of anagricultural society may become morefatalistic in their beliefs. On the otherhand, highly industrialised societies feelless close to and less dependent onnature. Members of industrialisedsocieties may value independentthinking, develop an attitude ofcompetitiveness, and cultivate a beliefof personal control over what happensto them.

Human Influence on the Environment

Human beings also exert their influence onthe natural environment for fulfilling theirphysical needs and other purposes. All theexamples of the built environment expresshuman influence over the environment.For example, the human being startedbuilding something called ‘houses’ bychanging the natural environment in orderto provide shelter for herself/himself.Some of these human actions harm anddamage the environment, and ultimatelyharm themselves, in numerous ways. Forexample, human beings use appliancessuch as refrigerators and airconditionersthat generate chemical substances (e.g.,CFCs, or chlorofluorocarbons) that pollutethe air and, in the long run, may beresponsible for physical diseases such assome forms of cancer. Smoking is knownto pollute the air around us, and theburning of plastic or metal articles hasdisastrous polluting effects on theenvironment. Cutting down trees, ordeforestation, may disrupt the carbon cycleand the water cycle. This may eventuallyaffect the pattern of rainfall in a region,and increase soil erosion anddesertification. Industries that dischargeeffluents, and pump this untreated sewageinto rivers, seem to be unconcerned aboutthe dangerous physical and psychologicalconsequences of this kind of pollution.

What is the psychological message inall of these examples? The message is thatalthough most of the effects mentionedabove are physical in nature, humanbeings have brought about these effects inorder to exhibit their control and powerover the natural environment. It issomewhat paradoxical that human beingsare using technology to change the naturalenvironment in order to improve thequality of their life but, in reality, they mayactually be worsening the quality of life!

Noise, pollution, crowding, andnatural disasters are some examples of


environmental stressors, which arestimuli or conditions in the environmentthat create a stress for human beings. Asyou have already read in Chapter 3, stressis an unpleasant psychological state whichcreates tension and anxiety in theindividual. However, human reactions tothese varying stressors may differ. Some ofthe damaging environmental effects aredescribed below.

Noise

Any sound that is annoying or irritating,and felt to be unpleasant is said to benoise. From common experience it isknown that noise, especially for longperiods of time, is uncomfortable, and putspeople in an unpleasant mood. Exposureto noise for a long period of time may leadto hearing loss. Apart from that, noise hasnegative effects on mental activity becauseit reduces concentration. Many of youmight have experienced this when youtried to study for your examination, withthe neighbours celebrating a marriage withloud music. Three characteristics of noise havebeen found to determine its effect on taskperformance, namely, intensity,predictability, and controllability ofnoise. Systematic research on the effectsof noise on human beings shows thefollowing :• When the task being performed is a

simple mental task, such as addition ofnumbers, noise does not affect overallperformance, whether it is loud or soft.In such situations, people adapt, or ‘getused’ to noise.

• If the task being performed is veryinteresting, then, too, the presence ofnoise does not affect performance. Thisis because the nature of the task helpsthe individual to pay full attention tothe task, and ignore the noise. Thismay also be one kind of adaptation.

• When the noise comes at intervals, andin an unpredictable way, it isexperienced as more disturbing than ifthe noise is continuously present.

• When the task being performed isdifficult, or requires full concentration,then intense, unpredictable, anduncontrollable noise reduces the levelof task performance.

• When tolerating or switching off thenoise is within the control of theperson, the number of errors in taskperformance decreases.

• In terms of emotional effects, noiseabove a certain level causes annoyance,and can also lead to sleep disturbance.These effects are also reduced if thenoise is controllable, or is necessary asa part of the person’s occupation.However, continued exposure touncontrollable and annoying noise canhave harmful effects on mental health.

From these observations, one mayconclude that the stressful effects of noiseare determined, not only by its high or lowintensity, but also by the extent to whichpeople are able to adapt to it, the natureof the task being performed, and whethernoise is predictable and controllable.

Pollution

Environmental pollution may be in theform of air, water, and soil pollution. Wasteor garbage that comes from households orfrom industries are a big source of air,water, and soil pollution. Scientists knowit very well that any of these forms ofpollution is hazardous to physical health.However, there are some research studiesthat have shown direct or indirectpsychological effects of these forms ofpollution as well. It has to be understoodthat in general, any form of environmentalpollution may affect the nervous systembecause of the presence of toxicsubstances and, to that extent, influence

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psychological processes in some way.Another form of influence is seen in theemotional reactions to pollution which, inturn, create discomfort, and haveconsequences such as decreased workefficiency, lowered interest in the job, andincrease in anxiety level. People do not liketo live or work in a locality that is litteredwith garbage, or has a constant foul smell.Similarly, the presence of dust particles, orother suspended particles, may give afeeling of suffocation and difficulty inbreathing, and may actually lead torespiratory disorders. People whoexperience this kind of discomfort cannotpay full attention to their work, or be ina pleasant mood.

Specific psychological effects of airpollution have been reported by someresearchers. For example, in one part ofKolkata, the psychological reactions to airpollution were compared between a groupliving in an industrial area, and a groupliving in a non-industrial residential area.Those living in the industrial area reportedgreater tension and anxiety than thoseliving in a non-industrial residential area.In a study conducted in Germany, thepresence of pollutants such as sulphurdioxide in the air was found to decreasethe ability to concentrate on a task, andlowering performance efficiency.

Pollution caused by leaks of dangerouschemical substances can cause other kindsof harm. The infamous Bhopal gas tragedyof December 1984 that claimed many lives,also left behind psychological effectsbecause of the gas. Many of those who hadinhaled the poisonous gas, methyl-isocyanate (MIC) along with othersubstances, showed disturbances inmemory, attention and alertness.

There can be harmful air pollution inthe home and office environment (indoorenvironments) also. For example, tobaccosmoke pollution, that is, pollution throughcigarette, cigar or beedi smoking, can also

cause psychological effects. Such effectsare supposed to be more dangerous for thesmoker; however, those who inhale tobaccosmoke (passive smoking) can also sufferthe negative effects. One researcher foundthat inhaling tobacco smoke can increasethe aggression level of individuals.

The presence of polluting substances inwater and soil are hazardous for physicalhealth. Some of these chemicals can alsohave damaging psychological effects. Thepresence of specific chemicals such as leadcan cause mental retardation by affectingbrain development. Such toxic substancesaffect human beings through variousroutes, i.e. through water, or through soilby being absorbed by vegetables grown inpolluted soil.

Another source of toxicity is householdand industrial waste, or garbage, which arenon-biodegradable. Common examples ofsuch waste are plastics, tin or any metalcontainer. This kind of waste materialshould be destroyed or burned throughspecial techniques, and the smoke shouldnot be allowed to escape into the air thatpeople breathe.

In general, there is sufficient evidenceto show that toxic chemicals in the air,water and soil may lead to harmful effectsnot only on normal psychologicalfunctioning, but may also cause seriousmental disorders. Therefore, there isabsolutely no doubt that all forms ofpollution need to be curbed.

Crowding

Most of us are familiar with crowds, whichare large informal groups of personscoming together temporarily without anyparticular goal. For example, when afamous person suddenly appears on theroad, people who are present in thesituation at the time often collect aroundthe scene, just to watch this person. Butcrowding has a different meaning. It refers


to a feeling of discomfort because there aretoo many people or things around us,giving us the experience of physicalrestriction, and sometimes the lack ofprivacy. Crowding is the person’s reactionto the presence of a large number ofpersons within a particular area or space.When this number goes beyond a certainlevel, it causes stress to individuals caughtin that situation. In this sense, crowdingis another example of an environmentalstressor.

The experience of crowding has thefollowing features :• Feeling of discomfort,• Loss or decrease in privacy,• Negative view of the space around the

person, and• Feeling of loss of control over social

interaction.

The psychological consequences ofcrowding in our country have beensystematically studied by several Indianpsychologists in many Indian cities suchas Allahabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Varanasi,and Jaipur as well as some rural areas ofRajasthan. Some of these researchinvestigations of crowding have beenconducted in the psychology laboratory,but many more have been carried out incommonly encountered settings such ashouseholds, of fices, traf fic, publictransport such as autorickshaw, cinemahalls, etc. The large population of ourcountry makes crowding much more herethan in other less populated countries.This feature has prompted some foreignpsychologists to study the effects ofcrowding in India.

It should be understood that theexperience of crowding is brought aboutnot merely because of the large number ofpersons as such, nor merely because of theshortage of space. It is related to density,that is, the number of persons within theavailable space. For example, if there are

fifteen persons trying to squeeze into fourseats in a railway compartment, eachperson is likely to experience crowding.Place the same fifteen persons in a largehall, and nobody experiences crowding.

One may ask : Is crowding alwaysexperienced in high density settings, anddo all people experience its negative effectsto the same extent? If you answered bothquestions by saying ‘no’, you are right.When we go to a fair (mela) or a weddingceremony, usually the physical setting hashigh density, and we enjoy it in that form.After all, what is a mela or weddingceremony if there are very few people? Onthe other hand, if there are many peoplesharing a small room, everyone feelsuncomfortable.

The stressful effects of crowding can becompletely understood only when we lookinto its consequences. A summary is givenbelow of the effects of crowding and highdensity as reported in several researchstudies conducted in India and othercountries.• Crowding and high density may lead to

abnormal behaviour and aggression.This was shown many years ago in astudy of rats. These animals wereplaced in an enclosure, initially in smallnumbers. As their population increasedwithin this enclosed space, they startedshowing aggressive and unusualbehaviour, such as biting the tails ofother rats. This aggressive behaviourincreased to such an extent thatultimately the animals died in largenumbers, thus decreasing thepopulation in the enclosure. Amonghuman beings also, an increase inpopulation has sometimes been foundto be accompanied by an increase inviolent crime.

• Crowding leads to lowered performanceon difficult tasks that involve cognitiveprocesses, and has adverse effects onmemory and the emotional state. These

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negative effects are seen to a smallerextent in people who are used tocrowded surroundings.

• Children growing up in very crowdedhouseholds show lower academicperformance. They also show a weakertendency to continue working on a taskif they are unsuccessful at it, comparedto children growing up in non-crowdedhouseholds. They experience greaterconflict with their parents, and get lesssupport from their family members.

• The nature of social interactiondetermines the degree to which anindividual will react to crowding. Forexample, if the interaction is on ahappy social occasion, such as a partyor public celebration, the presence of alarge number of persons in the samephysical setting may cause no stress atall. Rather, it may lead to positiveemotional reactions. At the same time,crowding, in turn, also influences thenature of social interaction.

• Individuals differ in the degree to whichthey show negative effects of crowding,and also in the nature of thesereactions. Two kinds of tolerance canbe mentioned that may explain theseindividual differences, i.e. crowdingtolerance and competition tolerance.

Crowding tolerance refers to theability to mentally deal with a highdensity or crowded environment, suchas a crowded residence (a large numberof persons within a small room). Peoplewho are used to an environmentcontaining many persons around them(for example, individuals growing up ina large family that lives in a smallhouse) develop more crowding tolerancethan people who are used to only a fewpersons around them. Our country hasa large population and many people livewith large families in small houses.This might lead us to expect that

Indians in general should have morecrowding tolerance than people fromother, less populated countries.

Competition tolerance is the ability toput up with a situation in whichindividuals would have to compete withmany others for even basic resources,including physical space. Since there isa greater possibility of competition forresources in a crowded setting, thereaction to that setting would beinfluenced by the extent of tolerance forcompetition for resources.

• Cultural characteristics may determinethe extent to which a particularenvironment is judged to be subjec-tively more crowded or less crowded.They may also affect the nature andextent of negative reactions tocrowding. For example, in cultures thatemphasise the importance of the groupor collectivity over the individual, thepresence of a large number of people inthe surroundings is not taken as anundesirable state. On the other hand,in cultures that emphasise theimportance of the individual over thegroup or collectivity, the presence ofmany other persons in the environmentaround us may make us un-comfortable. Overall, though, regardlessof whether the culture considers thegroup more important than theindividual, or the other way round, itis clear that in all cultures, crowding isexperienced as being stressful.

• Personal space, or the comfortablephysical space one generally likes tomaintain around oneself, is affected bya high density environment. In acrowded context, there is a restrictionon personal space, and this can also bea cause of negative reactions tocrowding.

We find many examples of peopleresponding to the physical environment in


terms of space. In social situations,human beings like to maintain a certainphysical distance from the person withwhom they are interacting. This is calledinterpersonal physical distance, and is apart of a broader concept called personalspace, i.e. the physical space we like tohave all around us. One reason for thenegative reactions to crowding, asdescribed earlier, is the decrease inpersonal space. Personal space can varybetween people, between situations andsettings, and between cultures. Someaverage distances have been observed incertain cultures. Edward Hall, ananthropologist, mentioned four kinds ofinterpersonal physical distance, dependingon the situation:• Intimate distance (upto 18 inches) : The

distance you maintain when you aretalking privately to someone, orinteracting with a very close friend orrelative.

• Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet) :The distance you maintain when youare interacting one-to-one with a closefriend, relative, or even with someonenot very close to you in a work settingor other social situation.

• Social distance (4 to 10 feet) : Thedistance you maintain when theinteraction is formal, and not close.

• Public distance (10 feet to infinity) : Thedistance you maintain in a formalsetting, where there is a large numberof persons. For example, the distanceof an audience from a public speaker,or a teacher in a classroom.

It may be noted that these distances aremaintained voluntarily, keeping in mindthe comfort experienced by the personsinvolved in the interaction. However, whenthere is a shortage of space, people areforced to maintain much smaller physicaldistance from each other (for instance, in

a lift, or in a train compartment wherethere are too many people). In suchcramped spaces, an individual is likely tofeel crowded, even though objectively, thenumber of persons is not very large. Inshort, people react to available space as apart of the physical environment. Whenfreedom of movement, the sense of privacy,and personal space cannot be maintainednormally, the person experiences stressand responds negatively — with a badmood, or aggressively, and tries to leavethe situation as soon as possible.

The concept of personal space isimportant for the following reasons. First,it explains many of the negative effects ofcrowding as an environmental stressor.Second, it tells us about social relation-ships. For example, two persons sitting orstanding close together are seen to befriends or related to each other. When youvisit your school library, and if your friendis sitting at a table and the place next toher/him is empty, you like to sit next toher/him. But if a person you do not knowis sitting at the table, even if the place nextto her/him is empty, it is unlikely that youwill sit next to this person. Third, it givesus some idea about how physical spacecan be modified in order to reduce stressor discomfort in social situations, or tomake social interaction more enjoyable andfruitful.

Here are some simple examples.Suppose the staff in your school have todecide how to arrange chairs when (i) thereis a social event, such as a culturalprogramme, (ii) there is a meeting betweenparents and teachers, and (iii) some guestspeakers have been invited to address thestudents and teachers. Should thearrangement of chairs be the same in allthree situations? You will find out moreabout what kind of seating arrangementpeople choose in non-crowded settingsif you conduct Activity 8.1.

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Natural Disasters

Environmental stressors such as noise,various forms of pollution and crowdingare the result of human behaviour. Bycontrast, natural disasters are stressfulexperiences that are the result of nature’sfury, i.e. the consequence of disturbancesin the natural environment. Commonexamples of natural disasters areearthquakes, tsunamis, floods, cyclones,and volcanic eruptions. One findsexamples of other disasters also, such aswars, industrial accidents such as theleaking of poisonous or radioactiveelements in industrial plants, or epidemics(e.g., the plague that affected some partsof our country in 1994). However, wars andepidemics are human-made events,although their effects can also be as severeas those of natural disasters. These eventsare called ‘disasters’ because they cannotbe prevented, usually come without anywarning, and result in immense damage to

human lives and property. Sadly, they alsolead to a psychological disorder, calledpost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).Science and technology have nowprogressed sufficiently to make it possiblefor human beings to predict these events,to some extent. Yet the psychologicaleffects of natural disasters need to beunderstood and remedied.

What are the ef fects of naturaldisasters? First, they leave peoplepoverty-stricken, homeless, without anyresources, usually along with a loss ofeverything they owned. Second, thesudden loss of all their belongings as wellas their dear ones leaves people shockedand stunned. This is sufficient to create adeep-seated psychological disorder. Naturaldisasters are traumatic experiences, i.e.emotionally wounding and shocking tothose who survive the disaster. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is asevere psychological problem that resultsfrom traumatic events such as natural

What Kind of Seating Arrangements Do People Prefer?

