psychological theories of religion black letters -...
TRANSCRIPT
Hub
er: P
sych
olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
1
PSYC
HO
LOG
ICA
L T
HEO
RIE
S
ON
TH
E O
RIG
IN O
F R
ELIG
ION
Man
y th
eorie
s of
relig
ions
ass
ume:
Rel
igio
n as
con
cept
mot
ivat
ed b
y fe
ar, h
elpl
essn
ess,
fe
elin
g of
impe
rfect
ness
etc
.G
ods
guid
e an
d pr
otec
t R
elig
ion
offe
rs a
fterli
fe in
stea
d of
fina
l dea
th …
.
som
e au
thor
s:
cogn
itive
asp
ects
–re
ligio
n as
one
gui
de to
und
erst
and
the
wor
ld
Hub
er: P
sych
olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
2
I.P. P
awlo
wW
illia
m J
ames
S
. Fre
udTe
rror
man
agem
ent t
heor
y/ie
sA
ttrib
utio
n-th
eore
tical
app
roac
hE
volu
tiona
ry p
ersp
ectiv
es
Phi
loso
pher
s w
ith p
sych
olog
ical
arg
umen
tatio
nX
enop
hane
sM
arx
Feue
rbac
h
Hub
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sych
olog
y of
R
elig
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Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
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of R
elig
ion
3
PHIL
OSO
PHER
S W
ITH
PS
YCH
OLO
GIC
AL
AR
GU
MEN
TATI
ON
Hub
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sych
olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
4
XEN
OPH
AN
ES
(pre
socr
atic
phi
loso
pher
-
6th-
5th
cent
ury
BC
)
note
s an
thro
pom
orph
ic te
nden
cies
in c
once
ptio
ns o
f god
s
“Mor
tals
sup
pose
that
the
gods
are
bor
n, a
nd
have
thei
r ow
n dr
ess,
voi
ce, a
nd b
ody”
“E
thio
pian
s sa
y th
at th
eir g
ods
are
snub
-nos
ed
and
dark
, Th
raci
ans,
that
thei
rs a
re g
rey-
eyed
and
red-
haire
d”)
Hub
er: P
sych
olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
5
Sugg
ests
that
hor
ses,
oxe
n, a
nd li
ons
wou
ld h
ave
equi
ne, b
ovin
e, a
nd le
onin
e go
ds
Hub
er: P
sych
olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
6
Ludw
ig A
ndre
as F
EUER
BA
CH
(18
04 –
1874
)
1841
Das
Wes
en d
es C
hris
tent
ums
(The
Ess
ence
of C
hris
tiani
ty)
God
is a
pro
ject
ion
of m
an-a
pro
duct
of h
is h
opes
and
des
ires.
Hub
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olog
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R
elig
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Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
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of R
elig
ion
7
Hum
ans
•co
uld
not e
ndur
e th
eir i
mpe
rfect
ness
and
fini
tene
ss,
ther
efor
e in
vent
ion
of a
per
fect
and
om
nipo
tent
bei
ng.
•do
not
wan
t to
die
ther
efor
e in
vent
ion
of a
n im
mor
tal s
oul
•co
uld
not b
ear t
he e
xist
ing
inju
stic
eth
eref
ore
imve
ntio
n of
a h
eave
nly
just
ness
Hub
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sych
olog
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R
elig
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Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
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of R
elig
ion
8
Kar
l Hei
nric
h M
AR
X (1
818
–18
83)
Rel
igio
n -
orig
inat
es fr
om a
liena
tion
-ai
ds th
e pe
rsis
tenc
e of
alie
natio
n
Alie
natio
nW
hen
wor
k its
elf b
ecom
es a
com
mod
ity th
at is
sol
d an
d bo
ught
th
e la
bore
r giv
es u
p hi
s ca
paci
ty to
tran
sfor
m th
e w
orld
-th
is a
liena
tes
him
from
his
true
nat
ure
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R
elig
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Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
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of R
elig
ion
9
“Rel
igio
us s
uffe
ring
is, a
t one
and
the
sam
e tim
e, th
e ex
pres
sion
of r
eal s
uffe
ring
and
a pr
otes
t aga
inst
real
su
fferin
g. R
elig
ion
is th
e si
gh o
f the
opp
ress
ed c
reat
ure,
th
e he
art o
f a h
eartl
ess
wor
ld, a
nd th
e so
ul o
f sou
lless
co
nditi
ons.
It is
the
opiu
m o
f the
peo
ple.
”C
ontri
butio
n to
the
Crit
ique
of H
egel
’s P
hilo
soph
y of
Rig
ht (1
843
)
Rel
igio
n as
a s
ourc
e of
hap
pine
ss, t
houg
h ill
usor
y an
d te
mpo
rary
, or a
t lea
st a
sou
rce
of c
omfo
rt.
