promoting rainwater harvesting eastern and southern africa

8/9/2019 Promoting rainwater harvesting eastern and southern Africa

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Promoting rainwater harvestingeasternand southern Africa

The RELMA experience

Bancy M. Mati, Maimbo Malesu and Alex Oduor


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Promoting rainwater harvesting

in eastern and southern Africa

Bancy M. Mati, Maimbo Malesu and Alex Oduor


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LIMITED CIRCULATION

Mugo F and Ong C: 2006.Lessons from East Africas unsustainable charcoal business. ICRAF

Working Paper no 1. 24

Titles in the Working Paper Series aim to disseminate interim results on agroforestry research and

practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community. Other publication series from the

World Agroforestry Centre include: Agroforestry Perspectives, Technical Manuals and Occasional

Papers.

Published by the World Agroforestry Centre

United Nations Avenue

PO Box 30677, GPO 00100

Nairobi, Kenya

Tel: +254(0)20 7224000, via USA +1 650 833 6645

Fax: +254(0)20 7224001, via USA +1 650 833 6646

Email: [email protected]

Internet: www.worldagroforestry.org

World Agroforestry Centre 2005

Working Paper nr 24

The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the

World Agroforestry Centre.Articles appearing in this publication may be quoted or reproduced without charge, provided the source

is acknowledged.

All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without

written permission of the source.

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mailto:[email protected]://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/mailto:[email protected]


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About the authors

Bancy M. Mati, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology Nairobi, Kenya

([email protected])

Maimbo Malesu, Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA), Nairobi, Kenya

([email protected])

Alex Oduor, Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA), Nairobi, Kenya ([email protected])

Keywords: Rainwater harvesting, land management

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mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Contents

Introduction....................................................................................................................3

From Erosion Control to Rainwater Harvesting ........................................................5

Rationale for Rainwater harvesting ...........................................................................6

Rainwater harvesting technologies and approaches ......................................................8Rainwater harvesting and storage in above-surface tanks .........................................8

Pans and Ponds ..........................................................................................................9

Earth dams ...............................................................................................................10

Sand and sub-surface dams......................................................................................11

Runoff harvesting and storage underground............................................................12

Spateflow irrigation .................................................................................................12

Conservation Agriculture.........................................................................................13

Policy advocacy to promote rainwater harvesting.......................................................14Documentation and awareness creation.......................................................................19

Collaboration and Networking.................................................................................16

Capacity building .....................................................................................................17

Conclusions..............................................................................................................22

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Introduction

Early explorers to Africa reported finding serene countryside where people, their

livestock and wildlife co-existed in an almost untamed environment (Thomson, 1887;

Krapf, 1860). However, with colonization of nearly all the countries in eastern and

southern Africa, except Ethiopia, in the early 1900s, pressure on land resources

started to be experienced as indigenous populations were relocated to generally

poorer, more fragile farmlands and grazing areas, and ecosystem degradation was

reported (Tate, 1904; Hardinge, 1899; Herren 1987).In contrast, the land alienated for European settlements was usually had the highest

potential. For instance, in Swaziland and Zimbabwe, more than half of the land was

alienated. In Angola, Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia, the proportion alienated was not

so large, but it still tended to be on the cool, high-potential plateau where productivity

and population density were highest (Hunter, 1992).

As a result of compulsory acquisition of high-potential land, population densities on

poor quality or marginal lands throughout the region increased over a relatively short

time and traditional land management strategies became unviable. By the 1930s, soil

erosion and land degradation was being documented and raising concern (Maher,

1937; 1938). During this period (1930s-1960s), the colonial administration and its

extension system enforced compulsory conservation what has been referred to as the

Colonial Error in Soil Conservation (Admassie, 1992).

From the 1960s, many African countries were getting independent from colonial rule

and there were high expectations by poor smallholder farmers. In some cases, land

was reallocated and large farms were sub-divided, creating new smallholder

settlements, some of which spread from the wetter highlands to the drier rangelands

originally used for ranching (Huber and Opondo, 1995).

The incoming African settlers brought with them subsistence agriculture even on

fragile marginal lands. As the farm sizes were small, the farms were subjected to

intensive cultivation and overgrazing (Kohler 1987). The post-independence euphoria

(1960s-1970s), also brought with it a laissez faire attitude among the smallholder land

users, who felt free from colonial rules such as those on soil and water conservation,

resulting in a period of rejection, the so-called lost years (Admassie, 1992).

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The first world summit on the environment in Stockholm in 1972 raised concerns

about land degradation in Africa. Governments and the international community

turned their focus to controlling soil erosion, which was identified as a major cause of

land degradation in the region. Soil conservation initiatives were subsequently

reintroduced over the next two decades. This time round conservation efforts were

based land-users willingness to participate, with an on-farm focus and some

incentives (Admassie, 1992; Lundgren and Taylor 1993).