Show the following diagrams, A, B, and C to 5 persons you know, and ask them wherethey would like to sit by writing ‘P’ in that place. [The ‘X’ in these pictures indicates theperson who is already sitting there.]

Note the places chosen by these 5 persons. Do these persons choose the same places?You may repeat this exercise by comparing the chosen places, when, in diagram A, Xis a friend, in diagram B, X is someone you do not know, and in diagram C, X is someoneyou know well.

A. X is your friend : B. X is someone you C. X is someone you knowyou are joining do not know well, and you well, both of you areher/him for tea have to do some work participating in ain the canteen. with her/him as a competition, and each

team member. one wants to win.

Where would you like to sit? Indicate by writing ‘P’ in the chosen place.

Diagram A Diagram B Diagram C

X

X

X

Activity8.1


disasters. This disorder has the followingfeatures.• The immediate reaction to a disaster is

commonly one of disorientation. Peopletake some time to understand the fullmeaning of what the disaster has doneto them. They may actually deny tothemselves that something terrible hashappened. Following the immediatereaction are the physical reactions.

• Physical reactions, such as bodilyexhaustion even without physicalactivity, difficulty in sleeping, change inthe eating pattern, increased heartbeatand blood pressure, and getting startledeasily can be found among the victims.

• Emotional reactions, such as grief andfear, irritability, anger (“Why shouldthis happen to me?”), helplessness,hopelessness (“I could do nothing toprevent this event”), depression,sometimes absolute lack of emotion(numbness), guilt feelings for havingsurvived while someone else in thefamily died, blaming oneself, and lackof interest in even routine activities.

• Cognitive reactions, such as worry,difficulty in concentration, reducedspan of attention, confusion, loss ofmemory, or vivid memories thatare unwanted (or nightmares of theevent).

• Social reactions, such as withdrawalfrom others, getting into conflict withothers, having frequent arguments witheven loved ones, and feeling rejected orleft out. Surprisingly, very often, in themidst of severe emotional reactions tostress, some survivors may actuallyhelp in the healing processes. Havingbeen through the experience, yetsurvived it and staying alive, thesepersons may develop a positive outlookon life and, with empathy, pass on thisattitude to other survivors.

These reactions may last for a long time,in some cases throughout life. However,

with proper counselling and psychiatrictreatment, PTSD can be remedied at leastupto a level where the victims can bemotivated, and helped to start life afresh.The poor, women who have lost all theirrelatives, and orphaned children who aresurvivors of natural disasters need specialtreatment and care. As in the case of theother environmental stressors, people reactwith dif ferent intensities to naturaldisasters. In general, the intensity ofreaction is affected by :• The severity of the disaster, and the loss

incurred (both in terms of property andlife),

• The individual’s general coping ability,and

• Other stressful experiences before thedisaster. For example, people who haveexperienced stress before may find itmore difficult to deal with yet anotherdifficult and stressful situation.

Although we are aware that mostnatural disasters can be predicted only ina limited way, there are ways of beingprepared to minimise their devastatingconsequences in the form of (a) warnings,(b) safety measures that can be takenimmediately after the event, and(c) treatment of psychological disorders.These measures, usually taken at thecommunity level, are described below.• Warnings : If you have been listening

to the radio in the recent past, youmight have heard advertisements thatmention what people should do whenit is announced that some naturaldisaster, such as a flood, is likely.When cyclones or high tides arepredicted, fishermen are asked not toventure into the sea.

• Safety measures : Unfortunately, inthe case of some natural disasters suchas earthquakes, even if prediction ispossible, the events come too suddenlyfor people to be warned or to bementally prepared. Therefore, tips are

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given beforehand about what to dowhen there is an earthquake.

• Treatment of psychologicaldisorders : This includes self-helpapproaches as well as professionaltreatment. Often, the very first stepinvolves providing material relief in theform of food, clothing, medical help,shelter, and financial help. Counsellingat the individual and group level is thenext step. This can take many forms,such as encouraging the survivors totalk about their experiences andemotional state, and giving them timefor their emotional wounds to heal.According to some experts who dealwith PTSD, one of the key attitudes tobe developed in the survivors is that ofself-efficacy, i.e. the belief that ‘I cando it!’, or ‘I can come out of this phasesuccessfully.’ Psychiatric help may beneeded for those showing extreme stressreactions. Finally, rehabilitation in theform of employment and a gradualreturn to the normal routine should beundertaken. At some stage, follow-up ofthe victims and survivors is also neededin order to ensure that they have,indeed, recovered sufficiently from theirtraumatic experience.

regard to crowding, it is entirely a human-made problem. Natural disasters, ofcourse, are beyond human control. Yet onecan take the necessary precautions. Somethoughts regarding environment-friendlybehaviour are stated in the next section.

PROMOTING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL

BEHAVIOUR

Pro-environmental behaviour includesboth actions that are meant to protect theenvironment from problems, and topromote a healthy environment. Somepromotive actions to protect theenvironment from pollution are :• Reducing air pollution by keeping

vehicles in good condition, or changingto non-fuel driven vehicles, stoppingthe practice of smoking.

• Reducing noise pollution by ensuringthat noise levels are low, for example,discouraging needless honking on theroad, or making rules regarding noisymusic at certain hours.

• Managing disposal of garbage sensibly,for example, by encouraging separationof biodegradable garbage from non-biodegradable waste, or composting ofkitchen waste. These practices need tobe adopted both at home and in publicplaces. Special attention has to be paidto the management of industrial andhospital waste.

• Planting trees and ensuring their care,keeping in mind that those plants andtrees should not be planted that haveadverse health effects.

• Saying ‘no’ to plastics in any form, thusreducing toxic wastes that pollutewater, air and the soil.

• Reducing the non-biodegradablepackaging of consumer goods.

• Laws related to construction (especiallyin urban areas) that violate optimalenvironmental design.

Ask your teacher to help you toconduct the following role play, alongwith your classmates. Some studentsenact the role of victims of a naturaldisaster, showing symptoms of PTSD,while some others enact the role ofcounsellors. Get the opinions of yourclassmates and teacher about thebehaviour shown by the counsellors.

Activity8.2

It may be pointed out that althoughpollution due to noise, air and water is nowhere to stay, some practices on the part ofthe community can go a long way inmaking our precious environment lesspolluted and healthier for all of us. With


PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL CONCERNS

If you ask someone to list the mainproblems that our society faces today, youcan be fairly sure that two problems willbe mentioned, among others — povertyand violence. Both of these phenomenahave noticeable effects on the physical aswell as psychological health of people. Ithas to be understood that poverty is notmerely an economic problem, and violenceis not merely a question of breaking thelaw. Rather, these problems can beresolved only if we examine theirpsychological causes. Psychologists haveactively explored these issues, and havefocused on the causes and consequencesof these phenomena. Each of these socialconcerns is discussed below.

Poverty and Discrimination

Everyone agrees that poverty is a curse onsociety, and the more quickly we get rid ofit, the better it will be for society. Someexperts define poverty mainly in economicterms, and measure it in terms of income,nutrition (the daily calorie intake perperson), and the amount spent on basicnecessities of life such as food, clothingand shelter. Some other indicators are alsoused, such as physical health and literacy.Such measures continue to be used insome contexts. However, from the socialand psychological points of view, economicand other physical aspects tell only a smallpart of the story about poverty. From thesocio-psychological point of view, the mostcommonly accepted definition of poverty isthat it is a condition in which there is alack of necessities of life in the context ofunequal distribution of wealth in society.

Some authors add that the sense ofdeprivation and social disadvantage areadditional features of poverty. A distinctionbetween deprivation and poverty is thatdeprivation refers to the state in which a

person feels that s/he has lost somethingvaluable, and is not getting somethingwhat s/he deserves. Poverty refers to anactual shortage of the resources necessaryfor living, and thus can be somewhatobjectively defined. In deprivation, it ismore a question of perceiving or thinkingthat one has got less than what one shouldhave got. Thus, a poor person mayexperience deprivation, but poverty is nota necessary condition for experiencingdeprivation. The situation of the poor isworsened if they also experiencedeprivation. In reality, usually the pooralso feel deprived. Both poverty and deprivation arelinked to social disadvantage, i.e. acondition because of which some sectionsof society are not allowed to enjoy the sameprivileges as the rest of society. Socialdisadvantage poses an obstacle to thegrowth of these sections. In our society, thecaste system has been largely the sourceof social disadvantage, but poverty,irrespective of caste, has also played a rolein creating social disadvantage. Further, social disadvantage becauseof caste and poverty has created theproblem of discrimination. You may recallfrom Chapters 6 and 7 that discriminationis often linked to prejudice. In the contextof poverty, discrimination refers to thebehaviour that makes a distinctionbetween the rich and the poor, favouringthe rich and the advantaged over the poorand the disadvantaged. This distinctioncan be seen in matters of social interaction,education, and employment. Thus, even ifthe poor or disadvantaged have thecapability, they are kept away fromopportunities that are enjoyed by the restof society. The children of the poor do notget a chance to study in good schools, orget good health facilities, and employment.Social disadvantage and discriminationprevent the poor from improving theirsocio-economic condition through their

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own efforts, and this makes the poor evenpoorer. In short, poverty anddiscrimination are related in such a waythat discrimination becomes both a causeand a consequence of poverty. Clearly,discrimination based on poverty or casteis socially unjust, and has to be removed.

Every society wishes to do away withpoverty. To proceed in this direction, it isimportant to know the psychologicaldimensions of poverty and deprivation, andtheir major causes.

Psychological Characteristics and Effects ofPoverty and Deprivation

Considering that poverty and deprivationare among the glaring problems of oursociety, Indian social scientists, includingsociologists, psychologists and economists,have undertaken systematic research onthe poor and deprived sections. Theirfindings and observations show thatpoverty and deprivation do have adverseeffects on motivation, personality, socialbehaviour, cognitive processes, and mentalhealth.• In terms of motivation, the poor have

low aspirations and low achievementmotivation, and high need fordependence. They explain theirsuccesses in terms of luck or fate ratherthan ability or hard work. In general,they believe that events in their livesare controlled by factors outside them,rather than within them.

• With regard to personality, the poor anddeprived have low self-esteem, are highon anxiety and introversion, and dwellon the immediate present rather thanbeing future-oriented. They prefersmaller immediate rewards to largerrewards in the long run, because in theirperception, the future is too uncertain.They live with a sense of hopelessness,powerlessness, felt injustice, andexperience a loss of identity.

• With respect to social behaviour, thepoor and deprived sections exhibit anattitude of resentment towards the restof society.

• Among the ef fects of prolongeddeprivation on cognitive functioning, ithas been found that intellectualfunctioning and performance ontasks (such as classification, verbalreasoning, time perception, andpictorial depth perception) is loweramong the highly deprived compared tothose who are less deprived. It has alsobeen clarified that the ef fect ofdeprivation is because the nature of theenvironment in which children growup — whether it is enriched orimpoverished — makes a difference intheir cognitive development, and this isreflected in cognitive task performance.

• With regard to mental health, there isan unquestionable relationshipbetween mental disorders and povertyor deprivation. The poor are more likelyto suffer from specific mental illnessescompared to the rich, possibly due toconstant worriness about basicnecessities, feelings of insecurity, orinability to get medical facilities,especially for mental illnesses. In fact,it has been suggested that depressionmay be a mental disorder largely of thepoor. Besides, the poor experience asense of hopelessness and a loss ofidentity, as though they do not belongto society. As a result, they also sufferfrom emotional and adjustmentproblems.

Major Causes of Poverty

Poverty is sometimes caused by naturaldisasters such as earthquakes, floods, andcyclones, or man-made disasters such aspoisonous gas leaks. When such eventstake place, people suddenly lose all theirpossessions and have to face poverty.


Similarly, one generation of the poor maybe unable to eradicate their poverty, andthe next generation continues to remain inpoverty. Apart from these causes, otherfactors responsible for poverty have beenmentioned below. However, there are somedif ferences of opinion regarding theimportance of these factors.• The poor themselves are responsible for

their poverty. According to this view,the poor lack the ability and motivationto put in effort, and make use ofavailable opportunities. In general,such a view about the poor is rathernegative, and does not help at all inmaking them better.

• It is not the individual, but a beliefsystem, a way of life, and values, inwhich she/he is brought up, that is thecause of poverty. This belief system,called the ‘culture of poverty ’ ,convinces the person that she/he willcontinue to remain poor, and the beliefis carried over from one generation ofthe poor to the next.

• Economic, social and political factorstogether account for poverty. Becauseof discrimination, certain sections ofsociety are denied the opportunitiesneeded for getting even the basicnecessities of life. The economic systemis made to grow in a disproportionateway, through social and politicalexploitation, so that the poor are left outof the race. All these factors can besummed up in the idea of socialdisadvantage, because of which the poorexperience social injustice, deprivation,discrimination, and exclusion.

• The geographic region in which onelives is said to be a significant cause ofpoverty. For example, people living inregions (such as deserts) that have ashortage of natural resources and aharsh climate (such as extreme heat orcold) end up being poor. This factorcannot be controlled by human beings.

However, attempts can be made to helppeople in such regions to findalternative means of livelihood, and toprovide special facilities for theireducation and employment.

• The poverty cycle is another importantcause of poverty that explains whypoverty tends to continue among thesame sections of society. Poverty begetspoverty. Beginning with a low incomeand lack of resources, the poor gothrough low health and nutrition, lackof education, and lack of skills. Thisleads to low employment opportunities,which, in turn, continue their lowincome condition, and low health andnutrition status. The resulting loweredmotivational level only makes thesituation worse; the cycle starts andcontinues again. Thus, the poverty cycleinvolves an interaction between thefactors mentioned above, and results indeclining individual motivation, hope,and sense of control.

The only way to tackle the problemsassociated with poverty and deprivation isto work actively as well as earnestlytowards the removal or reduction ofpoverty. Some measures in that directionare described below.

Measures for Poverty Alleviation

Several steps are being taken by thegovernment and other groups to worktowards alleviation or reduction of povertyand its negative consequences.• Breaking the poverty cycle, and helping

the poor to attain self-sufficiency —Initially, financial relief, medical andother facilities may have to be providedto the poor. Care should be taken to seethat this financial and other help doesnot make the poor dependent on thesesources for their livelihood.

• Creating a context for making the poortake responsibility instead of blame for

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their poverty — This step will help themto regain a sense of hope, control andidentity.

• Providing educational and employmentopportunities, following the principlesof social justice — This step may helpthe poor to discover their own abilitiesand skills, thus enabling them to comeup to the level of other sections ofsociety. This will also help in reducingcrime and violence by reducingfrustration, and by encouraging thepoor to earn their livelihood throughlegal rather than illegal means.

• Measures for improved mental health —Many of the poverty reductionmeasures help to improve the physicalhealth of the poor, but their mentalhealth still remains a problem to betackled ef fectively. With greaterawareness of this problem, it is hopedthat more attention will be paid to thisaspect of poverty.

• Steps for empowering the poor —Through the measures mentionedabove, the poor should be made morepowerful, capable of living indepen-dently and with dignity, withoutdepending on the help given by thegovernment or other groups.

The concept of ‘Antyodaya’, or the riseof the ‘last person’ in society, i.e. thepoorest or the most disadvantaged, hashelped a large section of the poor to getuplifted to a better economic conditionthan they have experienced earlier. UnderAntyodaya programmes, there is provisionfor health facilities, nutrition, educationand training for employment — all theareas in which the poor need help. Manyof these programmes are more active inrural than in urban regions, as the ruralpoor have even fewer facilities than theurban poor. In addition, the poor areencouraged to start their own small-scalebusinesses. Initial capital for these ventures

is provided through small loans or micro-credit facilities. This facility is similar to theidea of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.

Following the 73rd amendment of theConstitution, the aim is to give more powerto people for their development throughdecentralised planning, and throughpeople’s participation. ActionAid, aninternational group dedicated to the causeof the poor, has goals of making the poormore sensitive to their rights, to equalityand justice, and ensuring for themadequate nutrition, health, and facilities foreducation and employment. The Indianbranch of this organisation has beenworking for poverty alleviation in ourcountry.

These measures cannot be expected tohave magical effects in a short time. But,if these efforts towards poverty alleviationare continued in the right spirit and rightdirection, we may see positive results inthe very near future.

Activity8.3

You must have heard the proverb, ‘Abird in hand is worth two in thebush’.