Rel
igio
n is
not
as
a ne
cess
ary
part
of h
uman
cul
ture
(Lib
erat
ion
theo
logy
: com
bine
s C
hris
tiani
ty a
nd M
arxi
sm)
Hub
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sych
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R
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Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
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of R
elig
ion
10
PSYC
HO
LOG
Y
PAW
LOW
, I.P
. (1
849
–19
36)
Rel
igio
sity
–se
arch
for p
rote
ctio
n
Whe
n hu
man
s ev
olve
d fro
m a
nim
als:
m
any
aspe
cts
of n
atur
e w
ere
expe
rienc
ed a
s th
reat
enin
g an
d fri
ghte
ning
.H
uman
s cr
eate
d re
ligio
n w
hich
hel
ped
them
to s
urvi
ve
in v
iew
of a
mer
cile
ss a
nd o
mni
pote
nt n
atur
e.Fr
om th
en o
n:
tend
ency
to re
ligio
n is
tran
smitt
ed p
hylo
gene
tical
y
Hub
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olog
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R
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Bel
iefs
Psy
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of R
elig
ion
11
Ont
ogen
etic
ally
:R
elig
ious
reac
tions
are
trig
gere
d on
ly w
ith “w
eak”
in
divi
dual
s (w
eak
neur
al s
yste
m) e
spec
ially
in c
rises
.In
divi
dual
s w
ith s
tong
neu
ral s
yste
m o
verc
ome
relig
ious
te
nden
cies
and
hav
e a
ratio
nalis
tic v
iew
of t
he w
orld
.S
ocie
ty s
houl
d le
t wea
k in
divi
dual
s ha
ve th
eir r
elig
ion.
Pro
blem
: ac
quire
dcu
ltura
l beh
avio
r ca
nnot
be
hand
ed d
own
gene
tical
ly
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Bel
iefs
Psy
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of R
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ion
12
Will
iam
JA
MES
(184
2 –
1910
)
The
varie
ties
of re
ligio
us e
xper
ienc
e (1
902)
Was
not
so
muc
h in
tere
sted
in th
e or
igin
of r
elig
ion
in
hum
ans,
but
pro
mot
ed th
e in
vest
igat
ion
of re
ligio
us
expe
rienc
e .
Acc
ordi
ng to
Jam
es:
Stu
dy o
f rel
igio
n sh
ould
stu
dy a
s pr
imar
y to
pic
relig
ious
ex
perie
nce
(gen
ius)
, rat
her t
han
relig
ious
in
stitu
tions
—si
nce
inst
itutio
ns a
re m
erel
y th
e so
cial
de
scen
dant
of g
eniu
s.
Hub
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iefs
Psy
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of R
elig
ion
13
The
inte
nse,
eve
n pa
thol
ogic
al v
arie
ties
of e
xper
ienc
e (r
elig
ious
or o
ther
wis
e) s
houl
d be
inve
stig
ated
by
psyc
holo
gist
s, b
ecau
se th
ey re
pres
ent t
he c
lose
st th
ing
to a
mic
rosc
ope
of th
e m
ind—
that
is, t
hey
show
us
in
dras
tical
ly e
nlar
ged
form
the
norm
al p
roce
sses
of
thin
gs.
Jam
es in
vest
igat
ed m
ysic
al e
xper
ienc
e,
expe
rimen
ted
with
diff
eren
t sub
stan
ces
like
nitro
us o
xide
(L
achg
as, g
az h
ilara
nt) (
1882
), P
eyot
e (1
896)
. C
oncl
uded
that
whi
le th
e re
vela
tions
of t
he m
ystic
hol
d tru
e, th
ey h
old
true
only
for t
he m
ystic
; fo
r oth
ers,
they
are
cer
tain
ly id
eas
to b
e co
nsid
ered
, but
ca
n ho
ld n
o cl
aim
to tr
uth
with
out p
erso
nal e
xper
ienc
e of
suc
h.
Hub
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R
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Bel
iefs
Psy
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of R
elig
ion
14
S. F
REU
D(1
856
–19
39)
two
phas
es o
f exp
lain
ing
relig
ion
(1)R
elig
ion
as O
bses
sive
-com
puls
ive
neur
osis
(Zw
angs
neur
ose)
(cau
sed
by u
ncon
scio
us c
onfli
cts)
-Zw
angs
hand
lung
en u
nd R
elig
ions
übun
gen
(190
7)-
Tote
m u
nd T
abu
(191
2)(2
) Rel
igio
n is
not
onl
y O
bses
sive
-com
puls
ive
neur
osis
bu
t als
o re
gres
sive
wis
h fo
r pro
tect
ion
by a
n om
nipo
tent
fath
er-
Die
Zuk
unft
eine
r Illu
sion
(192
7)-
Neu
e Fo
lge
der V
orle
sung
en z
ur E
infü
hrun
g in
die
Psy
choa
naly
se(1
932)
Hub
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R
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Bel
iefs
Psy
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of R
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ion
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1 R
elig
ion
as O
bses
sive
-com
puls
ive
neur
osis
Freu
d: fu
ndam
enta
l sim
ilarit
y be
twee
n re
ligio
us ri
tual
s an
d co
mpu
lsiv
e ac
tions
of p
eopl
e w
ith O
bses
sive
-co
mpu
lsiv
ene
uros
is
•N
euro
tic d
oes
not k
now
why
he/
she
perfo
rms
the
com
puls
ive
actio
ns -
mos
t pio
us p
eopl
e do
not
kno
w
why
they
do
or q
uest
ion
relig
ious
cer
emon
ies
(Prie
sts
or re
ligio
us e
xper
ts m
ay k
now
sym
bolic
char
acte
r of c
erem
onie
s)
Hub
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Psy
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of R
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16