In was soon after the 1972 conference that the Swedish International Development

Agency (Sida) began to be involved in soil and water conservation in eastern and

southern Africa, starting with support to the newly established National Soil

Conservation Programme (NSWCP) in Kenya.

In 1982, the Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU) was established in Nairobi,Kenya, to facilitate diffusion of the experiences in to neighbouring countries through

training, information exchange and dissemination, funding for short-term studies,

technical backstopping by professionals, publications and establishment of training

and extension for soil conservation (Wolde-Aregay, 1996). The RSCU focused on six

countries Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia (Lundgren, 1993;

Lundgren and Taylor, 1993; Wolde-Aregay, 1996; Abebe, 1997).

RSCUs work led to the development of participatory approaches such as the

catchment approach and focal area approaches. The catchment approach to soilconservation (Admassie, 1992) is relatively long-term and involved farmers to plan

and implement conservation activities within water catchments.

However, the focus was still on individual farms and the approach did not lead to

conservation of the entire catchment. There was more emphasis on private on-farm

conservation at the expense of off-farm activities and public lands, reducing

community participation. At the same time, international attention was focusing on

more integrated approaches to dealing with land management, beyond soil

conservation. This culminated in the transformation of RSCU into the Regional LandManagement Unit (RELMA).

RELMAs mandate was to contribute towards improved livelihoods and enhanced

food security among small-scale land users in the region. Its objective was to

enhance quality, technical and institutional competence through improved contents of

Sida-supported activities and other programmes, projects and institutions involved in

land management.

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This objective would be achieved through support to environmentally sustainable,

socially and economically viable land management practices, aimed at improved

production and utilization of food and other commodities.

Based in Nairobi at the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), RELMA operates

mainly in six countries in eastern and central Africa: Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya,

Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. Small-scale farmers within these countries form

RELMAs ultimate target groups, whereas intermediary institutions of various types

(extension agents) are the direct target groups, or clients (RELMA 2002).

From Erosion Control to Rainwater Harvesting

From the 1980s, governments in the eastern and southern Africa were preoccupiedwith large-scale consequences of soil erosion such as sedimentation of dams and

desertification (Dunne, 1979). In contrast, local concerns centred on soil productivity

and access to water, with terracing, bunding, vegetative strips and other structural

measure being adopted by farmers (Thomas, 1997; Tiffen et al, 1994).

It was not long before stakeholders began to demand linkages between conservation

and productivity and to move from soil conservation to land husbandry. This meant

more holistic treatment of land, combining care and management of crops and

animals, so that land improvement comes first and the control of erosion follows as aresult of good land husbandry (Lundgren and Taylor 1993).

It was during this period that the RSCU was implementing the Hifadhi Ardhi Dodoma

(HADO) project in Kondoa, Tanzania (Christianson et al, 1993; Mbeu and Mlenge,

1983). The land in Kondoa had been severely degraded, with gullies, badlands,

floods, poor soils due to many years of overgrazing, charcoal burning and slash-and

burn and poor land husbandry.

The interventions the HADO project adopted included moving livestock to other

areas, terracing, grass trips, planting vegetative material in sand rivers (to trap sand),

use of crop residues as trash lines, tree nurseries, village forests, agroforestry, contour

bunds, stone bunds and gully control. Though large areas were conserved, the project

was criticized for relocating people. It was argued that it would be difficult to

replicate such as a drastic measure elsewhere in the region.

In a similar project in Eritrea, Negasi et al (2000) reports of soil conservation and

treatment of degraded hillsides at Teshalflam and Aditeclai-Adighebru, with terracing

(fanya chini fanya juu) and afforestation, as well as well as the the closure and

designation of Mt. Bizen as permanent woodland in 1992. [Fanya chini fanya juu are

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The need for rainwater has been growing in the region, not only for crop production

but also for livestock and household use. About 69% of the land in eastern and

southern Africa falls within arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones where permanent

rivers are few and far apart. Ground water exploration, development and abstraction is

expensive and beyond the reach of most farmers. There has therefore been growing

interest in alternative sources of water that are affordable and can be implemented

using local resources.

Why RWH? The reasons are many. The world is currently undergoing water crises and RWH

can augment water supply in all sectors. Rainwater harvesting increases food production and

hence forms the foundation of many development projects that promote agriculture and land

management (Reij et al., 1996; Lundgren, 1993; Hurni and Tato, 1992; WOCAT, 1997). For

instance, according to studies carried out, maize yield can be tripled with RWH through

Conservation agriculture. RWH minimizes the risk of crop failure during droughts, intra

seasonal droughts and floods (Baron and Rockstrom 2003); RWH reduces women's burden of

collecting water for domestic use, leaving time for other productive activities. RWH gives

opportunity for the girl child to attend school and provides a relatively safe and clean source

of drinking water, minimizing incidences of water borne diseases.