Would people experiencingpoverty ‘Agree’ or ‘Disagree’ with thisproverb? Why? Discuss in class withyour teacher.

Aggression, Violence and Peace

Aggression and violence are among themajor problems in today’s society, and theycover a wide range of behaviours — fromragging of newcomers in educationalinstitutes, through child abuse, domesticviolence, murder and rape, to riots andterrorist attacks.

Psychologists use the term ‘aggression’to refer to any behaviour by one person/persons that is intended to cause harm toanother person/persons. It can bedemonstrated in actual action or throughthe use of harsh words or criticism, or even


hostile feelings against others. Forcefuldestructive behaviour towards anotherperson or object is described as violence.Some psychologists distinguish aggressionfrom violence by pointing out thataggressive behaviour involves the intentionto harm or injure another person, whereasviolence may or may not involve such anintention. For example, burning buses orother public property during a riot is calledviolence as well as aggression. But,suppose you see a person kicking amotorbike violently. Her/his intention maybe only to start the vehicle and, therefore,this act will not be considered a case ofaggression. On the other hand, the personmay also perform the violent act in orderto damage the vehicle, because it belongsto a person s/he dislikes. In this case,because harm was intended, the act wouldbe called a case of aggression. A distinction is also made betweeninstrumental aggression and hostileaggression. In instrumental aggression,the act of aggression is meant to obtain acertain goal or object. For example, a bullyslaps a new student in school so thats/he can snatch the newcomer’s chocolate.Hostile aggression is that which is shownas an expression of anger towards thetarget, with the intention of harming her/him, even if the aggressor does not wishto obtain anything from the victim. Forexample, a criminal may beat up a personin the community for mentioning his nameto the police.

Causes of Aggression

Social psychologists have explored theissue of aggression for several years, andhave come up with the following viewsabout the causes of aggression.1. Inborn tendency : Aggressiveness is an

inborn tendency among human beings(as it is in animals). Biologically, thisinborn tendency may be meant for self-defence.

2. Physiological mechanisms : Aggressioncould also be indirectly triggered byphysiological mechanisms, especially bythe activation of certain parts of thebrain that play a role in emotionalexperience. A general physiologicalstate of arousal, or feeling activated,might often be expressed in the form ofaggression. There could be severalfactors that cause arousal. Forexample, as was seen earlier in thischapter, aggression can result from asense of crowding, especially in hot andhumid weather.

3. Child-rearing : The way an individual isbrought up often influences her/hisaggressiveness. For example, childrenwhose parents use physical punish-ment end up becoming more aggressivethan children whose parents use otherdisciplinary techniques. This could bebecause the parent has set an exampleof aggressive behaviour, which the childimitates. It could also be becausephysical punishment makes the childangry and resentful; as the child growsup, s/he expresses this anger throughaggressive behaviour.

4. Frustration : Aggression is anexpression, and consequence offrustration, i.e. an emotional state thatarises when a person is prevented fromreaching a goal, or attaining an objectthat s/he wants. The person may bevery close to the goal, and yet does notattain it. It has been found that peoplein frustrated situations show moreaggression than those who are notfrustrated. In one of the experimentsconducted to examine the effects offrustration, children were preventedfrom getting some attractive toys thatwere visible through a screen. As aresult, these children were found to bemore destructive in play than thosechildren who were allowed accessto toys.

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An American psychologist, JohnDollard along with his collaborators,conducted research specifically to examinethe frustration-aggression theory. Thistheory proposes that it is frustration thatleads to aggression. As expected, frustratedpersons did demonstrate more aggressionthan non-frustrated persons. Moreover,such aggression was often shown towardsa weaker person who was unlikely,or unable, to react to the aggression.This phenomenon has been calleddisplacement. Often it is observed thatmembers of a majority group in societymay be prejudiced (Chapter 6) againstmembers of a minority group, and mayshow aggressive behaviour towards aminority group member, such as usingabusive language, or even physicallyassaulting the minority group member.This may be a case of displaced aggressionarising out of frustration.

Later on, as more information wasgathered about the causes of aggression,it became clear that frustration is not theonly, or even a major cause of aggression.Observations showed that (i) beingfrustrated does not necessarily make aperson aggressive, and (ii) many othersituational factors may lead to aggression.Some of these situational factors aredescribed below.• Learning : Among human beings,

aggression is largely the result oflearning rather than an expression ofan inborn tendency. Learning ofaggression can take place in more thanone mode. Individuals may exhibitaggression because they have found itrewarding (for example, hostileaggression allows the aggressive personto get what s/he wants). This would bea case of learning through directreinforcement. Individuals also learn tobe aggressive by observing othersshowing aggression. This is a case oflearning through modelling.

• Observing an aggressive model : Manyresearch studies conducted bypsychologists such as Albert Banduraand his collaborators show the role ofmodelling in learning aggression. If achild observes aggression and violenceon television, s/he may start imitatingthat behaviour. Without doubt violenceand aggression shown on television andthe film media have a powerfulinfluence on the viewers, especially thechildren. But the question is : Doesmerely seeing violence on televisionmake a person aggressive? Or are thereother situational factors that actuallymake a person show aggression? Theanswer is obtained through informationabout specific situational factors.

• Anger-provoking action by others : If aperson watches a movie that showsviolence, and is then made to feel angry(for example, through insults or threats,physical aggression, or dishonesty) byanother person, s/he may be morelikely to show aggression than if s/heis not made to feel angry. In studiesthat tested the frustration-aggressiontheory, provoking the person andmaking her/him angry was one way ofinducing frustration.

• Availability of weapons of aggression :Some researchers have found thatobserving violence leads to a greaterlikelihood of aggression on the part ofthe observer only if weapons ofaggression like a stick, pistol or knifeare easily available.

• Personality factors : When interactingwith people we notice that some ofthem seem to be ‘naturally’ more hot-tempered, and show more aggressionthan others. We may conclude thataggressiveness is thus a personalquality. It has been observed thatpeople who have very low self-esteemand feel insecure may behaveaggressively in order to ‘boost their ego’.


Likewise, people who have very highself-esteem may also show aggression,because they feel that others do notplace them at the high ‘level’ at whichthey have placed themselves.

• Cultural factors : The culture in whichone grows up can teach its members tobe aggressive or not by encouragingand praising aggressive behaviour, ordiscouraging and criticising suchbehaviour. Some tribal communities aretraditionally peace-loving, whereasothers see aggression as necessary forsurvival.

Reducing Aggression and Violence : SomeStrategies

Knowing that aggression can have morethan one cause, can anything be done toreduce aggression and violence in society?Some of the remedies suggested forcurbing violence and aggression aredescribed below. It may not be easy toensure a society or environment that is freefrom frustrating situations. However, thelearning of aggression can be curtailed by

creating the appropriate attitude towardsthe general problem of growing aggression.• Parents and teachers should be

specially careful not to encourage orreward aggression in any form. The useof punishment to bring about disciplinealso needs to be changed.

• Opportunities to observe and imitatethe behaviour of aggressive modelsshould be reduced drastically.Portraying aggression as heroicbehaviour should be particularlyavoided, because this may set the stagefor learning through observation.

• Poverty and social injustice may be aprominent cause of aggression, becausethey can cause frustration in certainsections of society. Implementing socialjustice and equality in society may helpin reducing frustration levels andthereby curb aggressive tendencies atleast to some extent.

• Apart from these strategies, at the levelof the community or society, it isimportant to inculcate a positiveattitude towards peace. We should notonly reduce aggression, but should also

Box8.2Mahatma Gandhi on Non-violence: Why Does Non-violence Work?

“Non-violence is an active force of the highest order. It is the soul-force or the power ofthe Godhead within us. Imperfect man cannot grasp the whole of that Essence — he wouldnot be able to bear its full blaze, but even an infinitesimal fraction of it, when it becomesactive within us, can work wonders.

I am not a visionary; I claim to be a practical idealist. The religion of non-violenceis not meant for the rishis or saints. It is meant for the common people as well. Non-violence is the law of our species as violence is the law of the brute …. The dignity ofman requires obedience to a higher law — to the strength of the spirit. Non-violence doesnot require any outside or outward training. It simply requires the will not to kill evenin retaliation and the courage to face death without revenge. This is no sermon on ahimsabut cold reason and the statement of a universal law. Given the unquenchable faith inthe law, no provocation should prove too great for the exercise of forbearance.

With satya (truth) combined with ahimsa (non-violence), you can bring the world underyour feet. Satyagrah in its essence is nothing but the introduction of truth and gentlenessin the political, i.e. national life …. By its very nature, non-violence cannot seize power,nor can that be its goal. However, non-violence can do more; it can effectively control andguide power without capturing the machinery of government. That is its beauty.”

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actively develop and maintain peace.Our own cultural values have alwaysfavoured peaceful and harmoniousco-existence. The father of our nation,Mahatma Gandhi, gave the world a newview on peace that was not simply theabsence of aggression. This was theidea of non-violence, which he himselfpracticed throughout his life (seeBox 8.2).

Health

Our understanding about health and well-being has undergone a major change inrecent times. It is now conceded thatvarious health outcomes are not only afunction of disease but the way we thinkand behave. This finds reflection in thedefinition of ‘health’ provided by the WorldHealth Organisation (WHO), whichincludes biological, psychological andsocial aspects of health. It focuses not onlyon physical but also on mental andspiritual aspects of health. We will concernourselves with physical health in thissection as you have already read aboutmental health in the previous chapters.

Health and illness are a matter ofdegree. One may be suffering from aphysically disabling disease but may bequite healthy otherwise. You may recall thenames of Baba Amte or Stephen Hawkins,both of whom suffer from cripplingdiseases but have made greatcontributions in their fields. We also findthat people differ across cultures in theirthinking about when and how people fallill and, therefore, in the models which theyuse in prevention of diseases andpromotion of health. There are traditionalcultures like Chinese, Indian, and LatinAmerican which hold that good healthresults from the harmonious balance ofvarious elements in the body, and ill-healthresults when such a balance is lost. On thecontrary, the Western cultures view health

as a result of fully functioning machinewhich has no blockage. The differentsystems of medicine developed in differentcultures are based on these models. Thereis another fact that you may want to know.The World Health Reports by the WHOshow that in developing countries such asin Asia, Africa, and Latin America, morepeople die due to communicable diseasesincluding HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB),malaria, respiratory infections, andnutritional deficiencies. In the developedcountries, the leading causes are variouscardiovascular diseases, cancers, andpsychiatric disorders. Such differences maybe explained in terms of how these societiesare economically and socially structuredand their psychological underpinnings.

At the individual level, psychologistspoint to various factors such as health-related cognitions including attitudes andbeliefs, behaviours and social factors whichare associated with physical well-being orillness.(a) Cognitions : You may have observedhow some people are quick to seek doctor’shelp while others do not if they aresuffering from such symptoms as nausea,cold, diarrhoea, smallpox, etc. Thevariations in seeking help are due todifferences in mental representationspeople make relating to disease, its severityand the causes of disease. One may notseek doctor’s help for a cold if oneattributes it to eating curd or for leprosyor smallpox if these are attributed to God’sannoyance.

The level of awareness or informationabout disease; and beliefs about how it iscaused; and about possible ways ofrelieving the distress or improving healthaffect help seeking behaviour as well assticking to a doctor’s regimen. Anotherfactor which influences our help-seekingfrom a doctor is the perception of pain,which is a function of personality, anxietyand social norms.


a mixed impact. Most of the researchstudies have been carried out on childrenbecause they are seen as being morevulnerable to the impact of television thanadults.

First, television provides a large amountof infotainment in an attractive form, andin the visual mode, for which it became apowerful medium of instruction. At thesame time, because the programmes areattractive, children spend huge amounts oftime watching them. This reduces theirhabit of reading and writing, and also theiroutdoor activities such as playing.

Second, television watching may havean ef fect on children’s ability toconcentrate on one target, their creativityand ability to understand, and also theirsocial interactions. On one hand, there areexcellent programmes that emphasisepositive interpersonal attitudes and provideuseful factual information, teachingchildren how to design and constructcertain objects. On the other hand, theseprogrammes may distract young viewersand interfere with their ability toconcentrate on one target.

Third, about forty years ago a seriousdebate was raised in the USA and Canadaregarding the effect of television viewing onaggressiveness and violence among theviewers, especially children. As discussedearlier in the context of aggression, theresults of research showed that watchingviolence on television was, indeed, linkedto greater aggressiveness in the viewers. Ifthe viewers were children, they tended toimitate what they saw; they were notmature enough to think of theconsequences of such behaviour. However,some other studies pointed out that merelywatching violence on the television doesnot make children more aggressive. Otherfactors need to be present in the situation.Other research findings show thatwatching violence may actually reduce the

(b) Behaviour : Psychologists have foundstrong evidence which shows thatbehaviours we engage in and our lifestylesgreatly influence health. People differgreatly in terms of such behavioural riskfactors as smoking or tobacco use, alcoholand drug abuse, and unsafe sexualbehaviour, diet and physical exercise. It iswell accepted now that such behavioursare associated with incidence of coronaryheart disease (CHD), cancer, and HIV/AIDSbesides many other diseases. A newdiscipline called Behaviour Medicine hasemerged, which seeks to alleviate stressdue to diseases through modification inbehaviour.(c) Social and cultural factors : There isnow a growing body of research whichshows that social and cultural differencesmay influence our physiological responses,and may not be the same across allcultures. For instance, the relationshipbetween hostility and anger and CHD isnot found to be the same in all cultures,(e.g., in India and China). While interactionbetween culture and physiologicalresponses requires more evidence, socialand cultural norms associated with roles,and gender, etc. greatly influence ourhealth behaviour. In Indian society,medical advice by or for a female is oftendelayed because of various reasons — theyare less valued, or because of the beliefthat they are hardy, or the shameassociated with the disease.

Impact of Television on Behaviour

There is no doubt that television has beena useful product of technological progress.However, from the point of its psychologicalimpact on human beings, both positive andnegative effects have been observed. Manyresearch studies have inquired into theeffects of television viewing on cognitiveprocesses and social behaviour, especiallyin Western cultures. Their findings show

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natural aggressive tendency of the viewers :what is ‘bottled up’ gets an outlet, and thuscleans the system, like a choked drainpipebeing cleaned. This process is calledcatharsis.

Fourth, in the case of adults as well aschildren, it is said that a consumeristattitude has developed, and this is due totelevision watching. Numerous productsare advertised, and it is very natural for theviewer to get carried away.

No matter how these results areinterpreted, there seems to be sufficient

Key TermsAggression, Air pollution, Communicable diseases, Competition tolerance, Crowding tolerance, Crowding,Disaster, Displacement, Ecology, Environment, Environmental psychology, Instrumental perspective,Modelling, Noise, Peace, Personal space, Physical environment, Post-traumatic stress disorders, Povertyalleviation, Poverty, Pro-environmental behaviour, Self-efficacy, Social Environment, Spiritual perspective,Transactional approach.

Activity8.4

Make a list of all those pieces ofinformation that you obtained bywatching TV in the last one week,and write down the answers to thefollowing questions :

Which shows did you watch?Which pieces of information

indicate a positive form of behaviour,and which ones indicate a negativeform?

evidence to pose a warning to unlimitedtelevision watching.

• We take renewable and non-renewable resources from the physical environment tomeet the needs of growing population, rapid industrialisation and human consumption.Undesirable human activities have altered the conditions in the environment thathave resulted in pollution, noise, crowding and intensified the occurrence of naturaldisasters.

• The environmental crises and their solutions can be understood through transactionaland traditional Indian approach.

• Pollution adversely affects our mental and physical health and psychologicalprocesses.

• Noise also adversely affects our thinking, memory and learning. The elevated soundlevels can cause permanent hearing loss, increase heartbeat, blood pressure andmuscle tension.

• Crowding is the psychological feeling of not having enough space available. Crowdingnegatively affects cognitive performance, interpersonal relationships, and physicaland mental health.

• A natural disaster disrupts the normalcy within a society and causes damage,destruction and human suffering. In the aftermath of a disaster, post-traumatic stressdisorder is the most common feature. Counselling the disaster-affected people andcreating scope for collective activities can reduce such stress. Also, preparedness ofindividuals and communities to respond rapidly and effectively to possible disasterscan lessen the adverse effects.

• Pro-environmental behaviour includes both actions that are meant to protect theenvironment from problems, and to promote a healthy environment.

• Social and psychological concerns arise out of vexed problems that affect a largesegment of people in a society.