•N
euro
tic p
erfo
rms
ritua
ls a
s pr
otec
tive
actio
ns
beca
use
of fe
ar a
nd g
uilt
Pio
us p
eopl
e af
firm
that
they
are
sin
ners
and
sta
rt th
eir
da
ys a
nd e
xtra
ordi
nary
act
ions
with
pra
yers
etc
•N
euro
sis
orig
inat
es fr
om im
perfe
ct re
pres
sion
and
re
pres
sion
of s
exua
l des
ires
Orig
in o
f rel
igio
n se
ems
to li
e al
so in
a re
pres
sion
of
de
sire
s ca
used
by
driv
es (s
exua
l and
agg
ress
ive)
Th
eref
ore,
relig
ion
conn
ecte
d w
ith g
uilt
beca
use
the
te
mpt
atio
n is
retu
rnin
g al
l the
tim
e. It
is a
ccom
pani
ed
by fe
ar o
f god
’s p
unis
hmen
t and
pen
ance
s
Hub
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Bel
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Psy
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of R
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ion
17
•In
obs
essi
ve-c
ompu
lsiv
ene
uros
is s
omet
hing
un
impo
rtant
can
bec
ome
the
mos
t im
porta
ntIn
relig
ion,
nitp
icki
ng c
erem
onie
s te
nd to
bec
ome
the
mos
t im
porta
nt (h
ow e
xact
ly to
cro
ss o
nese
lf)
Freu
d’s
conc
lusi
on:
Rel
igio
n is
a u
nive
rsal
obs
essi
ve-c
ompu
lsiv
e ne
uros
is
Hub
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Psy
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PR
OB
LEM
S
relig
ion ≠
relig
ious
ritu
al
(ritu
als
usua
lly o
nly
in s
peci
fic s
ituat
ions
, e.g
., m
ass;
but n
ot in
oth
er re
ligio
us a
ctiv
ities
like
priv
ate
pray
ing)
Rel
igio
us ri
tual
s ar
e –
in c
ontra
st to
com
puls
ive
actio
ns –
regu
larly
, pub
lic, b
egin
is o
ften
base
d on
obj
ectiv
e cr
iteria
(e.g
., ca
lend
ar)
Eve
n if
relig
ious
peo
ple
perfo
rm ri
tual
s th
ey d
o no
t un
ders
tand
, thi
s is
not
(nec
essa
rily)
com
puls
ive
(may
be
lear
ned
and
auto
mat
ized
, soc
ial e
xpec
tatio
ns)
Indi
vidu
al re
ligio
sity
may
be
caus
ed b
y ot
her f
acto
rs, n
ot
only
dic
tate
d by
Sup
ereg
o
Hub
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Psy
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of R
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19
2 R
elig
ion
as re
gres
sive
wis
h to
be
prot
ecte
d by
an
omni
pote
nt fa
ther
Bas
ed o
n th
e O
edip
us c
ompl
ex
•m
ale
child
wan
ts s
exua
l int
erco
urse
with
his
mot
her
•fa
ther
doe
s no
t allo
w th
at -
thre
aten
s w
ith c
astra
tion
•so
n so
lves
con
flict
by
acce
ptin
g fa
ther
’s m
oral
rule
s ( =
birt
h of
Sup
ereg
o)
Hub
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iefs
Psy
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of R
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20
In O
edip
al p
hase
:
-A
mbi
vale
nt fe
elin
gs o
f son
tow
ards
fath
er
-w
ants
fath
er d
ead
beca
use
he is
a p
ower
ful r
ival
in
fig
ht fo
r mot
her’s
favo
r
-th
erfo
re, s
on fe
els
guilt
y an
d ha
s fe
ar
Idea
of O
edip
us c
onfli
ct tr
ansf
erre
d to
pre
hist
oric
tim
es:
Hub
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Psy
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of R
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21
In th
e pr
imal
hor
de, s
ons
hate
d th
e fa
ther
Fa
ther
cla
imed
all
pow
er a
nd a
ll se
xual
inte
rcou
rses
w
ith th
e w
omen
of t
he h
orde
. A
t the
sam
e tim
e so
ns a
dmire
d fa
ther
for h
is p
ower
an
d w
ante
d to
take
his
pla
ce.
Son
s ki
lled
fath
er a
nd a
te h
im c
anni
balis
tical
ly.
How
ever
, bec
ause
of t
heir
love
to h
im th
ey fe
lt de
ep
guilt
and
rem
orse
.
Son
s de
fined
a s
urro
gate
of t
he k
illed
fath
er:
a to
tem
ani
mal
Hub
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R
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Bel
iefs
Psy
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of R
elig
ion
22
Son
s at
tem
pted
to u
ndo
thei
r bad
dee
d by
cre
atin
g tw
o ta
boos
(mor
al la
ws)
:
1 ki
lling
the
tote
m a
nim
al w
as fo
rbid
den
2 In
cest
was
forb
idde
n
For o
bser
ving
thes
e ta
boos
, the
fath
er a
ssur
ed
ever
ythi
ng a
chi
ld c
an e
xpec
t fro
m th
e fa
ther
: pr
otec
tion,
car
e an
d be
ing
spar
ed
(from
fath
er’s
reve
nge)
.
Hub
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olog
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R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
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of R
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ion
23
Tabo
o to
kill
the
tote
m a
nim
al w
as o
nly
can
cele
d to
sa
crify
the
tote
m a
nim
al a
nd to
eat
it ri
tual
istic
ally
.
Late
r fat
her a
nd to
tem
ani
mal
wer
e re
plac
ed b
y go
d.
For e
ach
one
god
is th
e fa
ther
.
Late
r Fre
ud s
tress
ed th
e pr
otec
ting
and
help
ing
aspe
ct
of th
e fa
ther
or g
od re
spec
tive.