When applied at watershed level, it improves the environment and minimizes the effects of

drought and floods. RWH is a decentralized water supply system encouraging community

participation and self reliance. Local communities who have an enormous capacity to invest

labour and time can do it; the systems are varied and can therefore be built according to the

ecological characteristics of the particular region or locality (Oweis et al., 2001; SIWI, 2000).

Hatibu and Mahoo (2000) also demonstrated the importance of RWH to domestic

water supplies, livestock watering and crop production using examples and data from

Tanzania. The researchers described effective use of rainwater, noting that 98% ofcrop production in Tanzania is rain-fed. RWH is particularly necessary as 71% of all

disasters in Tanzania are caused by droughts (33%) and floods (38%). Drought occurs

once every four years in Tanzania, affecting mostly the central regions of Dodoma,

Singida and Tabora, Shinyanga, Mwanza and Mara, and some parts of the coast,

particularly Bagamoyo. Floods affect Tanga, Mbeya, Coast, Morogoro, Arusha,

Rukwa, Iringa, Lindi and Ruvuma. It is these areas where RWH also has the highest

impacts on improving livelihoods.

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Rainwater harvesting technologies and

approaches

In line with its goal of improving the livelihoods of small-scale land users, RELMA

was involved in the search for appropriate and affordable technologies for rainwater

harvesting. In the early years, emphasis was mostly on identification, research,

refinement and promotion of technologies that smallholder farmers could adapt.

Over the years, various RWH techniques have been proposed, tested and adopted by

land users across eastern and southern Africa. These can be grouped roughly into five

broad types:

(i) rooftop RWH and storages in either surface or underground tanks;

(ii) runoff harvesting from open surfaces and paths, roads, rocks, and its storage in

ponds, underground tanks or other structures;

(iii) flood flow harvesting from valleys, gullies, temporary streams and its storage in

ponds, weirs, small dams;

(iv) flood flow harvesting from ephemeral water courses and its storage within sand

formations as sub-surface or sand dams;

(v) runoff harvesting and its diversion from any other sources when stored within the

soil profile.

Rainwater harvesting and storage in above-surface tanks

In the ESA experience, harvesting roof runoff and storage in above ground tanks

proved to be one of the most popular technologies (Gould and Nissen-Peterssen

1999). Galvanized corrugated iron sheets, corrugated plastic and tiles all make good

roof catchment surfaces and are now widely available in much of the ESA region.

Tanks are built from a wide range of materials including metal, wood, plastic, fibre

glass, bricks, interlocking blocks, compressed-soil or rubble-stone blocks, ferro

cement, and concrete. Regardless of the material used to make them, good tanks share

common key features: They should be should be watertight, durable and affordable

cost is a key influence on tank choice and should not contaminate the water.

Surface tanks vary in size from 1 m3 to more than 40 m3 for households and 100 m3 or

bigger for schools, hospitals and other institutions. Tank size is also dependent on therainfall pattern and demand for water. Areas with seasonal rainfall will require larger

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tanks of 25 m3 35 m3 and a roof exceeding 100 m2 to satisfy the demand in an

average household in the dry season.

Another benefit of surface tanks over sun-surface ones, which are partly or

completely underground, is that water can be easily extracted through a tap just above

the tanks base. This has made surface tanks popular in rural households for water for

drinking water. This popularity was demonstrated in the Kusa area of Nyando

District, Kenya, where RELMA was involved in a project to promote rainwater

harvesting. In just six months, 113 above-ground tanks with capacities ranging from 3

m3 to 23 m3 for homes and 23 m3 to 30 m3 for institutions were constructed (Mati,

2001).

However, the cost of tanks is often beyond the reach of many poor households and

that is what most RWH projects of this nature are funded or subsidized bydevelopment agencies. In the Kusa project, for instance, RELMA gave subsidies in

form of materials and expertise that amounted up to 49% of the total cost of a tank

(Winberg, 2005).

Pans and PondsWhere the catchment is appropriate, pans and ponds are dug up to capture and store runoff

from surfaces such hillsides, roads, rocky areas and open rangelands. Pans have been used to

harvest rainwater in many parts of East Africa, especially for livestock. When well designed

and with good sedimentation basins, pans can collect significant amounts of water for

livestock and for irrigating crops to augment rainfall. But pans have their problems. These

include their relatively small capacities, high rates of silting, loss of water through seepage

and high evaporation losses.

To control seepage, ponds can be lined with a special dam-plastic (Cherogony 2000)

popularized by RELMA. However, the high cost of good-quality plastic lining, which often

needs to be factory-made to measure, is a major constraint for smallholder farmers. Cheaper

methods such as clay grouting should be encouraged.

In a recent study by RELMA (Sang et al 2006) in Lare division of Nakuru district, Kenya, a

25 square kilometre area was randomly selected and using GIS technique the number and

distribution of runoff ponds in the area were determined. A Quick bird image revealed that

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908 ponds (see Figure 1) been constructed by farmers in the location. This is the highest

adoption of ponds RELMA has ever observed in Africa.

