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© McDougal Littell Inc. All rights reserved. PROLOGUE THE LEGACY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME 5 Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________ PROLOGUE Section 1 (pages 5–11) BEFORE YOU READ In this section, you will learn how democracy started in Greece and Rome. In the next section, you will see how Judaism and Christianity started and you will learn what ideas were spread by the Renaissance and the Reformation. AS YOU READ Use the diagram below to take notes on the contributions that Greece and Rome made to the democracy. TERMS AND NAMES government System for exercising authority monarchy Government controlled by one person aristocracy State ruled by the noble class oligarchy A government ruled by a few powerful people democracy Idea that people can govern themselves direct democracy Government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives republic Government in which citizens elect the leaders who make government decisions Senate Aristocratic branch of Rome’s government The Legacy of Ancient Greece and Rome Athens Builds a Limited Democracy (pages 5–7) How did democracy develop? Throughout history, people have known the need for a government, or a system for exercising authority. For most of history, people have lived under single rulers, such as kings. This type of rule is called a monarchy. These rulers had total power. Other governments that developed included aristocracy, which is a state ruled by the noble class. Later as traded expanded, a class of wealthy merchants often ruled a land. This was known as an oligarchy. The idea of democracy—that people can govern them- selves—grew slowly. Many people contributed to that idea over the centuries. Greek civilization began about 2000 B.C. Ancient Greece was made up of city-states. Each city-state had its own government. The first democracy developed in the city-state of Athens. Athens had a king at first. Then it became an aris- tocracy. Each year an assembly of citizens elected three nobles to rule Athens. Citizens were adult male residents given certain rights and responsibilities. A statesman called Solon created four new kinds of citizenship in the sixth century B.C. All free Democracy Under Solon, all free adult males were citizens of Athens

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Page 1: PROLOGUE The Legacy of Ancient Greece and Rome · PDF fileThe Legacy of Ancient Greece and Rome Athens Builds a Limited Democracy (pages 5–7) How did democracy develop? Throughout

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PROLOGUE THE LEGACY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME 5

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

PROLOGUE Section 1 (pages 5–11)

BEFORE YOU READIn this section, you will learn how democracy started inGreece and Rome.

In the next section, you will see how Judaism andChristianity started and you will learn what ideas werespread by the Renaissance and the Reformation.

AS YOU READUse the diagram below to take notes on the contributionsthat Greece and Rome made to the democracy.

TERMS AND NAMESgovernment System for exercisingauthoritymonarchy Government controlled byone personaristocracy State ruled by the nobleclassoligarchy A government ruled by afew powerful peopledemocracy Idea that people cangovern themselvesdirect democracy Government inwhich citizens rule directly and notthrough representativesrepublic Government in whichcitizens elect the leaders who makegovernment decisionsSenate Aristocratic branch ofRome’s government

The Legacy of AncientGreece and Rome

Athens Builds a LimitedDemocracy (pages 5–7)

How did democracy develop?Throughout history, people have known the need fora government, or a system for exercising authority.For most of history, people have lived under singlerulers, such as kings. This type of rule is called amonarchy. These rulers had total power. Othergovernments that developed included aristocracy,which is a state ruled by the noble class. Later astraded expanded, a class of wealthy merchants oftenruled a land. This was known as an oligarchy. The

idea of democracy—that people can govern them-selves—grew slowly. Many people contributed tothat idea over the centuries.

Greek civilization began about 2000 B.C.Ancient Greece was made up of city-states. Eachcity-state had its own government. The firstdemocracy developed in the city-state of Athens.

Athens had a king at first. Then it became an aris-tocracy. Each year an assembly of citizens electedthree nobles to rule Athens. Citizens were adult maleresidents given certain rights and responsibilities.

A statesman called Solon created four newkinds of citizenship in the sixth century B.C. All free

Democracy

Under Solon, all free adultmales were citizens

of Athens

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6 PROLOGUE SECTION 1

adult males were citizens. All citizens were able tovote in the assembly. But only citizens of the threehigher classes could hold public office.

Democracy in Athens was limited. Only aboutone-tenth of the population were citizens. Women,slaves, and foreign residents could not be citizens.Slaves made up about one-third of the Athenianpopulation at that time.

About a hundred years after Solon, a leadernamed Cleisthenes increased the power of theassembly. He allowed all citizens to present laws fordebate and passage. He also created a council whosemembers were chosen by lot, or at random. Thecouncil suggested laws and advised the assembly.