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iefs
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elig
ion
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Bel
ievi
ng in
god
= r
egre
ssio
n to
an
infa
ntile
and
id
ealiz
ed p
ictu
re o
f the
fath
erth
at is
con
stru
cted
as
a d
efen
ce a
gain
st fe
ars
and
the
dang
ers
of li
fe.
Thes
e w
ishe
s ar
e pr
ojec
ted
at u
nkno
wn
pow
ers
–th
e go
ds –
that
hav
e th
e fe
atur
es o
f a a
lmig
hty
and
prot
ectin
g fa
ther
.
Hub
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iefs
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ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
25
Thre
e fu
nctio
ns o
f god
s an
d re
ligio
n:
1.In
stru
ctio
n ab
out t
he o
rigin
of t
he w
orld
In o
rder
to s
atis
fy h
uman
’s th
irst o
f kno
wle
dge
relig
ion
teac
hes
that
(and
how
) the
wor
ld is
cre
ated
by
idea
lized
sup
erna
tura
l bei
ngs
(god
s)Fr
eud
take
s in
to a
ccou
nt a
lso
the
role
of r
elig
ion
as
teac
her a
bout
the
wor
ld
2.C
omfo
rting
and
pac
ifyin
g fe
ars
3.M
oral
prin
cipl
es
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26
PRO
BLE
MS
Eve
n if
one
wou
ld a
ccep
t Fre
ud’s
idea
s ab
out r
elig
ion,
th
ey c
anno
t exp
lain
the
wor
ship
of g
odde
sses
How
ever
: ba
sic
idea
s ar
e no
t acc
epta
ble
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iefs
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elig
ion
27
Freu
d’s
expl
anat
ion
of th
e or
igin
of r
elig
ion
(and
cu
lture
, etc
) re
sts
on O
edip
us c
onfli
ct.
Freu
d: O
edip
us c
onfli
ct a
s fu
ndam
ent/b
ase
of
Psy
choa
naly
sis.
How
ever
: hyp
othe
sis
of O
edip
us c
onfli
ct a
s a
univ
ersa
l ph
enom
enon
in h
uman
dev
elop
men
t fal
sifie
d !
(cf.,
Gre
ve &
Roo
s, 1
996)
. [ E
ven
the
answ
ers
of th
e bo
y on
whi
ch F
reud
ba
sed
his
theo
ry, h
ave
been
sho
wn
as a
pro
duct
of
an in
ferio
r met
hodo
logy
: not
Fre
ud ta
lked
with
the
boy,
but
the
boy’
s fa
ther
pos
ed s
ugge
stiv
e qu
estio
ns (E
sche
nröd
er, 1
984)
]
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iefs
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ies
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elig
ion
28
Ince
st: I
n co
ntra
st to
Fre
ud’s
ass
umpt
ions
, hig
her
mam
mal
s us
ually
do
noth
ave
sexu
al in
terc
ours
e w
ith p
oten
tial p
artn
ers
they
kno
w fr
om c
hild
hood
(cf.
Hin
de, 1
999,
p 1
78ff)
Ther
efor
e, to
avo
id in
cest
, the
who
le O
edip
us c
onfli
ct is
un
nece
ssar
y
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iefs
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ch T
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elig
ion
29
CO
NC
LUS
ION
Freu
d’s
expl
anat
ion
of o
rigin
of r
elig
ion
base
d on
the
Oed
ipus
con
flict
is u
nsus
tain
able
(+:
Fre
ud ta
kes
into
acc
ount
als
o th
e ro
le o
f rel
igio
n as
te
ache
r abo
ut th
e w
orld
)
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iefs
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elig
ion
30
TER
RO
R-M
AN
AG
EMEN
T TH
EOR
YM
alin
owsk
i (18
84-1
942)
(Ant
hrop
olog
ist)
Mag
ic, S
cien
ce, a
nd R
elig
ion
(194
8)S
. Sol
omon
, J. G
reen
berg
and
T. P
yszc
zyns
ki (
from
19
80 o
n) (
soci
al-p
sych
olog
ical
ly o
rient
ed)
Hum
an’s
aw
aren
ess
of o
wn
mor
talit
y (m
orta
lity-
salie
nce)
cau
ses
inte
nsiv
e te
rror
Hub
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iefs
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elig
ion
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This
terr
or c
an b
e co
ntro
lled
with
the
help
of t
wo
copi
ng
mec
hani
sms:
cultu
ral w
orld
-vie
ws
(con
cept
s of
the
orig
in o
f the
wor
ld,
norm
and
pro
tect
ion
from
evi
l by
obse
rvin
g no
rms,
id
eas
of im
mor
talit
y)(n
ot n
eces
saril
y re
ligio
us, b
ut o
ften
so)
self-
este
em th
at is
gai
ned
by b
elie
ving
in s
uch
a w
orld
-vie
w
Hub
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iefs
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ch T
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of R
elig
ion
32
Pro
blem
:re
latio
n be
twee
n fe
ar o
f dyi
ng a
nd b
elie
f in
life
afte
r de
ath
not r
eally
wel
l inv
estig
ated
fear
of d
ying
≠fe
ar o
f dea
th(a
per
son
may
hav
e no
fear
of d
eath
, but
may
fear
the
proc
ess
of d
ying
)
Gro
m (2
007)
:on
ly w
eak
(neg
ativ
e) c
orre
latio
n be
twee
n in
trins
ic
relig
iosi
ty a
nd fe
ar o
f dea
th a
nd d
ying
Rel
atio
n be
twee
n re
ligio
sity
and
fear
of d
eath
and
dyi
ng
seem
s to
be
curv
iline
ar (
inve
rted
U):
Per
sons
with
med
ium
relig
iosi
ty h
ave
high
est f
ear o
f de
ath
and
dyin
g,lo
w a
nd h
igh
relig
ious
per
sons
hav
e lo
w fe
ar.