The adoption of ponds has resulted in improved livelihoods of the communities

through increased food and water security. It was concluded and recommended that

ponds should be scaled up in areas of similar biophysical conditions.

Figure 1. Distribution of 908 ponds in Lare Division, Nakuru Kenya

Earth dams

Earth dams are perhaps the most widespread method of water harvesting, especially

from river valleys. A dam can be constructed to collect water from less than 20 km 2

for a steep catchment and 70 km2 for a flat one. In Tanzania, low earth dams called

malambo have been built, especially in Dodoma, Shinyanga and Pwani regions

(Hatibu and Mahoo, 2000). Some of these are medium-sized reservoirs for urban or

irrigation water supply.

Sometimes a regulating reservoir is designed to store flash floods from a single day's

rainfall. The water is then slowly released so that it does not endanger bunds

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constructed on farmlands on lower land. The stored water drains away continuously

until the reservoir is dry in a day or two, ready to receive the next flash floods.

An adequate spillway must be provided to guard against the dam collapsing. Should

the dam collapse, the resulting damage will be far greater than that which would have

been caused by the flash floods, underlining the importance of taking sufficient

precautions in the design. Qualified and experienced engineers should be in charge of

the design and construction of dams.

Due to the high costs of construction, earthen dams are usually built with support

from donor-funded projects. For instance, in Laikipia District, Kenya, the excavation

of an earth dam 15,000 m3 cost about US$5,000 (Mati 2002). However, there have

been cases of smallholder farmers building earthen dams manually by themselves in

Mwingi District (Mburu 2000).

Sand and sub-surface dams

In many semi-arid areas, rivers are temporary. The water can be seen flowing only a

few weeks in a year. Once the water subsides, the sandy riverbed is exposed. While

the river may appear dry, water normally continues flowing slowly under the sand. By

building a dam across the river channel, the slow-flowing water can be accumulated

upstream in a reservoir from where it is extracted by a pipe of shallow well. Suchdams can be made of earth or, where the sand is shallow, stone masonry (Nissen-

Peterssen 2000).

Sand river storage has a number of advantages. Firstly, it normally upgrades a

traditional water source that is already socially acceptable. (Traditionally, in the dry

season, people dig into the riverbed to reach the slow-flowing water). Because the

water is stored under the sand, it is protected from significant evaporation losses and

less likely to be contaminated.

The construction of river intakes and hand-dug wells with hand-pumps in the river

bank can further improve water quality. The amount of water available also increases

and up to 30% of the total reservoir volume can be tapped. Water yield from a sand

dam depends on the sand formation, particle size and good design of the reservoir to

prevent silting (Table 2).

RELMA facilitated the construction of several sand dams in East Africa (Mati, 2001;

Nissen Peterssen 2000). For instance, one such dam in Machakos, Kenya, supplied the

annual water requirements of a community of 3,000. the cost to the community was

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put at about US$0.20-0.30 for each cubic metre of water (Nissen-Peterssen 2000), but

these costs are easily recoverable in the long-run.

Table 2: Porosity and extractable volume of water from sand dams (Adapted from Nissen Peterssen

2000)

SiltFine

Sand

Medium

Sand

Coarse

Sand

Fine

Gravel

Coarse

Gravel

Diameter of

Particles (mm)


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irrigation has also been used successfully at Alaa, where annual rainfall ranges from

300 to 500 mm, to irrigate about 2,000 ha of fruit trees, food and fodder.

At Sheeb, where large-scale spate irrigation dates back 80 years, traditional systems

cover 100-4,000 ha. Farmers construct 1-3 m high embankments known as agum

across the river channel upstream of the primary intake canal to divert the low-spate

flows from the river bed. The primary canals (known as musqa), which guide water

from the river, have a large capacity in relation to the area irrigated because of the

short duration of the spateflows. The primary canals are divided into smaller canals

that take water into field of about 0.25 ha each. Some 10-12 fields are grouped into a

block.

Conservation Agriculture

Conservation agriculture is the most efficient way to harness green water. This is

because the water cycle loop is closed, shorter and thus more efficient. Rainwater is

caught in-situ, conveyed, stored and used within the same soil profile. This means that

all the components of rainwater harvesting occur at the same place.

Using the tenets of conservation agriculture -- which include minimum tillage, crop

rotations and cover cropping -- soil is conditioned to conserve moisture for ideal crop

growth. Water is only harvested elsewhere for irrigation only if the moisture is

insufficient from crops.

Conservation agriculture is now recognized as the missing link between sustainable

soil management and lower labour costs, especially during land preparation.

Conservation tillage in eastern and southern Africa holds the potential for increasing

crop production, and reduced erosion (Biamah et al, 2000; Kaumbutho, 2000).