• Lower economic status entails poverty. It relates to deprivation and disadvantage. Itadversely affects cognitive performance, personality and social behaviour. Manyprogrammes are being implemented for social and economic empowerment of thepoor.

• Aggression and violence are among the major problems in today’s society. The learningof aggression can be curtailed by creating the appropriate attitude towards the generalproblem of growing aggression.

• Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. The challengebefore the nation is to reduce communicable diseases like diarrhoea, tuberculosisand HIV/AIDS, and non-communicable diseases like anaemia, cancer, diabetes andstress-related disorders. Positive lifestyle habits can induce positive emotions, physicalfitness and reduce the health problems.

• Both positive and negative effects of television viewing on human behaviour havebeen observed. Most of the research studies have been carried out on children becausethey are seen as being more vulnerable to the impact of television than adults.

Review Questions1. What do you understand by the term ‘environment’? Explain the different perspectives

to understand the human-environment relationship.2. “Human beings affect and are affected by the environment”. Explain this statement

with the help of examples.3. What is noise? Discuss the effects of noise on human behaviour.4. What are the salient features of crowding? Explain the major psychological consequences

of crowding.5. Why is the concept of ‘personal space’ important for human beings? Justify your answer

with the help of an example.6. What do you understand by the term ‘disaster’? List the symptoms of post-traumatic

stress disorder. How can it be remedied?7. What is pro-environmental behaviour? How can the environment be protected from

pollution? Suggest some strategies.8. How is ‘poverty’ related to ‘discrimination’? Explain the major psychological effects of

poverty and deprivation.9. Distinguish between ‘instrumental aggression’ and ‘hostile aggression’. Suggest some

strategies to reduce aggression and violence.10. Discuss the psychological impact of television viewing on human behaviour. How can

its adverse consequences be reduced? Explain.

ProjectIdeas

1. Conduct a survey of 10 households in your locality. Prepare an interview schedule andmeet the head of each household and ask: What pollutions do you experience? Whatare the effects of each pollution on the health of your family members? Summarise thedata, and divide the health effects into physical and mental symptoms or diseases.Prepare a report and offer suggestions on how pollution can be abetted.

2. Conduct a survey of 20 elderly people in your locality to understand their social problemsand their remedies. Prepare a list of the social problems, and write them on cards (4” 4”). Request each elderly person to arrange the cards in order of priority, keeping themost important social problem first and the least important social problem last. Enterthe rank in your schedule against each problem and ask the causes and remedies ofeach problem arranged on the card. Prepare a report and discuss it with your teacher.

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Weblinkshttp://library.thinkquest.org/25009/causes/causes.cycle.htmlhttp://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/99/2.18.99/crowding.htmlhttp://www.helpguide.org/mental/psychological_trauma.htmhttp://joannecantor.com/montrealpap_fin.htm

Pedagogical Hints1. Students could be asked to share

their views, by giving real-lifeexamples, on psychological effectsof noise, pollution, crowding andnatural disasters on humanbehaviour.

2. Students may be encouraged tothink of various initiatives taken bythe government and the NGOsworking in the field of environment,while discussing the topic ofpromoting pro-environmentalbehaviour.

3. Teachers could adopt strategies likequestions, stories, anecdotes,games, experiments, discussion,dialogues, examples, analogies,role-playing, etc. which are helpfulin promoting peace-related valueswhile transacting the contents of thechapter.

4. In the topic of psychology and socialconcerns, teachers should attemptto shift from mere imparting ofinformation to debate anddiscussion. This approach tolearning will keep the students aliveto social realities.

DEVELOPING PSYDEVELOPING PSYDEVELOPING PSYDEVELOPING PSYDEVELOPING PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLSCHOLOGICAL SKILLSCHOLOGICAL SKILLSCHOLOGICAL SKILLSCHOLOGICAL SKILLS

IntroductionDeveloping as an Effective PsychologistGeneral Skills

Intellectual and Personal Skills; Sensitivity to Diversity :Individual and Cultural Differences (Box 9.1)

Observational SkillsSpecific Skills

Communication SkillsCharacteristics of Communication (Box 9.2)Some Tips to Improve Your Listening Skills (Box 9.3)Psychological Testing SkillsEssentials of Psychological Assessment Skills (Box 9.4)

Interviewing SkillsTypes of Interview Questions (Box 9.5)

Counselling Skills

CONTENTS


After reading this chapter, you would be able to:understand the need to develop skills among psychologists,describe the basic aspects of observational skills,know the significance of developing communication skills,understand the importance of psychological testing skills in individual assessment, andexplain the nature and process of counselling.

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One aspect common to all the appliedareas within psychology is a universalagreement on the basic assumptions abouthuman nature and the role of apsychologist in different settings. It isgenerally assumed that psychologists haveinterest in people, their abilities andtemperaments. A psychologist from any

As you have already studied in the previous class, psychology began as anapplication-oriented discipline. Psychological testing stands as a primeexample of psychology in action. Psychology touches on many questionsrelated to our lives. For example, what kind of personality make-up isrequired to become a successful human being? Or what would be the rightvocation for a student studying in Class XII ? Similarly, there are otherquestions and curiosities about human beings which psychologists are askedto answer.

Psychology has two kinds of application-related images: first, as aservice-oriented discipline and second, as a scientific method-driven researchdiscipline. Both of these are interrelated and inseparable. It would beimportant to learn that there are certain factors which contribute in makingpsychology application-oriented. First, psychologists have found, both inthe past and present, that solutions to many problems faced by theindividuals, groups, organisations and societies require an understandingof psychological principles. As problems encountered by individuals as wellas societies have become more evident and acute, psychologists haveresponded with concrete solutions. For instance, rapid increase in depressivetendencies and suicidal rates among adolescents is one such area, wherepsychological knowledge dedicated to the issues of adolescent developmentis utilised for getting a clearer understanding of the occurrence of thesephenomena, and certain intervention models are developed to assist theyouth experiencing such problems early in their lives. The other reason isthat expertise of psychologists has been highly valued in the marketplace.Over the past few years, there is a growing acceptability and demand ofpsychology as a profession. Various sections of society have developed akeen interest towards integrating the knowledge of psychology within theircore activities. It can be seen particularly in the army or in the field ofeducation, where in some states it has become mandatory for the schoolsto have a trained counsellor, in the field of management, which seeks helpof psychologists to combat problems related to recruitment and assessment,employee behaviour, workplace stress, etc., in management of health-relatedproblems and more recently even in sports. These are not the only areas.Almost all areas of life are calling for help from psychologists.

Introduction

field is required to have interest in otherpeople and exhibits a willingness to providehelp by using her/his knowledge of thediscipline. One can find active involvementof a psychologist in obtaining theclient’s history, her/his socio-culturalenvironment, assessment of her/hispersonality and also on other important

Chapter 9 • Developing Psychological Skills 179

dimensions. One might think that client isa special term, which is mostly used in aclinical or counselling set-up. Inpsychology, a client may refer to anindividual/group/organisation who onher/his own seeks help, guidance orintervention from a psychologist withrespect to any problem faced by her/him.

The term ‘skill’ may be defined asproficiency, facility or dexterity that isacquired or developed through training andexperience. The Webster dictionary definesit as “possession of the qualities requiredto do something or get something done”.

American Psychological Association(1973) in their task force constitutedwith the objective to identify skillsessential for professional psychologistsrecommended at least three sets of skills.These are: assessment of individualdifferences, behaviour modification skills,and counselling and guidance skills.Recognition and application of these skillsand competencies have strengthened thefoundation and practices of appliedpsychology in a positive way. How can onedevelop into a professional psychologist?

DEVELOPING AS AN EFFECTIVE

PSYCHOLOGIST

Most people think that they are some kindof psychologists. We, at times, talk aboutintelligence, inferiority complex, identitycrisis, mental blocks, attitude, stress,communication barriers and so many otherterms. Generally people pick up suchterms from popular writings and media.There are a lot of common sense notionsabout human behaviour that one developsin the course of their lives. Some regularityin human behaviour is frequently observedby us to warrant generalisation. This kindof everyday amateur psychology oftenmisfires, sometimes even provesdisastrous. There still remains a question

of how to differentiate between a pseudo-psychologist from a real psychologist.

An answer can be constructed byasking such questions like professionaltraining, educational background,institutional af filiation, and her/hisexperience in providing service. However,what is critical is training as a researcherand internalisation of certain professionalvalues. It is now recognised that theknowledge of tools used by psychologists,their methods and theories are required todevelop psychological expertise. Forexample, a professional psychologistaddresses the problem at the scientificlevel. They take their problem to thelaboratory or study it in field settings toanswer various problems. S/he tries to findthe answer in terms of mathematicalprobability. Only then does s/he arrive atpsychological principles or laws that canbe depended upon.

Here, another distinction should bemade. Some psychologists carry outresearch to propound or investigatetheoretical formulations while others areconcerned with our daily life activities andbehaviour. We need both types ofpsychologists. We need some scientists todevelop theories and others to findsolutions to human problems. It isimportant to know about the conditionsand competencies that are necessarybesides research skills for a psychologist.There are conditions and competencies forpsychologists which have come to berecognised internationally.

They cover a range of knowledge thata psychologist should possess whenentering the profession after completingtheir education and training. These applyto practitioners, academicians, andresearchers whose roles involve consultingwith students, business, industry, andbroader community. It is recognised thatit is difficult to develop, implement and

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measure competencies required in asubject like psychology as the criteria forspecification, identification and evaluationare not yet fully agreed upon.

The basic skills or competencies whichpsychologists have identified for becomingan effective psychologist fall into threebroad sections, namely, (a) General Skills,(b) Observational Skills, and (c) SpecificSkills. These are discussed in detail here.

GENERAL SKILLS

These skills are generic in nature and areneeded by all psychologists irrespective oftheir field of specialisation. These skills areessential for all professional psychologists,whether they are working in the field ofclinical and health psychology, industrial/organisational, social, educational, or in

environmental settings, or are acting asconsultants. These skills include personalas well as intellectual skills. It is expectedthat it will not be proper to provide anyform of professional training (in clinical ororganisational fields) to students who donot possess these skills. Once a studenthas these skills, subsequent training inher/his area of specialisation would onlyrefine and further hone these skillsrequired by a professional within her/hisfield of specialisation. Some examples ofsuch skills are given in Box 9.1.

OBSERVATIONAL SKILLS

A great deal of what psychologists asresearchers and practitioners do in thefield is to pay attention, watch and listencarefully. They use all the senses, noticing

Box9.1 Intellectual and Personal Skills

1. Interpersonal Skills: ability to listen and be empathic, to develop respect for/interest inothers’ cultures, experiences, values, points of view, goals and desires, fears, opennessto receive feedback, etc. These skills are expressed verbally and/or non-verbally.

2. Cognitive Skills: ability to solve problems, engage in critical thinking and organisedreasoning, and having intellectual curiosity and flexibility.

3. Affective Skills: emotional control and balance, tolerance/understanding of interpersonalconflict, tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty.

4. Personality/Attitude: desire to help others, openness to new ideas, honesty/integrity/value ethical behaviour, personal courage.

5. Expressive Skills: ability to communicate one’s ideas, feelings and information in verbal,non-verbal, and written forms.

6. Reflective Skills: ability to examine and consider one’s own motives, attitudes, behavioursand ability to be sensitive to one’s own behaviour or others.

7. Personal Skills: personal organisation, personal hygiene, time management, andappropriate dress.

Sensitivity to Diversity : Individual and Cultural Differences

• Knowledge of self (one’s own attitudes, values, and related strengths/limitations) asone operates in the professional settings with diverse others.

• Knowledge about the nature and impact of individual and cultural diversity in differentsituations.

• Ability to work effectively with diverse backgrounds in assessment, treatment, andconsultation.

• Ability to respect and appreciate different cultural norms and beliefs.• Being sensitive to one’s preferences and also to one’s preference for own group.• Ability to promote diversity in cultural beliefs and respecting it to promote positive life

outcomes.


what is seen, heard, smelt, tasted, ortouched. A psychologist, thus, is like aninstrument that absorbs all sources ofinformation from the environment. Youhave already studied about observation inClass XI. We will, therefore, focus more ondeveloping observational skills this year.

A psychologist engages in observingvarious facets of surroundings includingpeople and varying events. To begin with,a psychologist may begin with carefullyscrutinising the physical setting in orderto capture its “atmosphere”. S/he mightlook at the colour of the floor/ceiling, sizeof the window/doors, type of lighting,artefacts/paintings/sculptures, etc. Thesesmall, subtle, and irrelevant lookingsignals influence human behaviour, whichis why a psychologist notes such signalsin the surroundings. In addition tophysical surroundings, a psychologistactively engages in observing people andtheir actions. This may include thedemographic features (age, gender, stature,race, etc.), ways of dealing and relatingwith others, pattern of behaviours in thepresence of others, etc. A psychologistrecords such details because something ofsignificance may be revealed in the processof observation. The following points aretaken into consideration while making anobservation:• Observe patiently;• Pay close attention to your physical

surroundings — who, what, when,where, and how;

• Be aware of people’s reactions,emotions, and motivations;

• Ask questions that can be answeredwhile observing;

• Be yourself, give information aboutyourself, if asked;

• Observe with an optimistic curiosity;and

• Be ethical, you have to respect privacy,norms of people you are observing; take

care not to disclose any information toanyone.You are already familiar with two major

approaches to observation, viz. naturalisticobservation and participant observation. Letus now consider developing skills aboutthem.

Naturalistic Observation is one of theprimary ways of learning about the waypeople behave in a given setting. Suppose,you want to learn how people behave inresponse to a heavy discount provided bya company while visiting a shopping mall.For this, you could visit the shopping mallwhere the discounted items are showcasedand systematically observe what people doand say before and after the purchaseshave been made. Making comparison ofthis kind may provide you with usefulinsights into what is going on.

Participant Observation is thevariation of the method of naturalisticobservation. Here the observer is activelyinvolved in the process of observing bybecoming an active member of the settingwhere the observation takes place. Forinstance, for the problem mentioned above,an observer may take a part-time job in ashopping mall showroom to become aninsider in order to observe variations in thebehaviour of customers. This technique iswidely used by anthropologists whoseobjective is to gain a firsthand perspectiveof a system from within which otherwisemay not be readily available to an outsider.

Advantages and Disadvantages ofObservation

• Its major advantage is that it allowsbehaviour to be seen and studied in itsnatural setting.

• People from outside, or those alreadyworking in a setting, can be trained touse it.

• One disadvantage of it is that eventsbeing observed are subject to bias due

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to the feelings of the people involved aswell as of the observers.

• Generally day-to-day activities in agiven setting are fairly routine, whichcan go unnoticed by the observer.

• Another potential pitfall is that theactual behaviour and responses ofothers may get influenced by thepresence of the observer, thus,defeating the very purpose ofobservation.

skills in assessment, facilitation andconsultation, behavioural skills to bringabout individual, group, team andorganisational development besidesresearch skills, etc. Though, specific skillsand competencies are required for a veryspecialised professional functioning,nonetheless, all skill sets do overlap quitea bit. They are not exclusive to an area.Relevant specific skills and competenciescan be classified as follows:(a) Communication Skills

• Speaking• Active listening• Body language or non-verbal skills

(b) Psychological Testing Skills(c) Interviewing Skills(d) Counselling Skills

• Empathy• Positive regard• Authenticity

Communication Skills

The skills we are going to discuss mayappear abstract. You will, however,understand them better when you engagein exercises related to them. Let usunderstand the basics of communicationprocess and see what role it plays infostering relationships and personaleffectiveness. Learning how to be aneffective communicator is not just anacademic exercise. It is one of the mostimportant skills you will need to succeedin life. Your success in this class may welldepend on your ability to communicate.For example, to do well you should be ableto ask and answer questions, summariseopinions, distinguish facts from opinions,and interact fruitfully with your peers andteachers. For this, you will also needlistening skills in order to comprehend theinformation presented in class and whatothers say verbally or non-verbally. Youwill be required to have good presentation

Evaluating Your InterpersonalSkills

Write down on a piece of paper howyou would describe yourself on thefollowing aspects :

(a) Friendliness(b) Mood(c) Sense of humour(d) Career motivation(e) Ability to work in teams and

groups(f) Independence(g) Desire to be accepted by others(h) DisciplineNow form groups of three to five

members. Have each memberevaluated by other members in thegroup as best as you can on thedimensions given above. Each memberconcludes by analysing the similaritiesand differences between their self-perceptions on these dimensions andhow they are perceived by othermembers of the groups.