Hub
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ious
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iefs
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ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
33
ATT
RIB
UTI
ON
-TH
EOR
ETIC
AL
APP
RO
AC
H
Spilk
a, B
., H
ood,
R.W
., H
unsb
erge
r, B
., &
Gor
such
, R. L
. (2
003)
. The
psy
chol
ogy
of re
ligio
n: A
n em
piric
al
appr
oach
. 2nd
Edi
t., N
ew Y
ork:
Gui
lford
.
Attr
ibut
ion
theo
ry: P
eopl
e ex
plai
n ev
ents
(esp
ecia
lly
succ
ess
and
failu
re) b
y at
tribu
ing
caus
es, i
nten
tions
and
m
otiv
es
(e.g
., su
cces
s in
exa
m –
may
be
attri
bute
d to
-g
ood
lear
ning
-luc
k-b
enev
olen
t exa
min
er)
Hub
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elig
ious
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iefs
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ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
34
Rel
igio
sity
: ten
denc
y to
pre
fer r
elig
ious
attr
ibut
ions
to
non-
relig
ious
one
s w
hen
expl
aini
ng a
n ev
ent
Rel
igio
us a
ttrib
utio
ns s
erve
thre
e m
ain
mot
ives
:
1 D
esire
to u
nder
stan
d th
e w
orld
as
som
ethi
ng m
eani
ngfu
lR
elig
ion:
wor
ld is
ord
ered
and
just
all e
vent
s ar
e pa
rt of
a g
loba
l pla
n
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iefs
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ies
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elig
ion
35
2D
esire
for c
ontro
l and
pre
dict
abili
tyR
elig
ion:
(som
e) p
erce
ived
con
trol b
y m
eans
of p
raye
rs,
ritua
ls, o
bser
ving
rel.
norm
sC
onvi
ctio
n th
at g
od c
ontro
ls e
very
thin
g an
d, th
eref
ore,
eve
ryth
ing
is c
orre
ct
3D
esire
for g
ood
self-
conc
ept
Rel
igio
n: te
lls p
eopl
e th
at g
od c
ares
abo
ut e
ach
sing
le o
nepr
ovid
es re
info
rcem
ent b
y be
ing
activ
e in
re
ligio
us c
omm
unity
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iefs
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of R
elig
ion
36
Pre
fere
nce
for r
elig
ious
attr
ibut
ion
over
non
-rel
igio
us o
ne
depe
nden
t on
four
fact
ors
(Dat
a fro
m q
uest
ionn
aire
s):
(1) C
hara
cter
istic
s of
attr
ibut
ing
pers
on
(edu
catio
n, fa
mily
bac
kgro
und,
sel
f-con
cept
, typ
e of
se
lf-es
teem
[bas
ed o
n go
d, b
ased
on
othe
r peo
ple]
)
(2)C
onte
xtM
ore
likel
y if
parti
cipa
tion
in re
ligio
us a
ctiv
ities
,if
expe
rienc
e w
ith re
ligio
us e
xpla
natio
ns
(e.g
., su
cces
s of
pra
yers
)
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iefs
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ion
37
(3) C
hara
cter
istic
s of
eve
nt
Rel
igio
us a
ttrib
utio
n m
ore
likel
y if
attri
buiti
on o
f eve
nt
help
to k
eep
up s
elf-c
once
pt(e
.g.,
relig
ious
vic
tims
of a
ccid
ents
bla
me
them
selv
es
mor
e lik
ely
than
non
-rel
igio
us o
nes)
(4) C
onte
xt o
f eve
nt
Loca
tion
and
timin
g of
eve
nt a
ffect
pla
usib
ility
of
spe
cific
exp
lana
tion
(e.g
., if
som
ebod
y pr
ayed
just
bef
ore
a su
cces
sful
m
edic
al o
pera
tion,
she
will
mor
e lik
ely
see
pray
ers
as m
eans
to c
ontro
l bad
eve
nts)
Hub
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iefs
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of R
elig
ion
38
Attr
ibut
ion-
theo
retic
al a
ppro
ach:
•C
ogni
tion
is ta
ken
into
acc
ount
•
Cog
nitio
n an
d m
otiv
atio
n co
mbi
ned
•C
ombi
natio
n of
attr
ibut
ion
rese
arch
and
psy
chol
ogy
of
relig
ion
seem
s to
be
fruitf
ul
•A
ssum
ptio
n of
sim
plis
tic th
inki
ng in
term
s of
re
war
d-pu
nish
men
t crit
iciz
ed
(suc
cess
–go
d‘s
grac
e / f
ailu
re -
god‘
s pu
nish
men
t)(m
aybe
spe
cific
for s
ome
type
s of
pro
test
antis
m?)
Hub
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elig
ious
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iefs
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ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
39
NEU
RO
THEO
LOG
Y„a
re w
e ha
rdw
ired
for r
elig
ion?