RELMA has been promoting conservation agriculture in the region, achieving notable

successes in Zambia, Zimbabwe and Tanzania (Nyagumbo 2000). For instance,

Kaoma-Sprenkels et al (2000) describe the work of the organization IMAG-DLO in

Zambia between 1987 and 1999 that used a network of centres to diversify the used of

animal-drawn implements to achieve conservation tillage. These implements include

the Magoye ripper, Palabana ripper with planter, Palabana subsoiler, and ripper-ridger

attachment. In Zimbabwe, technologies such as no-till tied ridging are used. The

ridges, made using animal traction, are about 20-25 cm in height and laid across the

slope at 0.4-1% gradients.

Other technologies include no-till strip cropping, where crops are grown in rows 3-9

m wide (Nyagumbo, 2000), and pot-holing, infiltration pits (chimbatamvura) and

fanya juu chini terraces.

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Policy advocacy to promote rainwater

harvesting

Expensive conventional options to water supply usually fail to function as expected a

few months or years after construction. Dams are rendered ineffective due to siltation

resulting from heavy erosion of agricultural lands, while borehole pumps break down

and often cannot be repaired or lack of spare parts or become useless because of lower

water tables resulting from over exploitation of groundwater. It is well established

that centralized water supply systems in rural Africa fail.

Rainwater harvesting systems on the other hand are cheaper, decentralized and

participatory and benefit communities in rural and urban areas.

Besides the physical water supply structures, there are policy gaps in addressing

water-related diseases. An over-emphasis on treatment while neglecting water and

sanitation which cause the diseases and misplaced faith in the private sectors role

in supplying water to poor communities have all contributed to the worsening water

crises in Africa.

To address these and other policy constraints, RELMA undertook a wide range of

activities. These included policy research, seminars as well as workshops to create

awareness and stimulate debate about water harvesting. It also helped to organize

international conferences and study tours for policy makers within and outside the

region. All these activities contributed towards the goal of mainstreaming water

harvesting into all key policy frameworks at national, regional and international

levels.

RELMA worked closely with inter-governmental organizations, such as the United

Nations Environment programme (UNEP) and UN Habitat, and international

organizations, including the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) based in India

to lobby for policy change at global, regional and national level.

This work has produced positive results, especially at global and regional levels.

Through the Rainwater Partnership, an initiative began in the Hague in 2004 by

UNEP and key stakeholders such as SEARNET, IRHA, RAIN, IRCSA and CSE, a

series of policy advocacy activities were undertaken targeting international forums

such as the CSD 13 in New York, the African Ministerial Commission on Water

(AMCOW) and the annual Stockholm Water Symposium since 2003.

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As national economies declined and debt accumulated in most ESA countries in the

1980s-90s, investment in agriculture dwindled. With the consequent decline in

agricultural production, attention shifted to technologies and policies driving

decisions at national, regional and local levels. It was found that policies and

institutional arrangements in most countries were inherited from the colonial era, or

initiated after independence, and had become ineffective. Rather than stimulate

efficient economic activity and development, they were retarding it.

In general, the policies were driving mismatched resource use and exacerbating food

insecurity and environmental degradation. Studies in Lesotho and Zimbabwe (Hunter

1992) on the legal context of conservation revealed a pressing need for unified and

harmonized national legal frameworks to promote sustainable productive resource

management.

The need to review macro-economic policies was clear. This need was already being

felt more in the 1980s. Wrote Michanek(1989): The focus of African resource

management is beginning to change. From seeing farmers and other resource users

as the culprits of resource mismanagement, it is increasingly becoming evident that

the culprit is to be found elsewhere.

Moreover, most countries in the ESA were also developing Poverty Reduction

Strategy Papers (PRSP) and other policies to guide recovery and development in all

economic sectors, including water and agriculture.

The legal, policy oriented and institutional aspects of RELMAs work aim to

strengthen the role of small-scale land users in efforts to improve food security and

reduce poverty.

RELMA worked with both high-level policy makers and communities at the

grassroots. The aim was to link policy makers in the region including through

exchange visits, seminars and conferences and influence policy from a practical

land management point of view. Indeed enhancing policy support for RWH and

natural resource management has been one of RELMAs strengths.

In general, policies in the ESA play a crucial role in the success or failure of RWH

initiatives. Wolde-Aregay (1996) observed that land policies had a big influence on

rainwater harvesting, especially those relating to tenure, collective use of land, tree

ownership, the role of peasant associations, quota setting, top-down approaches, and

mass mobilization.

Since RWH usually addresses problems of dry areas, Hatibu and Mahoo (2000) noted

that a good policy framework is necessary in dealing with arid and semi-arid lands

(ASALs). In the past, these problems were simply seen as drought and erosion.

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Policies, strategies and programmes therefore put a lot of emphasis, efforts and funds

into droughtresistant crops and erosion control. Over-emphasis on erosion control

led to strategies and programmes that focused more on land rather than land users.