Activity9.1

SPECIFIC SKILLS

These skills are core/basic to the field ofpsychological service. For example,psychologists working in clinical settingsneed to be trained in various techniquesof therapeutic interventions, psychologicalassessment, and counselling. Similarly,organisational psychologists working in theorganisational context need to have


skills to give briefings or to present reportson projects that are part of classroomassignments. So, what do we mean bycommunication process. It can be said thatcommunication is a conscious orunconscious, intentional or unintentionalprocess in which feelings and ideas areexpressed as verbal and/or non-verbalmessages that are sent, received, andcomprehended. The characteristics ofcommunication are outlined in Box 9.2.

The process of communication can beaccidental (having no intent), expressive(resulting from the emotional state of theperson), or rhetorical (resulting from thespecific goal of the communicator). Humancommunication occurs on the intra-personal, interpersonal, and public levels.Intrapersonal communication involvescommunicating with yourself. It en-compasses such activities as thoughtprocesses, personal decision making,and focusing on self. Interpersonalcommunication refers to thecommunication that takes place betweentwo or more persons who establish acommunicative relationship. Forms ofinterpersonal communication include face-to-face or mediated conversations,

interview and small group discussions.Public communication is characterised bya speaker sending a message to anaudience. It may be direct, such asface-to-face messages delivered by thespeaker to an audience, or indirect,such as message relayed over radio ortelevision.

Components of Human Communication

When we communicate, we communicateselectively. That is, from the wide range ofrepertory of words, actions, etc. availableto us, we choose that which we believe isbest suited for the idea we wish to express.When we communicate, we encode (i.e.,take ideas, give them meaning and putthem into message forms), and send theidea through a channel. It is composed ofour primary signal system based on oursenses (i.e., seeing, hearing, tasting,smelling, and touching). The message issent to someone who receives it using heror his primary signal system. S/hedecodes (i.e., translates message intounderstandable forms). For example, youmay say that you heard a bell or an objectfeels soft. These are examples of verbalcommunication which express how you

Box9.2Characteristics of Communication

Communication is dynamic because the process is constantly in a state of change. As theexpectations, attitudes, feelings, and emotions of the persons who are communicatingchange, the nature of their communication also changes.

Communication is continuous because it never stops, whether we are asleep or awake weare always processing ideas or thoughts. Our brain remains active.

Communication is irreversible because once we send a message we cannot take it back.Once we have made a slip of tongue, given a meaningful glance, or engaged in an emotionaloutburst, we cannot erase it. Our apologies or denials can make it light but cannot stampout what was communicated.

Communication is interactive because we are constantly in contact with other people andwith ourselves. Others react to our speech and actions, and we react to our own speechand actions, and then react to those reactions. Thus, a cycle of action and reaction is thebasis of our communication.

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understand the signals your senses havereceived. You can also respond at a non-verbal level. You touch a hot stove, yourfingers pull away quickly, and your eyeswell up with tears. The pulling away offingers and welling up of eyes with tearswill communicate to an onlooker the painsuffered by you.

The model given in Figure 9.1 showsthe process of communication involvingdifferent stages.

As you can see that in anycommunication process, the degree towhich the communication is effectivedepends on the communicators’ mutualunderstanding of the signals or codesbeing used in transmitting a message andin receiving. Suppose you are about totake an examination and suddenly realisethat you have not brought your pen toclass. You ask your friend, “Do you havean extra pen that you can spare for me?”She says “yes” and gives you the pen.You have just participated in aneffective communication transaction. You(communicator A) encoded a message (youneed a pen) and used a channel fortransmitting it (vocal chords producingsound waves) to your friend (communicator

B). Your friend received the message usingher sensory agent (ears) and decoded it(understood that you want a pen). Yourfriend’s feedback (the word “yes” andappropriate behaviour of giving a pen toyou) indicated that the message wassuccessfully received and decoded. Thecommunication would have been stilleffective if she had said, “Sorry, I cannot,because I am carrying only one pen.”

You may remember that the act ofspeech itself is not communication.Speech is only a biological act; theutterance of sound, possibly the use oflanguage. Communication is broader; itinvolves a relationship among two or morepeople in which they attempt to sharemeaning so that the intent of messagereceived is the same as the intent of themessage sent.

Speaking

One important component of communi-cation is speaking with the use oflanguage. Language involves use ofsymbols which package meaning withinthem. To be effective, a communicatormust know how to use languageappropriately. Because language is

Fig.9.1 : Basic Communication Process


symbolic, it is necessary to be as clear andprecise as possible when using words.Communication takes place within acontext. So one needs to consider theother’s frame of reference, that is, thecontext used by the sender to saysomething. Also whether s/he shares yourinterpretation. If not, it is important toadjust your vocabulary level and choice ofwords to fit the level of the listener.Remember that slang expressions, wordsunique to a culture or region, andeuphemism can sometimes becomeobstacles in good communication.

Listening

Listening is an important skill that we usedaily. Your academic success, employmentachievement, and personal happiness, toa large extent, depend upon your ability tolisten effectively. At first, listening mayappear to you as a passive behaviour, asit involves silence. But this image ofpassivity is far from true. Listeningrequires a person to be attentive. S/heshould be patient, non-judgmental and yethave the capacity to analyse andrespond.

Hearing and listening are not the same.Hearing is a biological activity that involvesreception of a message through sensorychannels. It is only a part of listening, aprocess that involves reception, attention,assignment of meaning, and listener’sresponse to the message presented.

Reception

The initial step in the listening process isthe reception of a stimulus or message. Amessage could be auditory and/or visual.The hearing process is based on a complexset of physical interactions that take placeinvolving the ear and the brain. In additionto using the hearing mechanism, peoplelisten through their visual system. Theyobserve a person’s facial expressions,

posture, movement, and appearance,which provide important cues that may notbe obvious merely by listening to the verbalpart of the message.

Attention

Once the stimulus, i.e. the word or visual,or both, is received, it reaches the attentionstage of the human processing system. Inthis phase, the other stimuli recede so thatwe can concentrate on specific words orvisual symbols. Normally your attention isdivided between what you are attemptingto listen to, and what is happening aroundyou, and what is going on in your mind.Consider, you are watching a movie. Theperson in front of you is constantlywhispering to her/his friend. There is abuzz in the sound system. You arealso worried about the forthcomingexamination. So your attention is beingpulled in different directions. Dividedattention makes it difficult for you toreceive signals or messages.

Paraphrasing

How would you know that someone hasbeen listening? Ask her/him to restatewhat you had said. The person in doingthis does not repeat your exact words.S/he makes a summary of the ideas justreceived and provides you with arestatement of what s/he understands.This is called ‘paraphrasing’. It allows youto understand how much s/he understoodof what was communicated. If someonecannot repeat or write down a summary ofwhat was said, then s/he probably did notget the whole message or did notunderstand it. We can keep this in mindwhen we are listening to our teacher in theclass or to others. Try to paraphrase whatyou heard and if you cannot do so, youshould seek immediate clarification, ifpossible.

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Try verbally paraphrasing the next timeyou are engaged in a demandingconversation, such as when you arereceiving directions or when you are in aconflict situation with a friend. Repeatto the speaker what you think she or hehad just said in order to check whetheryou both received and understood thesame thing. You will be surprised howmany times conflicts result frommiscommunication.

Assignment of Meaning

The process of putting the stimulus wehave received into some predeterminedcategory develops as we acquire language.We develop mental categories forinterpreting the message we receive. Forinstance, our categorising system for theword ‘cheese’ may include such factors asa dairy product, its peculiar taste andcolour, all of which help us to relate theword ‘cheese’ to the sense in which it isused.

Role of Culture in Listening

Like the brain, the culture in which wehave been brought up also influences ourlistening and learning abilities. Asiancultures, such as India, emphasise on

listening by being a silent communicatorwhen receiving messages from seniors orelders. Some cultures focus on controllingattention. Buddhism, for instance, has anotion called ‘mindfulness’. This meansdevoting your complete attention towhatever you are doing. Training in‘mindfulness’ which starts in childhoodcan help to develop longer attention spansand therefore, lead not only to betterlistening but also to sympathetic listening.However, in many cultures, such listeningenhancing concepts are not present.Box 9.3 gives some tips to improve yourlistening skills.

Body Language

Do you believe that when you commu-nicate with another person, your wordscommunicate the complete meaning of themessage? If your answer is yes, then youare mistaken. We all know that it ispossible to communicate a great deal evenwithout using verbal language. We areaware that non-verbal acts are symbolicand closely connected to any talk inprogress. Such non-verbal acts are part ofwhat is called ‘body language’.

Body language is composed of all thosemessages that people exchange besides

Box9.3 Some Tips to Improve Your Listening Skills

• Recognise that both the sender as well as the receiver have equal responsibility inmaking effective communication.

• Refrain from forming an early judgment about information that is beingcommunicated. Be open to all ideas.

• Be a patient listener. Do not be in a hurry to respond.• Avoid ego speak. That is, do not talk only about what you want to talk about. Give

consideration also to others and to what they say.• Be careful to the emotional responses which certain words are likely to bring about.• Be aware that your posture affects your listening.• Control distractions.• If in doubt, try to paraphrase. Also check with the sender whether s/he has been

correctly understood by you.• Visualise what is being said. That is, try to translate the message in the form of a

concrete action.


words. While reading body language, wemust remember that a single non-verbalsignal does not carry complete meaning.Factors such as gestures, postures, eyecontact, clothing style, and bodymovement — all of them have to beconsidered together, that is, in a cluster.Also, in verbal communication, non-verbalsigns can have many different meanings.For example, crossing arms over the chestmay suggest that a person likes to keepaloof. But, crossed arms accompanied byan erect posture, tightened body muscles,a set clenched jaw, and narrowing of theeyes are likely to communicate anger.

A person’s background and pastpatterns of behaviour are also consideredwhen we analyse body language. Theconsistency between current and pastpatterns of behaviour, as well as harmonybetween verbal and non-verbalcommunication, is termed as congruency.When you say to your friend, “you do notlook well today”, you are basing yourstatement on an evaluation of the person’sappearance today and comparing it withhow s/he looked in the past. In otherwords, something has changed, and yousee that difference. If you did not haveexperience to draw on, you would not havenoticed the change. Let us recall how muchwe use body language to encourage ordiscourage conversation. For instance, weconsciously wave at waiters or friends tocatch their attention. Much of the use of

body language occurs in conversing withothers without conscious realisation.

Psychological Testing Skills

The next set of competencies whichpsychologists require is concerned with theknowledge base of the discipline ofpsychology. They involve psychologicalassessment, evaluation and problemsolving with individuals and groups,organisation, and the community.Psychologists have always been interestedin understanding individual differencesfrom the time of Galton in the late 19thcentury. Psychological tests have beendevised and are primarily used for thedetermination and analysis of individualdifferences in general intelligence,differential aptitudes, educationalachievement, vocational fitness, personality,social attitudes, and various non-intellectual characteristics. Psychologicaltests have also been used for studying avariety of psychological studies on groupsbesides making an assessment of aparticular individual. Psychologists studythese differences based on factors such asoccupation, age, gender, education,culture, etc. While using psychologicaltests an attitude of objectivity, scientificorientation, and standardised inter-pretation must be kept in mind.

For example, in organisational andpersonnel work, in business and industry,where specialised tests are used to selectindividuals for specific jobs, it is essentialto use actual performance records orratings as a criterion for establishingvalidity of a test. Suppose, the personneldepartment wants to know whether acertain psychological test can help it toidentify potentially best stenographers, itmust be established that the testdifferentiates among employees of severalperformance levels. In addition, it shouldbe found that the performance on the job

Observing Non-verbal Behaviourin Communication

Carefully observe members of yourfamily. Note their non-verbal behaviouror body language when they aretalking to someone. Then focus on yourown non-verbal behaviour in a similarway. Do you find any similaritiesbetween your non-verbal behaviour orbody language and theirs? Share itwith the class.

Activity9.2

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of a newly employed worker selected on thebasis of a test indeed matches with her/histest scores. Box 9.4 presents the essentialsof psychological assessment skills.

INTERVIEWING SKILLS

An interview is a purposeful conversationbetween two or more people that follows abasic question and answer format.Interviewing is more formal than mostother conversations because it has a pre-

set purpose and uses a focused structure.There are many kinds of interviews. Theemployment interview is one which mostof you are likely to face. Some otherformats are information gatheringinterview, counselling interview, interro-gatory interview, radio-television interview,and research interview.

Interview Format

Once the objectives of the interview areestablished, the interviewer prepares an

Box9.4 Essentials of Psychological Assessment Skills

Psychological assessment is a basic competency required by psychologists. It includesknowledge of comprehensive and integrated assessment of persons based on interviewing,psychological testing, and evaluation of the outcomes of psychological services. The skillsneeded for psychological assessment are :• Ability to select and implement multiple methods and means of evaluation in ways

that are responsive to, and respectful of diverse individuals, couples, families, andgroups.

• Ability to utilise systematic approaches to gather data required for taking decisions.• Knowledge of psychometric issues and bases of assessment methods.• Knowledge of issues related to integration of different data sources.• Ability to integrate assessment data from different sources for diagnostic purposes.• Ability to formulate and apply diagnoses; to understand strengths and limitations of

current diagnostic approaches.• Capacity for effective use of supervision to implement and enhance skills.

Anyone who uses a psychological test has to be a professionally qualified psychologisttrained in psychological testing. Psychological tests are administered strictly based oninformation given in the test manual. The facts required for this purpose are as follows:• Purpose of the test, i.e. what it has to be used for?• Target population for which it can be used.• Type of validation done on the test, i.e. on what basis it can be said that it measures

what it claims to measure?• The external criteria of validation, i.e. the areas in which it has been found working.• The reliability indices, i.e. how much error is possible in scores?• The standardisation sample. That is, when the test was constructed, who were tested,

e.g. Indians or Americans, rural/urban, literate/semi-literate, etc.?• Time taken in the administration of test.• Scoring patterns, i.e. what is to be scored and what method is to be used?• Norms. That is, what kinds are available? What is the appropriate group which is to be

used for interpretation of scores, e.g. male/female, age groups, etc.?• Influence of any special factors, e.g. presence of others, stress situations, etc.• Limitations of the test, i.e. who, and what it cannot assess? Conditions in which it may

not give good assessment.


interview format. The basic format,regardless of the interview’s purpose, isdivided into three stages, namely, opening,the body, and the closing. We would nowdiscuss these three stages briefly.

Opening of the Interview

The opening of interview involvesestablishing rapport between twocommunicators. The purpose is to makethe interviewee comfortable. Generally, theinterviewer starts the conversation anddoes most of the talking at the outset. Thisserves two functions, i.e. it establishes thegoal of interview, and gives the intervieweetime to become comfortable with thesituation and the interviewer.

Body of the Interview

The body of the interview is the heart ofthe process. In this stage, the interviewer

asks questions in an attempt to generateinformation and data that are required forthe purpose.

Sequence of Questions

To accomplish the purpose of an interview,the interviewer prepares a set of questions,also called a schedule, for differentdomains, or categories s/he wants to cover.To do this, the interviewer must first decideon the domains/categories under whichinformation is to be generated. Forexample, in the questions used in jobinterview given in Box 9.5, the interviewerselected several categories such as natureof the organisation last worked for,satisfaction with the past job, views onproduct, etc. These categories and thequestions within them are framed rangingfrom easy-to-answer to difficult-to-answer.Questions are also formulated to assessfacts as well as subjective assessment.

Box9.5Types of Interview Questions

Direct Question: They are explicit and require specific information. For example, “Wheredid you last work?”

Open-ended Question: They are less direct and specify only the topic. For example, “Howhappy were you with your job on the whole?”

Close-ended Question: They provide response alternatives, narrowing the responsevariations. For example, “Do you think knowledge of a product or communication skill ismore important for a salesperson?”

Bipolar Question: It is a form of close-ended question. It requires a yes or no response. Forexample, “Would you like to work for the company?”

Leading Question: It encourages a response in favour of a specific answer. For example,“Wouldn’t you say you are in favour of having officer’s union in the company?”

Mirror Question: They are intended to get a person to reflect on what she or he had saidand expand on it. For example, you said “I work so hard but I am unable to get success.”Please explain as to why this happens.

Answering Interview Questions• If you do not understand the question, ask for clarification.• Restate the question in your answer.• Answer one question at a time.• Try to turn negative questions into positive ones.