“te
rm „n
euro
theo
logy
“by
d‘A
quili
& N
ewbe
rg (1
999)
Inve
stig
ated
with
(ext
raor
dina
ry) r
elig
ious
exp
erie
nces
:
New
berg
, d‘A
quili
& R
ause
(200
3): d
urin
g sp
iritu
al
med
itatio
n re
duce
d ac
tivity
in a
rea
in th
e pr
efro
ntal
br
ain
that
is c
onne
cted
with
spa
tial o
rient
atio
n an
d di
stin
ctio
n be
twee
n ou
r bod
y an
d th
e ou
ter w
orld
(8
Bud
dhis
ts, 3
Fra
ncis
can
nuns
)si
mila
r: A
ustin
(199
8) -
Zen-
med
itatio
n
Hub
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iefs
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elig
ion
40
Pers
inge
r (19
87, 2
002)
Hel
met
that
pro
duce
s m
agne
tic fi
elds
and
indu
ces
hype
ract
ivity
in te
mpo
ral l
obe:
80%
of (
>100
0) s
ubje
cts:
ex
perie
nce
of le
vita
tion,
hea
ring
voic
es,
sens
ed p
rese
nce
of s
omeb
ody
who
is o
ften
repo
rted
as g
od o
r ang
el.
Crit
ique
by
psyc
holo
gist
s: im
prop
er e
xper
imen
tal d
esig
n
Hub
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elig
ious
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iefs
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ch T
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ies
of R
elig
ion
41
impr
oper
exp
erim
enm
tal d
esig
n: n
o do
uble
-blin
d de
sign
Peh
r Gra
nqvi
st e
t al.
(200
5):
Dou
ble-
blin
d st
udy
helm
et w
as s
witc
hed-
on ra
ndom
ly in
onl
y 50
% o
f tria
ls-n
eith
er e
xper
imen
ter n
or s
ubje
ct k
new
whe
n
resu
lt: s
ame
resu
lts (l
ike
Per
sing
er) w
ith s
witc
hed-
on a
nd
switc
hed-
off h
elm
et
Gra
nqvi
st, P
., Fr
edrik
son,
M.,
Ung
e, P
., H
agen
feld
t, A
., V
alin
d,S
., La
rham
mar
, D. &
Lar
sson
, M. (
2005
). S
ense
d pr
esen
ce a
nd m
ystic
al
expe
rienc
es a
re p
redi
cted
by
sugg
estib
ility
, not
by
the
appl
icat
ion
of
trans
cran
ial w
eak
com
plex
mag
netic
fiel
ds.
Neu
rosc
ienc
e Le
tters
, 379
, 1-6
Hub
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elig
ious
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iefs
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ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
42
Crit
ique
on
Neu
roth
eolo
gy
rest
ricte
d to
(ext
raor
dina
ry) e
xper
ienc
essh
ows
mer
ely
that
cog
nitiv
e, e
mot
iona
l and
mot
or b
rain
ar
eas
are
invo
lved
dur
ing
such
exp
erie
nces
(as
they
are
in m
ost k
inds
of b
ehav
ior)
No
indi
catio
n th
at th
ese
neur
al a
ctiv
ities
dev
elop
ed
excl
usiv
ely
for r
elig
ion
or a
re s
olel
y de
dica
ted
to
relig
ious
func
tions
If hu
man
s ar
e „h
ardw
ired“
for r
elig
ion,
why
relig
iosi
ty is
qu
ite lo
w in
man
y E
urop
ean
coun
tries
? (G
reel
ey,
2002
), w
hy B
uddh
ism
, Cof
uzia
nism
?
Hub
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ious
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iefs
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ch T
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ies
of R
elig
ion
43
EVO
LUTI
ON
AR
Y A
PPR
OA
CH
ES to
REL
IGIO
N
Focu
s on
role
of n
atur
al s
elec
tion
in th
e em
erge
nce
and
pers
iste
nce
of re
ligio
n
rece
nt o
verv
iew
: B
oyer
, P. &
Ber
gstro
m, B
. (20
08).
Evo
lutio
nary
pe
rspe
ctiv
es o
n re
ligio
n.
Ann
ual R
evie
w o
f Ant
hrop
olog
y, 3
7, 1
11-1
30al
so S
pilk
a et
al.
(200
33)
Hub
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elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
44
Two
mai
n po
sitio
ns:
1 R
elig
ion
is a
dire
ct p
rodu
ct o
f evo
lutio
n (B
ehav
iora
l eco
logy
)
2R
elig
ion
is a
by-
prod
uct o
f evo
lutio
n br
ain
and
men
tal m
echa
nism
s ev
olve
d in
ord
er to
in
crea
se fi
tnes
sth
ese
mec
hani
sms
can
also
be
used
for t
hing
s th
ey
wer
e no
t des
igne
d
Hub
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iefs
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ies
of R
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ion
45
2R
elig
ion
is a
by-
prod
uct o
f evo
lutio
n
Theo
retic
al p
ositi
ons
with
in th
is g
roup
►R
elig
ion
is th
e by
-pro
duct
of c
ogni
tive
syst
ems.