The programmes were designed to stop erosion without considering the benefits

gained from it.

A good example is the destocking of the Kondoa eroded area in Tanzania

implemented by HADO as a conservation initiative (Mbeu and Mlenge, 1983) to

control erosion and which focused on the amount of soil lost rather than the loss in

productivity (Stocking, 1988). This led to strategies such as cut-off drains, which

were designed to dispose runoff but decreased the amount of water available to crops.

Such approaches are inappropriate for the semi-arid areas where plants suffer more

from water stress that soil loss. This realization has led to reforms such as thosecontained in the Tanzanian Agricultural and Livestock Policy of 1997 (URT, 2001),

which aims to to promote integrated and sustainable use and management of natural

resources such as land, soil, water and vegetation.

Collaboration and Networking

Soon after its inception in 1998, RELMA started setting up an elaborate system ofnetworks and information-sharing platforms. The Africa Water Network (1998)

reports of a regional workshop attended by participants from Eastern and Southern

Africa region (Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe) to discuss

the formation of a regional RWH network. This was the foundation of the present-day

Southern and eastern Africa Rainwater Network (SEARNET).

It was agreed that SEARNETs goals would be to ensure sustainable access to water,

enhance household food security, improve health and raise household incomes.

The networks main activities would be to organize regional rainwater harvesting

workshops and mobilise resources as well as networking and information

management.

With RELMA support, SEARNET was registered two years later as an association of

rainwater harvesting networks from 12 countries in the region. It was to have an

information-sharing link with South Asia (SEARNET 2003).

Today, SEARNET, which is hosted by RELMA, is a vibrant network and the link to

Asia has strengthened into a partnership, through the Centre for Science and

Engineering (CSE) of India.

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RELMA has also been working closely with national rainwater associations. For

example, RELMA supported various Kenya Rainwater Association projects,

including an annual exhibition held in the capital Nairobi. The Uganda Rainwater

harvesting Association has received similar support.

Internationally, RELMAs partners include the Global Water Partnership, which

supports SEARNET and CSE of India. The GWP Associated Programme (GWP-AP)

project at SEARNET has three key aims: Building the capacity of national

associations to promote rainwater harvesting, coordinating network activities and

linking the network to CSE.

RELMA has also partnered with World Overview of Conservation Technologies

(WOCAT). In one project (Mutunga et al, 2001), RELMA supported the making of a

video and production of print information materials on the Promoting FarmerInnovation initiative in collaboration with the the United Nations Development

programme (UNDP) and WOCAT. The full list of networks supported is long and can

be obtained from RELMAs annual reports (2002, 2003, 2004, 2005)

Capacity building

Capacity building has been an important component of RELMAs approach and that of its

predecessor, the Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU). In the RSCU era (1980s-90s), the

initial focus of capacity building was on residential training of newly employed and in-service

officers involved in land management, water harvesting and tree nursery establishment.

Training of trainers in these areas was also emphasized and several training manuals were

developed (Wenner, 1981; Muturi, 1992; 1999).

Other than direct training, RSCU supported agricultural extension programmes such as he

catchment approach to soil conservation (Admassie, 1992), and the National Agricultural and

Livestock Extension Project (NALEP; 2001). The ultimate objective of the capacity building

initiatives was to establish a regional forum for building competence among extension

workers, researchers and farmers.

The content of the training courses was regularly updated. For instance, Muturi, (1992)

reviewed the curricula and content of agroforestry training courses offered through

workshops, field days for farmers and extension workers. Although soil and water

conservation was included in some of the courses, rainwater harvesting was lacking.

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In a separate study, Abebe (1997) assessed the status of education in agroforestry and soil and

water conservation in six colleges in eastern Africa -- Egerton University, Kenya; Jimma

College of Agriculture, Ethiopia; Ministry of Agriculture Training Institute (MATI-U)

Ukiringu, Tanzania; Bukalasa Agricultural College (BAC), Uganda; and Natural Resources

Development College (NRDC), Zambia. The study reviewed Bachelor of Science degree,

diploma and certificate courses. Only NRDC offered a diploma course in water engineering.

The Zambian college also a diploma course in agricultural engineering, which was taught at

undergraduate level in Egerton. All the courses covered soil erosion and conservation well,

but not all included topics on RWH.

Besides formal education, RELMAs activities included practical training in the field. For

instance, in Uganda, 26 women groups in Rakai were given hands-on training in

construction of water tanks (Rugasira, 2002). In Kusa, western Kenya, RELMA

trained members of Common Interest Groups (Winberg 2005) to make them stronger

and more effective in addressing the concerns of members.

Publications supported the hands on training conducted in all of RELMAs rainwater

harvesting projects. For instance, a training manual by Nissen-Petersen (2000) describes with

good illustrations the procedures in the site selection, survey methods, and construction and

management of sand and sub-surface dams. Local knowledge and skills is incorporated in the

procedures.