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Closing the Interview

While closing the interview, the interviewershould summarise what s/he has beenable to gather. One should end with adiscussion of the next step to be taken.When the interview is ending, theinterviewer should give a chance to theinterviewee to ask questions or offercomments.

COUNSELLING SKILLS

Another prerequisite for developing as apsychologist is the competence in thedomain of counselling and guidance. Inorder to develop these competencies,psychologists must undergo propertraining and education under guidedsupervision. The consequences of gettinginto a wrong vocation are pretty serious.If a person enters a job for which s/he doesnot have requisite aptitude, s/he candevelop serious problems of adjustments,develop negative emotions, suffer frominferiority complex, etc. These difficultiesmay then come to be projected ontosomeone else. Contrary to this, if anyonewho takes a vocation for which s/he is welladapted, there will be considerable

satisfaction in doing the job well. Thepositive feeling thus generated would havetremendous impact on overall lifeadjustment. Counselling is also one suchdomain where a person entering the fieldis required to engage in self-introspectionin order to assess her/his inclination andbasic skill set for being effective in her/hisvocation.

Meaning and Nature of Counselling

Counselling provides a system for planningthe interview, analysing the counsellor’sand client’s behaviour, and determining thedevelopmental impact on the client. In thissection, we will discuss skills, concepts,and methods that are designed to helpdevelop concrete competencies. Acounsellor is most often interested inbuilding an understanding of theclients problem by focusing on whatunderstanding the client has of her/hisproblem and how s/he feels about it. Theactual or objective facts of the problems areconsidered less important, and it isconsidered more important to work on thefeelings and their acknowledgement by theclients. The focus is more on the personand how s/he defines the problem.

Fig.9.2 : Pre-requisites of Counselling Process


Counselling involves helping relation-ship, that includes someone seeking help,and someone willing to give help, who iscapable of or trained to help in a setting thatpermits help to be given and received(see Fig.9.2).

The following elements aboutcounselling are common to the majortheoretical approaches to counselling :1. Counselling involves responding to the

feelings, thoughts, and actions of theclients.

2. Counselling involves a basic acceptanceof the client’s perceptions and feelings,without using any evaluativestandards.

3. Confidentiality and privacy constituteessential ingredients in the counsellingsetting. Physical facilities that preservethis quality are important.

4. Counselling is voluntary. It takes placewhen a client approaches a counsellor.A counsellor never uses any kind ofcoercion for obtaining information.

5. Counsellors and clients both transmitand receive verbal and non-verbalmessages during the process. Therefore,awareness and sensitivity to the natureof the message is an importantprerequisite for a counsellor’seffectiveness.

Breaking the Myths of Counselling

• Counselling is not merely givinginformation.

• Counselling is not giving advice.• Counselling is not selection and

placement of individuals onto jobs orfor courses.

• Counselling is not the same asinterviewing though interviewing maybe involved.

• Counselling is not influencingattitudes, beliefs and behaviour bypersuading, admonishing, threatening,or compelling.

Developing Effective Relationships

For most people who seek help from acounsellor, ef fective or satisfyingrelationships are almost non-existent orinfrequent. Since change in behaviour isoften created and supported by a networkof social support, it is essential for clientsto start developing more positiverelationships with other persons. Thecounselling relationship is the initialvehicle through which this begins. Like allof us, counsellors too are not perfect, butthey are trained in developing a morehealthy and helpful relationship thanothers.

In brief, counselling usually has an all-inclusive outcome for the clients. Effectivebehavioural change that takes place in theclient is multifaceted. It may show up inthe form of a client taking greaterresponsibility, developing new insight,learning to engage in different behaviours,

Activity9.3

Listening and Paraphrasing

For this activity, three students areneeded, A, B, and C.

A will act as a counsellor, who willpractice listening. Her/his role will beto repeat to the client in different wordswhat s/he listened. A will listen notonly to what was said but also how itwas said (body language) and thefeelings behind it.

B will share with A some problemsthat s/he has been facing in life lately.

C will act as an observer and takenotes on how good a listener A is.

A and B will interact for about10 minutes. After the interaction isover, C will share her/hisobservations. B may also share her/his observations with A and C aboutA’s communication.

The feedback session may be of10 minutes. After it is over, switch rolesso that all three may get a chance toplay the three roles. At the end of theactivity, summarise what you havelearned.

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and making an effort to develop moreeffective relationships.

Characteristics of Effective Helper

Being a trained helper, the counsellor hasthe responsibility for ensuring that her/hisclient is benefited from counselling and itstherapeutic effects are achieved. To a largeextent, however, the success of acounselling process depends on the skill,knowledge, attitude, personal qualities andbehaviour of a counsellor, any or all ofwhich can enhance or diminish the helpingprocess. In this section, we will discussfour qualities that are associated witheffective counsellors. These include:(i) Authenticity, (ii) Positive regard forothers, (iii) Ability to empathise, and(iv) Paraphrasing.

Let us understand these qualitiesbriefly.(i) Authenticity : Your image or perception

of yourself makes up your “I”. The self-perceived “I” is revealed through ideas,words, actions, clothing, and yourlife-style. All of these communicate your“I” to others. Those who come into closecontact with you also build their ownimage of you for themselves, and theyalso sometimes communicate this imageto you. For example, friends tell youwhat they like and dislike about you.Your teachers and parents praise and/or criticise you. You are also evaluatedby persons you respect. These collectivejudgments by people you respect, alsocalled ‘significant others’, develop into a‘me’. This other perceived ‘me’ is theperson that others perceive you to be.This perception may be the same as ordifferent from your own self-perceptionof ‘I’. The degree to which you are awareof these perceptions of others as well asof your own perception of your selfindicates that you are self-aware.Authenticity means that yourbehavioural expressions are consistent

with what you value and the way youfeel and relate to your inner self-image.

(ii) Positive Regard for Others: In acounselling-counsellor relationship, agood relationship allows freedom ofexpression. It reflects acceptance of theidea that the feelings of both areimportant. We should remember thatwhen we form a new relationship, weexperience feelings of uncertainty andanxiety. Such feelings get minimisedwhen a counsellor extends a positiveregard to the client by accepting that itis all right to feel the way the client isfeeling. In order to show positive regardto others, the following guidelines maybe kept in mind:(1) When you are speaking, get into the

habit of using “I” messages ratherthan “you” messages. An example ofthis would be, “I understand” ratherthan “you should not”.

(2) Respond to what the other person hassaid, after checking with her/him.

(3) Give the other person the freedom toshare feelings or anything s/hewants to say. Do not interrupt or cutin.

(4) Do not assume that the other personknows what you are thinking.Express yourself according to theframe of reference, i.e. in the contextof the verbal exchange taking place.

(5) Do not label either yourself or theother person (e.g., “you are anintrovert”, etc.).

(iii)Empathy: This is one of the mostcritical competencies that a counsellorneeds to have. You have already readin Chapter 5 that empathy is the abilityof a counsellor to understand thefeelings of another person from her/hisperspective. It is like stepping intosomeone else’s shoes and trying tounderstand the pain and troubledfeelings of the other person. There is adif ference between sympathy and


professional identity. A critical criterion forany professional group is the developmentand implementation of appropriate ethicalstandards. Social workers, marriagecounsellors, family therapists, andpsychologists — all have their ethicalcodes. Awareness of the ethical standardsand codes is extremely important, becausecounselling is a part of the service sector.Not following the ethical standards mayhave legal implications.

While learning about the competenciesof a counsellor, it is important for you toknow that the client-counsellorrelationship is built on ethical practice. TheAmerican Psychological Association (APA)has developed a code of ethical conductfor behaviour and decision-making inactual clinical settings. The practicalknowledge of these ethical domains canguide the practice of counselling inachieving its desired purpose. Some of theAPA practice guidelines are: • Knowledge of ethical/professional

codes, standards, and guidelines;knowledge of statutes, rules,regulations, and case law relevant tothe practice of psychology.

• Recognise and analyse ethical and legalissues across the range of professionalactivities in the clinical setting.

• Recognise and understand the ethicaldimensions/features of her/his ownattitudes and practice in the clinicalsetting.

• Seek appropriate information andconsultation when faced with ethicalissues.

• Practice appropriate professionalassertiveness related to ethical issues.

Confronting One’s Fear

This activity can be carried out in agroup situation. Everyone in the groupwrites her/his worst fears/doubts/anxieties on a piece of paper withoutdisclosing her/his name. Aftereveryone has finished writing theirfears, all the slips are collected andthrown in a big basket. Now, everyonein the group picks up one slip from thebasket and reads out aloud the fearsmentioned on that list. Then the groupengages in a discussion about thenature of the fear, the possible reasonsfor a particular fear to exist, the relevantagencies who are in some form relatedto instilling that fear, the potential waysto overcome it, etc. The same processis repeated until all the slips in thatbasket have been read. At the end ofthis activity, you should check:• If this activity helped you in

understanding something moreabout your self.

• What elements other than fearwould have also contributed in theprocess of self-awareness?

• How did you feel when someonewas reading out your fears?

Activity9.4

empathy. In sympathy, you play thesaviour. You may think that someonedeserves your kindness.

(iv) Paraphrasing: This skill has alreadybeen discussed in the section oncommunication earlier. You will recallthat this involves the ability of acounsellor to reflect on what the clientsays and feels using different words.

Ethics of Counselling

In recent years, counsellors have takenimportant steps to develop their

Key TermsApplied psychology, Assessment skills, Cognitive skills, Competence, Counselling, Ethical observation,Intrapersonal awareness, Intervention and consultation skills, Objectivity, Open mindedness, Problemsolving skills, Psychological assessment, Psychological test, Reflective skills, Self-awareness, Sensitivity,Trustworthiness.

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• The general and specific skills form the core competencies essential for a psychologistto act in a more responsive and ethical manner. Before entering any professionalarena, it, therefore, becomes pertinent for a psychologist to equip herself/himselfwith these indispensable competencies.

• General skills include personal as well as intellectual skills. These skills are essentialfor all professional psychologists, whether they are working in the field of clinicaland health psychology, industrial/organisational, social, educational, or inenvironmental settings or are acting as consultants.

• Specific skills are core/basic to the field of psychological service. For example,psychologists working in clinical settings need to be trained in various techniques oftherapeutic interventions, psychological assessment, and counselling.

• In order to become an effective psychologist, one needs to have certain characteristicssuch as competence, integrity, professional and scientific responsibility, respect forpeople’s rights and dignity, etc.

• Observational skills are basic skills and are used by psychologists as a startingpoint for providing insights into behaviour. The two major approaches to observationare naturalistic observation and participant observation.

• Communication is a process that helps in transmitting meaning from one person toanother. Speaking and listening are central to interpersonal communication.

• Language is important for communication. Its use should be done according to thecharacteristics of audience. Non-verbal cues such as gestures, postures, handmovements, etc. are also used to communicate ideas.

• Creating a proper message, tackling environmental noise, and providing feedbackare ways of reducing distortions and making effective communication.

• Interviewing is a process of face-to-face communication. It proceeds through threestages which include the warm up (opening stage), the question and answer (thebody), and the closing stage.

• Developing the skills of psychological testing is important since tests are importanttools used for the assessment of individuals for various purposes. Proper training isrequired for administration, scoring and interpretation of tests.

• Counselling involves helping relationship, that includes someone seeking help, andsomeone willing to give help. The qualities that are associated with effectivecounsellors are (i) Authenticity, (ii) Positive regard for others, (iii) Ability to empathise,and (iv) Paraphrasing.

Review Questions1. What competencies are required for becoming an effective psychologist?2. What are the generic skills needed by all psychologists?3. Define communication. Which component of the communication process is most

important? Justify your answer with relevant examples.4. Describe the set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a

psychological test.5. What is the typical format of a counselling interview?6. What do you understand by the term counselling? Explain the characteristics of an

effective counsellor.7. To be an effective counsellor, it is mandatory that s/he undergoes professional

training. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of yourarguments.

8. What are the ethical considerations in client-counsellor relationships?9. Identify an aspect of your friend’s personal life that s/he wants to change. As a

student of psychology, think of specific ways in which you can devise a programmeto help your friend modify or solve her/his problem.


Weblinkswww.allpsych.comwww.library.unisa.edu.au/resources/subject/counsel.asp

ProjectIdeas

1. Identify 3–4 separate fields of psychology. For instance, you can choose a clinicalpsychologist, a counsellor, and an educational psychologist. Obtain information aboutthe type of work they do and the skills that are used by these psychologists in theirunique setting. You can either develop a questionnaire or conduct personal interviewswith all of them to identify the competencies related to the kind of work that thesepsychologists undertake. Prepare a report and discuss in the class.

2. Choose any one skill from the list of competencies for a psychologist. Gather informationabout the theoretical and practical aspects of that particular skill. On the basis of theobtained information suggest some steps to enhance that skill. Make a presentation inthe class.

Pedagogical Hints1. Students could be asked to share

their views on the increasingapplications of psychology indifferent areas of life.

2. Students can also be asked tobrainstorm on the possible skillsand competencies needed bypsychologists working in differentareas.

3. Use of innovative methods such asnarration of case vignette and role-play to demonstrate communicationskills, ef fective listening,paraphrasing, etc. would beparticularly helpful.

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GUIDELINES FOR PRACTICALS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Psychological tools and techniques help touncover the latent aspects of an individual’sbehaviour. Thus they aid in understanding,predicting, and controlling the humanbehaviour, which is the fundamental aim ofpsychology. Practicals in psychology areintended to provide students with requisiteknowledge and skills in psychological toolsand techniques to gain an understanding ofhuman behaviour. They attempt to providehands-on experience to the students with bothquantitative tools of measurement, such asstandardised psychological tests andqualitative tools, such as interview andobservation. Practicals are based on theprinciple of learning by doing and thus theyprovide an opportunity to the students to putinto practice whatever psychological principlesand theories they have learnt in the classroom.

Before undertaking practical work, it isimportant to ensure that the students haveknowledge about various methods of researchin psychology and their merits and demerits,the behavioural characteristics beingassessed, the nature and uses of psychologicaltests, and the ethical guidelines so as to avoidtheir misuse. Keeping in view the syllabus ofpsychology for Class XII, the students wouldundertake practicals in psychological testingwhich would involve using standardisedpsychological tests in different domains, i.e.intelligence, personality, aptitude, adjustment,attitude, self-concept, and anxiety. They wouldalso prepare one case profile which will includedevelopmental history of the individual (case),using both qualitative and quantitativeapproaches.

I. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Practical work in use of psychological testsmust be carried out under the guidance andsupervision of the teacher. As you have already

studied in Class XI, a psychological test isessentially an objective and standardisedmeasure of a sample of behaviour. In ClassXII, you will be learning about the concepts ofintelligence and aptitude (Chapter 1),personality and self-concept (Chapter 2),adjustment and anxiety (Chapter 3), andattitude (Chapter 6). You are also required toundertake practical training in order todevelop the ability to conduct, score andinterpret data generated by the administrationof the psychological tests in these areas. Inother words, practical training would help youin assessing various dimensions of humanbehaviour, such as intellectual ability, overallpersonality profile, specific aptitudes, potentialfor adjustment, attitudinal profile, self-concept, and level of anxiety.

Test Administration

The accuracy of psychological testing comesfrom standardisation of testing conditions,materials, procedures, and norms which forman integral part of test development, itsadministration and interpretation. In thisprocess, it is expected that students willdevelop skills to establish rapport with the testtakers to make them comfortable in a relativelynew and different context. EstablishingRapport involves the test administrator’sefforts to arouse the test takers’ interest inthe test, elicit their cooperation, and encouragethem to respond in a manner appropriate tothe objectives of the test. The main objectiveof establishing rapport is to motivate therespondents to follow the instructions as fullyand meticulously as they can. It may be notedthat the nature of the test (e.g., individual orgroup, verbal or non-verbal, etc.), and the ageand other characteristics of the test takersdetermine the use of specific techniques forthe establishment of rapport. For example,while testing children from educationallydisadvantaged backgrounds, the test

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administrator cannot assume that they willbe motivated to do well on academic tasks,therefore, in such conditions, the testadministrator makes special ef forts toestablish rapport to motivate them.

When establishing rapport, the testadministrator also informs the test takersabout the confidentiality of test data. The testtaker is informed about the purpose of thetest, and how the test results will be used.The test taker is assured that such resultswould be kept strictly confidential and be madeavailable to a third person (the other two beingtest administrator and test taker) only afterknowledge and consent of the test taker.