Thes
e sy
stem
s ar
e th
e re
sult
of e
volu
tion,
but
not
ex
clus
ive
for r
elig
ion
(Evo
lutio
nary
psy
chol
ogy;
e.g
., B
oyer
)
►R
elig
ion
deve
lope
d be
caus
e it
serv
es th
ree
basi
c
need
s (th
at a
re th
e re
sult
of e
volu
tion)
:co
gniti
ve, m
otiv
atio
nal,
soci
al( S
pilk
a, H
ood,
Hun
sber
ger &
Gor
such
)
Hub
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olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
46
1 R
elig
ion
as a
dire
ct p
rodu
ct o
f evo
lutio
npi
onee
r: H
ardy
(197
6)re
cent
: Beh
avio
ral e
colo
gy
(Neu
roth
eolo
gy c
an b
e in
terp
rete
d as
evo
lutio
nary
ap
proa
ch, e
ven
if it
does
not
stre
ss to
pic
of e
volu
tion)
effe
ct o
f rel
igio
n on
incl
usiv
e fit
ness
has
to b
e sh
own
Fitn
ess
(indi
vidu
al):
Cha
nce
of a
n in
divi
dual
to
prod
uce
offs
prin
gIn
clus
ive
fitne
ss: C
hanc
e of
an
indi
vidu
al a
nd
gene
tical
ly re
late
d in
divi
dual
s
to p
rodu
ce o
ffspr
ing
Hub
er: P
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ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
47
Con
cept
of i
nclu
sive
fitn
ess:
expl
anat
ion
of e
.g. a
ltrui
stic
beh
avio
r
Som
e au
thor
s co
nsid
er re
ligio
n as
a c
ostly
sig
nal.
Cos
tly s
igna
ls: m
ay in
crea
se d
ange
r for
indi
vidu
al b
ut
is
ada
ptiv
e un
der c
erta
in c
ircum
stan
ces
Hub
er: P
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olog
y of
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elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
48
Exa
mpl
e:
Spe
cific
spe
cies
of g
azel
les
high
-jum
p in
fron
t of p
reda
tor
( „th
us a
dver
tisin
g th
eir s
treng
ht a
nd d
exte
rity“
)
Dire
ct fi
tnes
s co
st o
f thi
s be
havi
or
(incr
ease
d vu
lner
abili
ty, e
nerg
y sp
ent)
is o
ffset
if p
reda
tors
turn
to o
ther
-le
ss s
trong
-pr
ey
Hub
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elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
49
Som
e au
thor
s:R
elig
ion
as fo
rm o
f cos
tly s
igna
lling
Irons
(200
1), S
osis
(200
3)
Rel
igio
ns in
volv
e el
abor
ate
ritua
ls th
at a
re c
ostly
in te
rms
of ti
me
and
poss
ibly
oth
er re
sour
ces
Rel
igio
us ri
tual
s us
ually
pub
lic
Ther
efor
e, p
artic
ipat
ing
in re
ligio
us ri
tual
is s
igna
lling
Rel
igio
us g
roup
s de
man
ding
hig
her i
nves
tmen
t in
cost
ly
ritua
ls te
nd to
rem
ain
mor
e co
hesi
ve
Sos
is &
Bre
ssle
r (20
03)
Hub
er: P
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olog
y of
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elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
50
Pro
blem
s –
relig
ion
as c
ostly
sig
nal
•R
elig
ion
is in
terp
rete
d m
ainl
y in
term
s of
co
mm
unic
atio
n (in
stea
d of
bel
iefs
)•
Rel
igio
n is
con
side
red
as a
dire
ctad
apta
tion
in
evol
utio
n
Hub
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ious
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iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
51
Prob
lem
s –
relig
ion
as d
irect
pro
duct
of e
volu
tion
If re
ligio
n co
nsid
ered
as
a di
rect
adap
tatio
n in
evo
lutio
n-
effe
ct o
f rel
igio
sity
on
fitne
ss h
as to
be
mea
sure
d-
cost
of r
elig
ion
have
to b
e de
fined
(e.g
., re
ligio
us ri
tual
s ar
e co
stly
in ti
me,
bu
t pro
vide
als
o no
nrel
igio
us b
enef
its, e
.g.,
relig
ious
cer
emon
y as
ent
erta
inm
ent
buria
l of d
ead
prev
ents
sca
veng
ers
and
pred
ator
s)-
are
all k
inds
of r
elig
ion
equa
lly c
ostly
sig
nals
?
Hub
er: P
sych
olog
y of
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elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
52
2 R
elig
ion
as a
by-
prod
uct e
volu
tion
►R
elig
ion
is th
e by
-pro
duct
of c
ogni
tive
syst
ems.
►R
elig
ion
deve
lope
d be
caus
e it
serv
es th
ree
basi
c
need
s :
cogn
itive
, mot
ivat
iona
l, so
cial
Hub
er: P
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olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
53
►R
elig
ion
is th
e by
-pro
duct
of c
ogni
tive
syst
ems
that
ev
olve
d fo
r oth
er re
ason
s.