RELMAs training materials are easy-to-read, presenting sound technical information

to a broad audience. The handy design includes clear descriptions and illustrations.

For instance, in the handbook on the catchment approach Admassie (1992) captures

the principles of water conservation, rainwater harvesting systems in the field and

basic requirements -- soil types, slope, crop choice -- for smallholder agriculture.

Techniques presented include contour bunds for trees, tree micro-catchments

(negarims), broad bed and furrow, matengo pits, ridging and tied ridging, semi-

circular bunds, conservation benches, as well as water harvesting from external

catchments, runoff farming in level basins and contour stone bunds.

Sometimes, training materials were prepared in vernacular languages. A good

example is the training manual written in Dholuo language (Ouko and Oduor, 1999)

on construction of tanks based on RELMAs experience promoting rainwater

harvesting in Kusa.

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Establishment of the GWP at SEARNET in 2002 enhanced training in rainwater

harvesting. Since 2003, participants from various rainwater harvesting associations in

the region have been supported they share costs with RELMA to attend an annual

course in China. Others have attended training courses organized by the International

Rainwater Harvesting Alliance (IRHA) in collaboration with other institutions.

RELMA-in-ICRAF is now considering offering regular courses for the region

following the success of one it organized on water for food self-sufficiency. The

course demonstrated not only the home-grown capacity within RELMA, but also the

willingness by other agencies to finance such courses.

Documentation and awareness creationIn a region where rainwater harvesting is not widespread, information is vital to create

awareness, influence policy and encourage adoption of various technologies.

Documentation and information dissemination were central to RELMAs strategy.

Although aspects rainwater harvesting information was captured in various

publications since the 1990s, it was under the domains of soil and water conservation

and water and sanitation advisors. It was not until January 2003, when a distinct

rainwater harvesting programme was set up and a special unit formed to documentrainwater harvesting in ESA.

The unit used multiple channels to create a network movement for influencing policy

debate in the region. The main channels were newsletters, video, the internet and

technical publications all managed by a team at the Southern and Eastern Africa

Rainwater Harvesting Network (SearNET), the umbrella association that bring

together 12 national RWH networks on the continent.

Numerous posters, brochures, reports and 3-D models were printed and disseminated

in international forums.

Brochures

The GWP-AP used brochures to present an overview of its objectives, activities set up

and operations. More than 6,000 brochures have been distributed by the end of the

projects phase in June 2006. National association are now developing their own

brochures to reach local publics. The Zambia Rainwater Harvesting Association

(ZARHA) has developed one.

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SEARNET briefs

The SEARNET Briefs provides a forum for exchange of information, opinions and

experiences amongst practitioners. The free publication has raised the visibility and

profile of RELMA in general and SEARNET in particular. It has attracted readers

from organizations such as the GWP in Stockholm and the regional offices in

Entebbe, the African Ministerial Conference on Water, UN-Habitat, UNEP,

International Water Management Institute, World Vision International, local and

foreign Universities and various ICRAF programmes.

For instance, a recent issue had contributions from as far as India, Mexico, Nicaragua,

Bulgaria, Brazil, the Netherlands and Switzerland. Some 32,000 copies had been

circulated by mid-2006.

Owing to the visibility created by the SEARNET Briefs, the International RainwaterCatchment Systems Association (IRCSA) requested the SEARNET Secretariat to be

its focal point and key representative for Africa.

Posters

Posters are a powerful way to summarise approaches and research findings. That SEARNET

has won two awards in three years for scientific posters presented at the Stockholm Water

Symposium in Sweden is testimony to the high quality of the posters it produces. Having

recognized this, UNEP and the UN-Habitat have collaborated with the secretariat to jointly

produce posters.

SEARNET and its national affiliates have used the posters to present RWH technology and

policy issues at in exhibitions, workshops and seminars. Copies have been distributed to

government offices and other interest groups to raise awareness and for policy advocacy. For

instance, the Rwanda Government requested and got six sets of the technology and policy

posters that were distributed to relevant ministries.

Case studies of the Lare ponds, Machakos runoff schemes and Kusa integrated RWH works,

all in Kenya, have been summarized in posters for continuous awareness creation.

Technical publications

Technical publications inform and educate the public on principles and practices of

rainwater harvesting. The first such publication, a handbook, was produced by

volunteer authors from SEARNET members who met at a regional workshop inMachakos in 2003. Initially, the manual was to cover rainwater harvesting for

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domestic and agricultural use, but the household component was hived off to a

separate book on urban rainwater harvesting in collaboration with UN-Habitat.

SEARNET also collaborated with UNEP to publish and distribute 2000 copies of a technical

booklet on rainwater harvesting and the Millennium Development Goals.

Another publication by the SEARNET secretariat documented the impacts of rainwater

harvesting at a RELMA project site in Kusa, on the shoreline of Kavirondo gulf of Lake

Victoria.