The test administration, therefore, is thetask of a professionally trained and skilfulperson under controlled conditions. Thefollowing points may be kept in mind whileusing a test :• Uniform testing conditions : Basically, the

function of psychological tests is tomeasure differences between individualsor between the responses of the sameindividual on different occasions. If thescores obtained by different individuals areto be compared, testing conditions mustobviously be the same for all. Attentionshould be given to the selection of asuitable testing room, which should be freefrom undue noise and distraction. Thisroom should provide adequate lighting,ventilation, seating facilities, etc. for testtakers.

• Standardised instructions : In order tosecure uniformity of testing conditions, thetest constructor provides detaileddirections for administering the test.Standardised instructions include theexact materials used, time limit (if any),oral instructions to subjects, preliminarydemonstrations, ways of handling queriesfrom subjects, and other possible detailsof the testing situation.

• Training of test administrator : The testadministrator is the person whoadministers and scores the test. Theimportance of a trained test administratoris evident. For instance, if the test

administrator is not adequately qualified,incorrect or inaccurate scoring may renderthe test scores worthless.

Any standardised test is accompanied bya manual which includes the psychometricproperties of the test, norms, and references.This gives a clear indication regarding theprocedures of the test administration, thescoring methods, and time limits, if any, ofthe test. The manual also includes instructionsto be given to the test takers.

A thorough understanding of the test, thetest taker, and the testing conditions isessential for the proper interpretation of testscores. Some information about the test givenin the manual like its reliability, validity,norms, etc. are relevant in interpreting anytest score. Similarly, some background dataabout the individual being tested (test taker)are also essential. For example, the same scoremay be obtained by different individuals fordifferent reasons. Therefore, the conclusionsto be drawn from such scores may not besimilar. Finally, some consideration must alsobe given to special factors that may haveinfluenced a particular score, such as unusualtesting conditions, temporary emotionalor physical state of the subject, the extent ofthe test taker’s previous experience withtests, etc.

The test administrator also provides testtakers with appropriate and understandableexplanations of test results and of anyrecommendations stemming from them. Itmay be noted here that even when a test hasbeen accurately administered, scored, andinterpreted, providing merely specificnumerical scores (e.g., IQ score, aptitudescore, etc.) without the opportunity to discussit further may be harmful to the test taker.

Procedure for Test Administration

A psychological test can be administered onlyby a professionally qualified person. A studentof psychology at +2 level would not havereached the stage of a professionally qualifiedperson. Therefore, s/he is not fully equippedto interpret the scores of a psychological test

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for any conclusive purpose, e.g. selection,prediction, diagnosis, etc. For this purpose,the test administration may be broken intosmall components/activities. The emphasisshould be on learning skills for understandingthe concepts on which the test is based,developing rapport with the participant,administration of the test including givinginstructions, maintaining optimum testingconditions, taking precautions, and doingscoring of the test.

The following steps and guidelines aresuggested to carry out practical work inpsychological testing :1. The teacher would introduce the test to

the students along with the manual andthe scoring key. The teacher woulddemonstrate the test to her/his classlaying stress upon rapport building,imparting instructions, and theprecautions that need to be taken care of.The test may then be taken by the entireclass.

2. The students may be instructed not towrite their names or to use fictitious nameson the response/scoring sheets. Theresponse sheets of the students may becollected by the teacher. In order tomaintain confidentiality, it is desirable thatthe response sheets are reshuffled and/orfictitious numbers are given to eachresponse sheet.

3. One response sheet each may then begiven back by the teacher to students inthe class for scoring. As per theinstructions given in the manual, thestudents would be guided to do thescoring.

4. The response/scoring sheets should bekept with the teacher to be used later ashypothetical data for providing hands-onexperience in interpretation of test scores.

5. The students will then be required toconduct the same test on the selectedparticipants with the teacher examiningtheir rapport building skills, instructionimparting skills, etc.

6. The teacher may use the scores of thehypothetical data and demonstrate how touse the manual to interpret the raw scoreswith the help of norms.

7. The students are also told how to drawconclusions based on the analysis of data.

8. Based on the above guidelines, thestudents will be required to prepare areport of the testing undertaken.

Suggested Format for Writing aPsychological Testing Report

1. Problem/Title of the Study (e.g., to studythe level of adjustment/personality/aptitude of Class X students).

2. Introduction• Basic Concepts• Variables

3. Method• Subject• Name• Age• Gender• Class

(Note : As the data is to be kept confidential,the details of the subject may be givenunder a fictitious number.)

• Material• Brief description of the test (name of

the test, author, year, psychometricproperties, etc.).

• Other materials (e.g., stop watch,screen, etc.).

• Procedure• Process of test administration, such as

rapport formation, instructions,precautions, actual conduct of test, etc.

• Scoring of the test• Preparation of graph, psychogram, etc.

(if required).4. Results and Conclusions

• Describing subject’s scores in terms ofnorms and drawing conclusions.

5. References• List the books, manuals and materials

consulted on the topic.

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II. CASE PROFILE

Developing a case profile would primarilyinvolve the use of qualitative techniques, suchas observation, interview, survey, etc. Duringthe course of preparing a case profile, thestudents would gain a first-hand experiencein the use of these qualitative techniques. Themain objective of preparing a case profile isto understand the individual in totality. Thiswould further help in establishing the causeand effect relationship more accurately. Thestudents may prepare a case profile of anindividual who has excelled in areas likesports, academics, music, etc. or havingspecial needs like learning disability, autism,Down’s syndrome, etc. or those withinterpersonal social problems, i.e. poor bodyimage, obesity, temper tantrums, substanceabuse, not getting along with peers,withdrawn, etc. They may be encouraged tofind out the background information anddevelopmental history of the individual. Thestudents are required to identify the methodof inquiry, i.e. interview or observation thatthey would like to undertake to get completeinformation of the case. A case profile maybe prepared based on the suggested format.The students may be encouraged to reflecton the causes to draw some preliminaryconclusions.

Suggested Format for Preparing a CaseProfile

A format for case presentation covering broadaspects is given below. It is suggested that thecase be developed in a narrative format alongthe following points:

1. Introduction• A brief introduction of about one or two

pages presenting the nature of theproblem, its incidence, likely causes,and possible counselling outcomes.

• A half page (brief) summary of the case.2. Identification of Data

• Name (may be fictitious)• Diagnosed Problem• Voluntary or Referral (i.e., by whom

referred — such as teacher, parent,sibling, etc.)

3. Case History• A paragraph giving age, gender, school

attended, class (grade) presentlyenrolled in, etc.

• Information about socio-economicstatus (SES) consisting of informationabout mother’s/father’s education andoccupation, family income, house type,number of members in the family—brothers, sisters and their birth order,adjustment in the family, etc.

• Information about physical health,physical characteristics (e.g., heightand weight), any disability/illness (inthe past and present), etc.

• Any professional help taken (past andpresent), giving a brief history of theproblem, attitude towards counselling(indicating the motivation to seek help,etc.).

• Recording signs (i.e., what is observedin terms of facial expressions,mannerisms, etc.) and symptoms (i.e.,what the subject reports, for example,fears, worry, tension, sleeplessness,etc.).

4. Concluding Comments

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Actor-observer effect: The tendency to makedifferent attributions for one’s own experienceor behaviour (actor), and for the sameexperience or behaviour in the case of anotherperson (observer).

Adaptation: Structural or functional change thatenhances the organism’s survival value.

Aggression: An overt behaviour intended to hurtsomeone, either physically or verbally.

Air pollution: Degraded quality of air is airpollution.

Alarm reaction: The first stage of the generaladaptation syndrome characterised by anemergency reaction involving the mobilisationof energy through adrenal and sympatheticactivity.

Alienation: The feeling of not being part of societyor a group.

Anal stage: The second of Freud’s psychosexualstages, which occurs during the child’ssecond year. Pleasure is focused on the anusand on retention and expulsion of faeces.

Anorexia nervosa: Disorder involving severe lossof body weight, accompanied by an intensefear of gaining weight or becoming “fat”.

Antisocial personality: A behavioural disordercharacterised by truancy, delinquency,promiscuity, theft, vandalism, fighting,violation of common social rules, poor workrecord, impulsiveness, irrationality,aggressiveness, reckless behaviour, andinability to plan ahead. The particular patternof behaviour varies from individual toindividual.

Anxiety: A state of psychic distress characterisedby fear, apprehension, and physiologicalarousal.

Anxiety disorders: Disorders in which anxiety isa central symptom. The disorder ischaracterised by feelings of vulnerability,apprehension, or fear.

Applied psychology : The practical application ofwhat is known about the mind, brain, andbehaviour as a result of theoretical andexperimental psychology.

GLOSSARY

Aptitude: A combination of characteristicsindicative of individual’s potential to acquiresome specific skills with training.

Aptitude tests: Tests meant to measureindividual’s potential to predict futureperformance.

Archetypes: Jung’s term for the contents of thecollective unconscious; images or symbolsexpressing the inherited patterns for theorganisation of experience.

Arousal: The tension experienced at the thoughtof others being present, and/or performancebeing evaluated.

Attitudes: States of the mind, thoughts or ideasregarding a topic, containing a cognitive,affective and behavioural component.

Attitude object: The target of an attitude.

Attribution: Explaining our own or others’behaviour by pointing out the cause(s).

Authority: The rights inherent in a position (e.g.,managerial) to give orders and to expect theorders to be obeyed,

Autism: Pervasive developmental disorderbeginning in infancy and involving a widerange of abnormalities, including deficits inlanguage, perceptual, and motordevelopment, defective reality testing, andsocial withdrawal.

Balance: The state of an attitude system in whichthe attitudes between a person (P) andanother individual (O), the person (P) and theattitude object (X), and between the otherindividual (O) and the attitude object (X) arein the same direction, or logically consistentwith each other.

Behaviour therapy: Therapy based on theprinciples of behaviouristic learning theoriesin order to change the maladaptive behaviour.

Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughtsor ideas regarding a topic.

Cardinal trait: According to Allport, a single traitthat dominates an individual’s entirepersonality.

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Case study: An intensive study of an individualor a situation to develop general principlesabout behaviour.

Central traits: The major trait considered informing an impression of others.

Centrality of attitude: The extent to which aspecific attitude affects the entire attitudesystem.

Client-centred (Rogerian) therapy: Thetherapeutic approach developed by CarlRogers in which therapist helps clients toclarify their true feelings and come to valuewho they are.

Coaction: A situation in which many people areperforming the same task individually in thepresence of others.

Cognition: The process of knowing. The mentalactivities associated with thought, decision-making, language, and other higher mentalprocesses.

Cognitive assessment system: A battery of testsdesigned to measure the four basic PASS(P lanning-At tent ion-S imul taneous-Successive) processes.

Cognitive consistency: A state in which thoughtsor ideas are logically in line with each other.

Cognitive dissonance: The state of an attitudesystem in which two cognitive elements arelogically contradictory, or inconsistent.

Cognitive therapies: Forms of therapy focusedon changing distorted and maladaptivepatterns of thought.

Cohesiveness: All forces (factors) that cause groupmembers to remain in the group.

Collective unconscious: Inherited portion of theunconscious, as postulated by Carl Jung. Theunconscious shared by all human beings.

Communicable disease: An illness due to specificinfectious agent capable of being directly orindirectly transmitted from man to man,animal to animal, or from the environmentto man or animal.

Competition: Mutual striving between twoindividuals or groups for the same objective.

Competition tolerance: The ability to put up witha situation in which individuals would have

to compete with many others for even basicresources, including physical space.

Compliance: A form of social influence in whichone or more persons, not holding authority,accepts direct requests from one or moreothers.

Componential intelligence: In Sternberg’striarchic theory, it refers to ability to thinkcritically and analytically.

Conflict: A state of disturbance or tensionresulting from opposing motives, drives,needs or goals.

Conformity: A type of social influence in whichindividuals change their attitudes orbehaviour in order to adhere to existing socialnorms.

Congruent attitude change: Attitude change inthe same direction as that of the existingattitude.

Contextual intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchictheory, it is the practical intelligence used insolving everyday problems.

Coping: The process of trying to manage demandsthat are appraised as taxing or exceedingone’s resources.

Counselling: A broad name for a wide variety ofprocedures for helping individuals achieveadjustment, such as the giving of advice,therapeutic discussion, the administrationand interpretation of tests, and vocationalassistance.

Counselling interview: An interview whosepurpose is counselling or providing guidancein the area of personality, vocational choice,etc.

Creativity: The ability to produce ideas, objects,and problem solutions that are novel andappropriate.

Crowding: A psychological feeling of too little space;perception of crampedness.

Crowding tolerance: The ability to mentally dealwith a high density or crowded environment,such as a crowded residence.

Culture-fair test: A test that does not discriminateexaminees on the basis of their culturalexperiences.

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Defence mechanisms: According to Freud, waysin which the ego unconsciously tries to copewith unacceptable id impulses, as inrepression, projection, reaction formation,sublimation, rationalisation, etc.

Deinstitutionalisation: The transfer of formermental patients from institutions into thecommunity.

Delusions: Irrational beliefs that are held despiteoverwhelming evidence to the contrary.

Depersonalisation disorder: Dissociative disorderin which there is a loss of the sense of self.

Diathesis-stress model: A view that the interactionof factors such as biological predispositioncombined with life stress may cause a specificdisorder.

Diffusion of responsibility: The thought thatwhen others are present, one person alonewill not be held responsible for doing, or notdoing, something; other members are alsoresponsible and will therefore do the task.

Disaster: A disaster is an unforeseen and oftensudden event that disrupts the normalconditions within a society and causeswidespread damage, destruction, and humansuffering.

Discrimination: Behaviour that shows adistinction being made between two or morepersons, often on the basis of the person’s(or persons’) membership of a particulargroup.

Displacement: Redirecting an impulse towards aless threatening or safer target; a key conceptin psychoanalytic theory; a defencemechanism.

Dissociation: A split in consciousness wherebycertain thoughts, feelings, and behaviouroperate independently from others.

Ecology: That branch of biology which deals withthe relations of organisms to theirenvironment.

Ego: The part of the personality that provides abuffer between the id and the outside world.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): Commonlycalled “shock treatment”. A biologicaltreatment for unipolar depression in whichelectrodes attached to a patient’s head send

an electric current through the brain, causinga convulsion. It is effective in the treatmentof cases of several depression that fail torespond to drug therapy.

Emotional intelligence: A cluster of traits orabilities relating to the emotional side of life —abilities such as recognising and managingone’s own emotions, being able to motivateoneself and restrain one’s impulses,recognising and managing others’ emotions,and handling interpersonal relationships inan effective manner. It is expressed in theform of an emotional quotient (EQ) score.

Empathy: Reacting to another’s feelings with anemotional response that is similar to theother’s feelings.

Environment: Totality, or any aspect of physicaland social set-up that surround and affectan individual organism.

Environmental psychology: The branch ofpsychology that concentrates on theinteraction between the physical world andhuman behaviour.

Evaluation apprehension: The fear of beingevaluated negatively by others who arepresent (an audience).

Exhaustion: State in which energy resources havebeen used up and responsiveness is reducedto a minimum.

Exorcism: Religiously inspired treatmentprocedure designed to drive out evil spiritsor forces from a “possessed” person.

Experiential intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchictheory, it is the ability to use past experiencescreatively to solve novel problems.

Extraversion: One of the dimensions of personalityin which interests are directed outwards tonature and other people rather than inwardsto the thoughts and feelings of self (introvert).

Extremeness of attitude: Refers to how far anattitude is from the neutral point.

Factor analysis: Mathematical procedure,involving correlations, for sorting trait termsor test responses into clusters or factors; usedin the development of tests designed todiscover basic personality traits. It identifiesitems that are homogeneous or internallyconsistent and independent of others.

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Fluid intelligence: Ability to perceive complexrelationships, reason abstractly, and solveproblems.

Free association: A psychodynamic technique inwhich the patient describes verbally anythought, feeling, or image that comes to mind,even if it seems unimportant.

Fundamental attribution error: The tendency toattribute internal causes more than externalcauses for behaviour.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS): It consistsof three phases : an alarm phase whichpromotes sympathetic nervous systemactivity, a resistance phase during which theorganism makes efforts to cope with thethreat, and an exhaustion phase whichoccurs if the organism fails to overcome thethreat and depletes its physiologicalresources.

Genetics: The study of how the qualities of livingthings are passed on in their genes.