for e
xam
ple:
Age
nt d
etec
tion:
abi
lity
to in
fer t
he p
rese
nce
of o
rgan
ism
s th
at m
ight
do
harm
(Gou
ld, 1
999)
Tele
olog
ical
aut
hors
hip
in th
e de
sign
of i
ndiv
idua
l sou
ls:
as o
bjec
ts a
re s
een
as b
eing
her
e fo
r som
e pu
rpos
e (c
loud
for r
aini
ng),
hum
an b
eing
s ar
e co
nsid
ered
as
bein
g he
re fo
r som
e pu
rpos
e (B
erin
g, 2
006)
Hub
er: P
sych
olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
54
Cog
nitiv
e m
echa
nism
s pr
oduc
ing
illus
ions
of p
erso
nal
imm
orta
lity
(sim
ulat
ion
cobs
train
t hyp
othe
sis)
(B
erin
g, 2
006)
Peo
ple
cann
ot im
agin
e be
ing
dead
; at
tach
, e.g
. fee
lings
to d
ead
pers
ons
Theo
ry o
f Min
d
Som
e of
thes
e co
gniti
ve m
echa
nism
s de
alt
with
in m
ore
deta
il in
late
r cha
pter
s
Hub
er: P
sych
olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
55
Pro
blem
s w
ith th
is a
ppro
ach:
•co
gniti
ve m
echa
nism
s ar
e no
t yet
wor
ked
out i
n de
tail
•no
t cle
ar w
heth
er a
spe
cific
mec
hani
sm is
bas
ic
or s
peci
al c
ase
of m
ore
gene
ral o
nes
(e.g
., ag
ent d
etec
tion
may
be
a sp
ecia
l cas
e of
ca
usal
thin
king
: se
arch
for c
ause
s of
an
obse
rved
effe
ct)
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olog
y of
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elig
ious
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iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
56
•re
stric
tion
to c
ogni
tive
mec
hani
sms
(with
out
m
otiv
atio
nal a
spec
ts) p
roba
bly
too
narr
ow
•H
ow c
an w
e be
cer
tain
that
a c
ogni
tive
mec
hani
sm
is g
enet
ical
ly a
ncho
red,
not
lear
ned
Hub
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olog
y of
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iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
57
►R
elig
ion
deve
lope
d be
caus
e it
serv
es th
ree
basi
c
need
s :
cogn
itive
, mot
ivat
iona
l, so
cial
(Spi
lka,
Hoo
d, H
unsb
erge
r & G
orsu
ch, 2
003)
Cog
nitiv
e–ne
ed fo
r (hi
gher
-leve
l) kn
owle
dge,
in
form
atio
n, m
eani
ng
peop
le n
eed
to m
ake
sens
e ou
t of t
he w
orld
in o
rder
to
live
focu
s on
hig
her-
leve
l cog
nitio
ns a
nd u
nder
stan
ding
ou
rsel
ves,
our
rela
tions
hip
to o
ther
s, th
e w
orld
resu
lt is
mea
ning
Attr
ibut
ion
proc
ess
as c
entra
l pro
cess
Hub
er: P
sych
olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
58
Rel
igio
us p
eopl
e: e
xpla
natio
n of
pra
ctic
ally
all
life
situ
atio
ns a
nd e
vent
s w
ith re
ligio
us a
ttrib
utio
nses
peci
ally
dis
tress
ing
life
situ
atio
ns (d
eath
, illn
ess)
ques
tion
(not
onl
y fo
r rel
igio
us e
xpla
natio
ns):
ofte
n w
e ar
e sa
tisfie
d w
ith v
ery
wea
k ex
plan
atio
ns
(„ps
eudo
-exp
lana
tions
“)
Hub
er: P
sych
olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
59
Mot
ivat
iona
l -ne
ed fo
r con
trol
Nee
d fo
r con
trol a
s im
porta
nt b
asic
mot
ivat
ion,
e.g
.,Le
fcou
rt (1
973)
, Bau
mei
ster
(199
1), l
ack
of c
ontro
l co
nnec
ted
with
dep
ress
ion,
hel
ples
snes
s, e
tc.
Lack
if d
irect
con
trol i
ncre
ases
bel
ief i
n su
pern
atur
als
(Gob
bs, 1
994)
, als
o be
lief i
n su
pers
titio
n an
d m
agic
(V
yse,
199
7)
Rel
igio
us p
ract
ices
incr
ease
con
trol b
elie
f:pr
ayer
, sac
rific
e, ri
tual
s
Hub
er: P
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olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
60
diffe
rent
type
s of
con
trol:
dire
ct c
ontro
l, in
dire
ct/s
econ
dary
con
trol
vica
risin
g co
ntro
l (ba
sed
on id
entif
icat
ion,
R
othe
nbau
m e
t al,
1982
))as
one
type
of s
econ
dary
con
trol
idea
to p
artic
ipat
e on
the
cont
rol o
f oth
ers
or to
pr
ofit
from
the
cont
rol o
f oth
ers
Hub
er: P
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olog
y of
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elig
ious
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iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
61
Gib
bs (1
994)
: con
trol i
n ev
olut
iona
ry fr
amew
ork
Acc
ordi
ng to
twin
-stu
dies
: 1/3
to 1
/2 o
f var
ianc
e in
m
easu
res
of c
ontro
l bel
iefs
gen
etic
ally
cau
sed
(see
Spi
lka
et a
l 200
33)
Hub
er: P
sych
olog
y of
R
elig
ious
Bel
iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
62
Soci
al -
need
for r
elat
ions
hips
Evo
lutio
nary
orig
ins
of s
ocia
l beh
avio
r alre
ady
assu
med
by
Dar
win
A
ffilia
tion
and
atta
chm
ent h
ave
been
sho
wn
to h
ave
biol
ogic
al fo
unda
tions
(als
o in
ani
mal
s), h
orm
ones
O
xyto
cin,
Vas
opre
ssin
, e.g
., C
arte
r (19
98)
Soc
ial c
oope
ratio
n an
d al
truis
m a
lread
y in
ani
mal
s (s
ee,
e.g.
, Hin
de, 1
999,
200
2)
Rel
igio
ns s
treng
then
: ing
roup
bon
ds,
posi
tive
soci
al e
valu
atio
ns, w
elfa
re
Hub
er: P
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olog
y of
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elig
ious
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iefs
Psy
ch T
heor
ies
of R
elig
ion
63
•P
ositi
ve: I
nclu
sion
of m
otiv
atio
nal m
echa
nism
s
•so
cial
asp
ect –
it is
not
cle
ar h
ow th
e ne
ed fo
r re
latio
nshi
ps s
houl
d le
ad to
relig
ion