Two more drafts are ready for publishing under the technical report and handbook series in

RELMA. One maps rainwater harvesting domains, while the other covers rainwater

harvesting for agriculture.

The publications provide a rich information base that could be used to develop a

curriculum for training in the proposed second phase of the GWP-AP programme.

The books could then be used as key references.

Stakeholders directory

The development and publishing of SEARNETs rainwater harvesting stakeholders

directory aims to enhance regional stakeholder collaboration, coordination and

networking. Given that changes occur all the time, SEARNET will also produce an

online version that can easily be updated.

Radio and television

A 27-minute video documentary -- Seeking solutions in Rainwater harvesting -- was

produced in various formats for broadcast and home viewing. A five-minute version

was produced alongside two similarly short ones on RELMAs work in Machakos and

Kajiado.

The short programmes were aired on Kenyas national television. The broadcasts had

a big impact because the programmes were aired when the region was in the grip of

serious famine following prolonged drought. Since then the number of requests for

information and technical advice has gone up.

Given its effectiveness, video documentation will continue to be an important component of

SEARNETs programme in future.

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Websites

With Internet access improving all the time across Africa and other developing

nations, the importance of electronic communication is increasing. To access a wider

and enhance communication with member networks SEARNET launched its

www.searnet.org website in 2003. The site has links to key online resources such as

RELMAs www.rainwaterharvesting.org, UNEPs www.rainwaterpartnership.org and

www.cseindia.org, run by SEARNETs partner in South Asia.

Nation association are also coming up with their own sites to reflect country realities

and better address information needs in their areas. So far, the Eastern Africa region,

through the Great Horn of Africa Rainwater Project (GHARP), and the Rainwater

Harvesting Association of Zimbabwe (RHAZ), have established their own websites,

which are linked to SEARNETs.

.

Conclusions

Emphasis on soil alone cannot be remedial to solve farm productivity. Land husbandry, which

encompassed soil fertility and crop marketing was thus adopted. With time, it emerged that

one of the crucial issues to tackle is water scarcity. Todate RWH which has been identified as

a simple cost effective method is gaining popularity as more and more stakeholders adopt it.

RSCU had a rigorous capacity building programme for a wide array of stakeholders. The

knowledge gained by the trainees was immense. Their strategy could be used in phase two of

the GWP-AP programme.

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WORKING PAPERS IN THIS SERIES

1. Agroforestry in the drylands of eastern Africa: a call to action

2. Biodiversity conservation through agroforestry: managing tree species

diversity within a network of community-based, nongovernmental,governmental and research organizations in western Kenya.

3. Invasion of prosopis julifloraand local livelihoods: Case study from the Lake

Baringo area of Kenya

4. Leadership for change in Farmers Organizations: Training report: Ridar Hotel,

Kampala, 29th March to 2nd April 2005

5. Domestication des espces agroforestires au Sahel : situation actuelle et

perspectives

6. Relev des donnes de biodiversit ligneuse: Manuel du projet biodiversit

des parcs agroforestiers au Sahel

7. Improved Land Management in the Lake Victoria Basin: TransVic Projects

Draft Report

8. Livelihood capital, strategies and outcomes in the Taita hills of Kenya

9. Les espces ligneuses et leurs usages: Les prfrences des paysans dans le

Cercle de Sgou, au Mali

10. La biodiversit des espces ligneuses: Diversit arbore et units de gestion

du terroir dans le Cercle de Sgou, au Mali

11. Bird diversity and land use on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro and the adjacent

plains, Tanzania

12. Water, women and local social organization in the Western Kenya Highlands

13. Highlights of ongoing research of the World Agroforestry Centre in Indonesia

14. Prospects of adoption of tree-based systems in a rural landscape and itslikely impacts on carbon stocks and farmers welfare: the FALLOW Model

Application in Muara Sungkai, Lampung, Sumatra, in a Clean Development

Mechanism context

15. Equipping Integrated Natural Resource Managers for Healthy Agroforestry

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16. Are they competing or compensating on farm? Status of indigenous and

exotic tree species in a wide range of agro-ecological zones of Eastern and

Central Kenya, surrounding Mt. Kenya.

17. Agro-biodiversity and CGIAR tree and forest science: approaches and

examples from Sumatra

18. Improving land management in eastern and southern Africa: A review ofpolices.

19. Farm and Household Economic Study of Kecamatan Nanggung, KabupatenBogor, Indonesia: A Socio-economic base line study of AgroforestryInnovations and Livelihood Enhancement

20. Lessons from eastern Africas unsustainable charcoal business.

21. Evolution of RELMAs approaches to land management: Lessons from two

decades of research and development in eastern and southern Africa

22. Participatory watershed management: Lessons from RELMAs work withfarmers in eastern Africa.

23. Strengthening farmers organizations: The experience of RELMA andULAMP.


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promoting rainwater harvesting eastern and southern africa

Documents