Gestalt therapy: An approach to therapy thatattempts to integrate a client’s thoughts,feelings, and behaviour into a unified whole.

g-factor: General intelligence factor referring to abasic intellectual capacity underlying allmanifestations of intelligence.

Group: Two or more persons who interact with oneanother, have shared goals, areinterdependent, and consider themselves asmembers of group.

Group test: A test designed to be administered tomore than one individual at the same time,in contrast to individual test.

Groupthink: A mode of thinking in which thedesire to reach unanimous agreement over-rides the wish to adopt proper, rational,decision-making procedures; an example ofgroup polarisation.

Hallucination: A false perception which has acompulsive sense of the reality of objectsalthough relevant and adequate stimuli forsuch perception is lacking. It is an abnormalphenomenon.

Halo effect: The tendency to link positive qualitieswith other positive qualities about whichinformation is not available.

Hardiness: It is a set of beliefs about oneself, theworld, and how they interact. It has threecharacteristics, i.e. commitment, control, andchallenge.

Homeostasis: A state of physiological balancewithin the body.

Humanistic approach: The theory that people arebasically good and tend to grow to higherlevels of functioning.

Humanistic therapy: A therapy in which theunderlying assumption is that people havecontrol over their behaviour, can makechoices about their lives, and are essentiallyresponsible for solving their own problems.

Hypochondriasis: A psychological disorder inwhich the individual is dominated bypreoccupation with bodily processes and fearof presumed diseases despite reassurancefrom doctors that no physical illness exists.

Id: According to Freud, the impulsive andunconscious part of the psyche that operatesthrough the pleasure principle toward thegratification of instinctual drives. The id isconceived as the true unconscious, or thedeepest part of the psyche.

Ideal self: The kind of person we would like to be.Also called ego-ideal/idealised self-image.

Identification: The process of feeling one withanother person, usually resulting from likingor extreme regard for the other person.

Identity: The distinguishing character of theindividual: who each of us is, what our rolesare, and what we are capable of.

Incongruent attitude change: Attitude change ina direction opposite to that of the existingattitude.

Individual differences: Distinctiveness andunique variations among people’scharacteristics and behaviour patterns.

Individual test: A test that must be given to asingle individual at a time, typically by aspecially trained person. The Binet andWechsler intelligence tests are examples ofindividual tests.

Industrial/organisational psychology: A sub-field of psychology that focuses onrelationship between people and work. In thecontemporary context, the emphasis has

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shifted from industrial psychology toorganisational psychology, which includesindustrial and all other organisations.

Inferiority complex: According to Adler, a complexdeveloped by adults who have not been ableto overcome the feelings of inferiority theydeveloped as children, when they were smalland limited in their knowledge about theworld.

Ingroup: The social group to which an individualperceives herself or himself as belonging(“us”). The group with which one identifies.The other groups are outgroups.

Instrumental perspective: The approach thatsuggests that the physical environment existsmainly for use by human beings for theircomfort and well-being.

Intellectual giftedness: Exceptional generalintellectual efficiency shown in superiorperformance in a wide range of tasks.

Intelligence: The capacity to understand theworld, to think rationally, and to useresources ef fectively when faced withchallenges.

Intelligence quotient (IQ): An index derived fromstandardised intelligence tests indicating aratio of mental age to chronological age.

Intelligence tests: Tests designed to measureperson’s level of intelligence.

Interest: An individual’s preference for one or morespecific activities.

Interview: Verbal interaction between arespondent and a researcher to gatherinformation about the respondent.

Introversion: One of the dimensions of personalityin which interests are directed inwards ratherthan outwards (extravert).

Kernel of truth: The small element of truth thatmay be perceived in overgeneralised clustersof beliefs about groups (stereotypes).

Latency period: In Freud’s theory of psychosexualstages, the period between the phallic stageand the mature genital stage (period from age4 or 5 to about 12) during which interest insex is sublimated.

Libido: Freud introduced this term. In Freud’streatment, libido was quite simply a direct orindirect sexual expression.

Life skills: Abilities for adaptive and positivebehaviour that enable individuals to dealeffectively with the environment.

Lifestyle: In the context of health psychology, theoverall pattern of decisions and behavioursthat determine health and quality of life.

Meditation: A technique of turning one’sconcentration inward and achieving analtered state of consciousness.

Mental age (MA): A measure of intellectualfunctioning expressed in terms of age.

Mental retardation: Sub-average intellectualfunctioning combined with varying degreesof deficits in adaptive behaviour.

Metaneeds: In the hierarchy of needs, those atthe top, such as self-actualisation, self-esteem, aesthetic needs, and the like, whichcan only be satisfied when lower order needsare satisfied.

Modelling: A process of learning in which anindividual acquires responses by observingand imitating others.

Mood disorder: Disorder affecting one’s emotionalstate, including depression and bipolardisorder.

Neurotransmitter: Chemicals that carry messagesacross the synapse to the dendrite (andsometimes the cell body) of a receiver neuron.

Noise: An unwanted sound, one that brings abouta negative affective response.

Normal probability curve: A symmetrical, bell-shaped frequency distribution. Most scoresare found near the middle, and fewer andfewer occur towards the extremes. Manypsychological characteristics are distributedin this manner.

Norms: Standards of test performance that permitthe comparison of one person’s score on thetest to the scores of others who have takenthe same test.

Obedience: Confirming behaviour in reaction tothe commands of others.

Observational method: A method in whichresearcher observes a phenomenon thatoccurs naturally without being able tomanipulate any of the factors.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder: A disordercharacterised by obsessions or compulsions.

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Oedipus complex: The Freudian concept in whichthe young child develops an intense desire toreplace the parent of the same sex and enjoythat affection of the opposite sex parent.

Optimism: The tendency to seek out, remember,and expect pleasurable experiences.

Outgroup: Any group of which an individual isnot a member.

Peace: It is the absence of hostility and anexpression of harmony with fellow humanbeings and the environment.

Performance test: A test in which the role oflanguage is minimised, the task requiringovert motor responses other than verbal.

Personal identity: Awareness of oneself as aseparate, distinct being.

Personal space: The small area around anindividual considered belonging to her/himwhose invasion is experienced as threateningor unpleasant.

Persuasibility: The degree to which people can bemade to change their attitudes.

Phallic stage: Third of Freud’s psychosexual stages(at about age five) when pleasure is focusedon the genitals and both males and femalesexperience the “Oedipus complex”.

Phobia: A strong, persistent, and irrational fear ofsome specific object or situation that presentslittle or no actual danger to a person.

Physical environment: It is the nature thatincludes climate, air, water, temperature, floraand fauna.

Planning: In Das’s PASS model of intelligence, itinvolves goal setting, strategy selection, andmonitoring of goal-orientation.

Positive health: It includes a healthy body, goodinterpersonal relationships, a sense ofpurpose in life, and resilience to stress,trauma and change.

Post-traumatic stress disorder: Patterns ofsymptoms involving anxiety reactions,tensions, nightmares, and depressionfollowing a disaster such as an earthquakeor a flood.

Poverty: Poverty is the economic deprivation. It isassociated with low income, hunger, low casteand class status, illiteracy, poor housing,

overcrowding, lack of public amenities,mal- and under-nutrition, and increasedsusceptibility to diseases.

Poverty alleviation: Measures/programmes takenup to reduce poverty.

Prejudice: A prejudgment, usually a negativeattitude that is unverified, and is oftentowards a group.

Primacy effect: The stronger role of informationthat comes first.

Primary group: Group in which each member ispersonally known to each of the othermember, and in which the members, at leaston occasion, meet face-to-face.

Problem solving behaviour: The activity andmental processes involved in overcoming theobstacles, physical or conceptual, which liebetween an animal and its goal.

Pro-environmental behaviour: Willingness andactivities of human beings to protect theenvironment are pro-environmentalbehaviour.

Projection: A defence mechanism; the process ofunwittingly attributing one’s own traits,attitudes, or subjective processes to others.

Projective techniques: The utilisation of vague,ambiguous, unstructured stimulus objects orsituations in order to elicit the individual’scharacteristic modes of perceiving her/hisworld or of behaving in it.

Pro-social behaviour: Behaviour that does goodto another person, is done without anypressure from outside, and without anyexpectation of a reward or return.

Prototype: A schema in the form of a categoryrepresenting all the possible qualities of anobject or a person.

Proximity: The principle of Gestalt psychology thatstimuli close together tend to be perceived asa group.

Psychodynamic approach: Approach that strivesfor explanation of behaviour in terms ofmotives, or drives.

Psychodynamic therapy: First suggested byFreud; therapy based on the premise that theprimary sources of abnormal behaviour areunresolved past conflicts and the possibility

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that unacceptable unconscious impulses willenter consciousness.

Psychological test: An objective and standardisedinstrument for measuring an individual’smental and behavioural traits; used bypsychologists to help people make decisionsabout their lives and understand more aboutthemselves.

Psychoneuroimmunology: Interactions amongbehavioural, neuroendocrine, and immuno-logical processes of adaptation.

Psychotherapy: The use of any psychologicaltechnique in the treatment of mental/psychological disorder or maladjustment.

Rational emotive therapy (RET): A therapeuticsystem developed by Albert Ellis. It seeks toreplace irrational, problem-provokingoutlooks with more realistic ones.

Rationalisation: A defence mechanism that occurswhen one attempts to explain failure or short-comings by attributing them to moreacceptable causes.

Reaction formation: A defence mechanism inwhich a person denies a disapproved motivethrough giving strong expression to itsopposite.

Recency effect: The stronger role of informationthat comes last.

Regression: A defence mechanism that involves areturn to behaviours characteristic of anearlier stage in life. The term is also used instatistics, in which with the help of correlationprediction is made.

Rehabilitation: Restoring an individual to normal,or as satisfactory a state as possible, followingan illness, criminal episode, etc.

Relaxation training: A procedure in which clientsare taught to release all the tension in theirbodies.

Repression: A defence mechanism by which peoplepush unacceptable, anxiety-provokingthoughts and impulses into the unconsciousto avoid confronting them directly.

Resilience: The maintenance of positiveadjustment under challenging life conditions.

Resistance: In psychoanalysis, attempts by thepatient to block treatment.

Roles: An important concept in social psychologywhich refers to the behaviour expected of anindividual in accordance with the positions/he holds in a particular society.

Scapegoating: Placing the blame on a group forsomething that has gone wrong, because theblamed group cannot defend itself.

Schema: A mental structure that guides social(and other) cognition.

Schizophrenia: A group of psychotic reactionscharacterised by the breakdown of integratedpersonality functioning, withdrawal fromreality, emotional blunting and distortion,and disturbances in thought and behaviour.

Self-actualisation: A state of self-fulfilment inwhich people realise their highest potentialin their own unique way.

Self-awareness: Insight into one’s own motives,potential and limitations.

Self-efficacy: Bandura’s term for the individual’sbeliefs about her or his own effectiveness; theexpectation that one can master a situationand produce positive outcomes.

Self-esteem: The individual’s personal judgmentof her or his own worth; one’s attitude towardoneself along a positive-negative dimension.

Self-fulfilling prophecy: Behaving in a way thatconfirms the prediction others make.

Self-regulation: Refers to our ability to organiseand monitor our own behaviour.

Sensitivity: Tendency to respond to very low levelsof physical stimulation.

Simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) ofattitude: Whether the whole attitude consistsof a single or very few sub-attitudes (simple),or contains many sub-attitudes (multiplex).

Simultaneous processing: Cognitive processingin the PASS model that involves integratingelements of the stimulus situation intocomposite and meaningful patterns.

Situationism: A principle which states thatsituations and circumstances outside oneselfhave the power to influence behaviour.

Social cognition: The processes through whichwe notice, interpret, remember, and later usesocial information. It helps in making senseof other people and ourselves.

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Social facilitation: The tendency for people’sperformance to improve in the presence ofothers, or an audience.

Social identity: A person’s definition of who sheor he is; includes personal attributes (self-concept) along with membership in variousgroups.

Social influence: The process by which the actionsof an individual or group affect the behaviourof others.

Social inhibition: Social restraint on conduct.

Social loafing: In a group, each additionalindividual puts in less effort, thinking thatothers will be putting in their effort.

Social support: Information from other people thatone is loved and cared for, esteemed andvalued, and part of a network ofcommunication and mutual obligation.

Somatoform disorders: Conditions involvingphysical complaints or disabilities occurringin the absence of any identifiable organiccause.

Spiritual perspective: The perspective thatspecifies to do activities what are desirablein accordance with the scriptures. It pleadsfor a harmony between man and nature.

Status: Social rank within a group.

Stereotype: An overgeneralised and unverifiedprototype about a particular group.

Stress: Our response to events that disrupt orthreaten to disrupt our physical andpsychological functioning.

Stressors: Events or situations in our environmentthat cause stress.

Structure: The enduring form and composition ofa complex system or phenomenon. Contrastwith function, which is a process of arelatively brief duration, arising out ofstructure.

Substance abuse: The use of any drug or chemicalto modify mood or behaviour that results inimpairment.

Successive processing: Cognitive processing inthe PASS model where elements of thestimulus situation are responded tosequentially.

Superego: According to Freud, the final personalitystructure to develop; it represents society’sstandards of right and wrong as handed downby person’s parents, teachers, and otherimportant figures.

Surface traits: R.B. Cattell’s term for clusters ofobservable trait elements (responses) thatseem to go together. Factor analysis of thecorrelations reveals source traits.

Syndrome: Group or pattern of symptoms thatoccur together in a disorder and representthe typical picture of the disorder.

Systematic desensitisation: A form ofbehavioural therapy in which phobic clientlearns to induce a relaxed state and thenexposed to stimuli that elicit fear or phobia.

Therapeutic alliance: The special relationshipbetween the client and the therapist;contractual nature of the relationship andlimited duration of the therapy are its twomajor components.

Token economy: Forms of behaviour therapybased on operant conditioning in whichhospitalised patients earn tokens they canexchange for valued rewards, when theybehave in ways the hospital staff consider tobe desirable.

Trait: A relatively persistent and consistentbehaviour pattern manifested in a wide rangeof circumstances.

Trait approach: An approach to personality thatseeks to identify the basic traits necessary todescribe personality.

Transactional approach: It includes interactionsbetween people and environment. Humanbeings affect the environment and in turn areaffected by the environment.

Transference: Strong positive or negative feelingstoward the therapist on the part of individualundergoing psychoanalysis.

Typology: Ways of categorising individuals intodiscrete categories or types, e.g. Type-Apersonality.

Unconditional positive regard: An attitude ofacceptance and respect on the part of anobserver, no matter what the other personsays or does.

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Unconscious: In psychoanalytic theory,characterising any activity ormental structure which a person is notaware of.

Valence of attitude: Whether an attitude ispositive or negative.

Values: Enduring beliefs about ideal modes ofbehaviour or end-state of existence; attitudesthat have a strong evaluative and ‘ought’aspect.

Verbal test: Test in which a subject’s ability tounderstand and use words and concepts isimportant in making the required responses.

SUGGESTED READINGS

For developing further understanding on the topics, you may liketo read the following books

• Baron, R.A. 2001/Indian reprint 2002. Psychology (5th ed.). Allyn &Bacon.

• Bellack, A.S., & Hersen, M. 1998. Comprehensive Clinical Psychology.

Elsevier. London.

• Carson, R.C., Butcher, J.N., & Mineka, S. 2004. Abnormal Psychology

and Modern Life. Pearson Education. Delhi.

• Davis, S.F., & Palladino, J.H. 1997. Psychology. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

• Davison, G.C. 1998. Abnormal Psychology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

• Gerow, J.R. 1997. Psychology : An Introduction. Addison WesleyLongman, Inc.

• Gleitman, H. 1996. Basic Psychology. W.W. Norton & Company.

• Sadock, B.J., & Sadock, V.A. (Eds.) 2004. Kaplan & Sadock’s

Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (8th ed., Vol. II). Lippincott

Williams & Wilkins.

• Lahey, B.B. 1998. Psychology : An Introduction. Tata McGraw-Hill.

• Malim, T., & Birch, A. 1998. Introductory Psychology. MacmillanPress Ltd.

• McMahon, J.W., McMahon, F.B., & Romano, T. 1995. Psychologyand You. West Publishing Company.

• Weiten, W. 2001. Psychology : Themes and Variations. ThomsonLearning, Inc. Wadsworth.

• Zimbardo, P.G., & Weber, A.L. 1997. Psychology. Longman. New York.

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