Properties of X-bar

Complements, Adjuncts, & Specifiers.

X-bar theory

Specifier Rule: XP (YP) X’

Adjunct Rule: X’ (ZP) X’ or X’ X’ (ZP)

Complement Rule: X’ X (WP)

Predictions?

Propose three different kinds of modifiers:

specifiers complements adjuncts

Is this valid? Are there really three different kinds? Do they have different properties

Formal Definitions

Adjunct: Daughter of X’, sister to X’X’

X’ ZPX’ (ZP) X’ or X’ X’ (ZP)

Complement: Daughter of X’, sister to XX’

X WPX’ X (WP)

XP

YP X’XP (YP) X’

Specifier: Daughter of XP, sister to X’

NP

D N’

AP N’

N’ PP

N’ PP

N PP

the

big

of poems

with the red cover

from Blackwell

book

head

specifiermaximal projection

adjuncts

complement

N, N’, … NP are called the

projections of N

The book of poems

NP

D N’

N PP

of poems

the

book

The book from Blackwell

NP

D N’

N’ PP

from Blackwell

the

bookN

!quick way to distinguish complements and adjuncts in NPs (doesn’t work for other categories). Complements of N are marked with the preposition ‘of’. All other prepositions mark adjuncts. (This is not fool-proof!)

Complements always closest to head

The book [of poems] [by Burns]

head complement adjunct

*The book [by Burns] [of Poems] head adjunct complement

NP

D N’

N’ PP

N PP

the

of poems

book by burns

since complements are sister to head

Only one complement, multiple adjuncts

X’ (ZP) X’ or X’ X’ (ZP) Iterative

X’ X (WP) not iterative

the book of poems with the red cover from Blackwell in the bath

*the book of essays of poems from Blackwell

Adjuncts can be reordered

The book of poems from Blackwell with the red cover on the bus.The book of poems with the red cover from Blackwell on the bus.The book of poems with the red cover on the bus from Blackwell.?The book of poems on the bus with the red cover from Blackwell.?The book of poems on the bus from Blackwell with the red cover.?The book of poems from Blackwell on the bus with the red cover.*The book from Blackwell of poems with the red cover on the bus*The book from Blackwell with the red cover of poems on the bus*The book from Blackwell with the red cover on the bus of poems

(etc.)

Conjunction

The conjunction rule: Xn Xn Conj Xn

The red and blue house *The red and cat Complements can be conjoined with complements:

The book of poems and of essays Adjuncts can be conjoined with adjuncts

The book with the red cover and with a blue spine Complements cannot be conjoined with adjuncts

*The book of poems and with the red cover

One replacement One Replacement: replace N’ with one.

NP

D N’

N’ PP

N PP

the

of poems

book from Blackwell

can be replaced by one

can NOT be replaced by one

therefore an adjunct can follow ‘one’ but complements cannot!

One replacement

The book from Blackwell not the [N’one] from Oxford

*The book of poems not the one of essays

(There is a dialectal difference about the acceptability of

this last sentence)

Telling complements from adjuncts

Complements Adjuncts

only 1 multiple allowed

closest to head may be separatedfrom head

cannot be reordered can be reordered

conjoin withcomplements

conjoin with adjuncts

*[one]+complement [one]+adjunct

You should be able to list an

example or two of these on the

exam

Interesting ambiguity The English teacher

Teacher from England (adjunct reading) Teacher of the English language (complement)

NP

D N’

AP Nthe

Englishteacher

NP

D N’

AP N’the

EnglishteacherN

Interesting ambiguity The Spanish English teacher

(can only have language teacher reading) The English teacher of Spanish

(can only have nationality reading) The Math and English teacher

(can only have the language reading) The Canadian and English teacher

(can only have the nationality reading) The English one

(can only have the nationality reading)

An easy mistake to make!

When you have only one PP modifier or AP modifier, be very careful to see if it is a complement or adjunct. If it is an adjunct it must be a sister to the X’ level!!!!!

NP

D N’

AP N’the

bigbanana

N

this N’ is CRUCIAL!!NP

D N’

AP Nthe

bigbanana

The complement/adjunct distinction in VPs

John [VP often eats apples with a fork] adjunct head complement adjunct

In VPs, the direct object is always the complement. Other things require thought.

For example the verbs give and put take two complements a NP and PP.

I gave the apple to John (both are complements) I put the book on the table

I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart

VP

V’

V’ PP

V’ AP

V NPloved

intensely

with all my heart

the policeman

complement

adjuncts

Adverbial NPs

He read faithfully every day. What does the tree look look like?

Is “faithfully” an adjunct? * He read faithfully his syntax book.

What can we conclude about how “every day” and “his syntax book”?

Complements come closer to the head than adjuncts

Only 1 occurrence of each complement *I loved the policeman the fireman

Reordering I loved the policeman with all my heart intensely I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart *I loved intensely the policeman with all my heart *I loved intensely with all my heart the policeman

Conjunction I loved the policeman and the fireman I loved the policeman intensely and with all my heart *I loved the policemand and intensely

Do so replacementSusan loved the policemen intensely with all her heart but/and

Mary did so with her brain! Mary did so mildly with her brain *Mary did so the fireman

APs and PPs???

Evidence is much weaker. very afraid of tigers adjunct head complement

very in love with himself adjunct head complement ???? a man in love with all his heart ? a man in love with all his heart

with himself We will assume the distinction

exists here

Specifiers

The only element we have seen in specifiers so far is the determiner. In the next chapter, we’ll argue that even these aren’t real specifiers.

Instead, we’ll argue the specifier is where subjects are generated. More on this later.

For now, understand the definition (sister to X’, daughter of XP), and put determiners there.

Summary

Specifier: sister to X’, daughter of XP Adjunct: sister to X’, daughter of X’ Complement: sister to X, daughter of X’ X-bar theory predicts differences in behavior

between complements and adjuncts only one complement, multiple adjuncts complement must be closest to head adjuncts can be reordered conjunction *One/did so + complement

Summary

Complement/Adjunct distinction hold of pre-head material too.

The C/A distinction can capture ambiguity There is strong evidence for the C/A

distinction in NPs and VPs The evidence for APs and PPs is weaker We are leaving specifiers aside for the

moment as something to be dealt with later.