1. How did Cleisthenes help to increase democracy in Athens?

Greek Democracy Changes (pages 7–9)

What changes occurred in Greekdemocracy?In the fifth century B.C., armies of Persian Empireinvaded Greece. But the Persians were defeated bythe Greek city-states in 479 B.C. Athens thenbecame the leader of the city-states. A wise leader,Pericles, ruled Athens.

Pericles strengthened democracy. He increasedthe number of paid public officials. This allowedpoorer citizens to serve in government. He alsointroduced the idea of direct democracy. Thisallowed citizens to participate directly in government.

Tensions between the city-states led to fightingamong them. Then Greece was defeated by armiesfrom the kingdom of Macedonia. This defeatended democracy in Greece.

During this troubled time, several philosophersappeared. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle set forththeir ideas on government and society.

Greek ideas had lasting influence on govern-ment and philosophy. The Greeks did not rely ontraditional explanations of the world. Instead theyused reason to find patterns that they called natu-ral laws. They developed direct democracy and thethree branches of government.

2. How did Pericles change democracy in Athens?

Rome Develops a Republic (page 10)

How was the Roman governmentorganized?Rome began to rise as Greece fell. By 509 B.C.,Rome was a republic. A republic is a form of gov-ernment in which citizens have the right to voteand to select their leaders. In Rome, as in Athens,citizenship with voting rights belonged only tomales who were not born slaves or foreigners.

Rome’s republican government had separatebranches. Two officials called consuls directed thegovernment. The legislative branch was made upof the Senate and two assemblies. The Senate wasthe aristocratic branch of government. The assem-blies were more democratic. They included otherclasses of citizens. In times of trouble, the republicgave vast powers to a ruler called a dictator.

Rome gradually increased its territory throughconquest. It then became an empire under the ruleof a powerful emperor.

3. How was the Roman legislative branch organized?

Roman Law (page 11)

Why did Romans create a systemof laws?The Romans created a system of laws that theycould use throughout their empire. Rome’s lawshave influenced democracy. Some of the mostimportant principles of Roman law were: equaltreatment under the law; innocent until provenguilty; the burden of proof rests with the accuser; and unreasonable or unfair laws could be set aside.

In 451 B.C., the Romans created the TwelveTables, the first written collection of Roman laws.They gave citizens the right to be protected by thelaws. About 1,000 years later, all Roman laws wereput together in the Code of Justinian. It later wasused as a guide on law throughout western Europe.The Code established the idea of “a government oflaws, not of men.” Under this idea, even rulers andother powerful persons could be held accountablefor their actions.

4. Why were the Twelve Tables important?

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PROLOGUE THE LEGACY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME 7

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

PROLOGUE Section 2 (pages 12–17)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the development ofdemocracy in Greece and Rome.

In this section, you will learn about the teachings ofJudaism, Christianity, and Islam.

AS YOU READUse this chart to take notes on the ways that Judaism,Christianity, Islam, the Renaissance, and the Reformationcontributed to the idea of individualism.

TERMS AND NAMESJudaism Religion of the HebrewsTen Commandments Written code oflawsChristianity Religion founded byJesusIslam Religion founded by theprophet MuhammadRoman Catholic Church Church thatdeveloped from ChristianityRenaissance Cultural movement thatstarted in Italy in the 1300s andspread throughout EuropeReformation Religious reformmovement that began in the 16thcentury

Judeo-ChristianTradition

Judaism (pages 12–13)

What was Judaism?The Hebrews were the ancient people who devel-oped Judaism. People are the children of Godaccording to the Hebrew Bible. (The HebrewBible is the Old Testament in Christianity.)Unlike other groups of people around them,Hebrews believed in one god. Hebrews alsobelieved that God gave people the freedom tochoose between good and evil. Therefore, eachperson was responsible for the choices he or she

made. These beliefs led to a new emphasis on theworth of the individual.

The Hebrews came to be known as the Jews.They developed a written code of law. It was calledthe Ten Commandments. The Bible says thatGod gave these laws to Moses in about 1200 B.C.These laws focused more on morality and ethicsthan they did on politics.

The Hebrews believed in acting responsiblytoward others. They thought that the communityshould help the less fortunate. The prophets ofJudaism hoped for a world without poverty or

REL IG ION /MOVEMENT CONTR IBUT ION

Judaism each person responsible for the choices he or she makes

Christianity

Islam

Renaissance

Reformation

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8 PROLOGUE SECTION 2

injustice. Prophets were leaders and teachersbelieved by the Jews to be messengers from God.

1. What were two beliefs of Judaism?

Christianity; Islam (pages 14–15)

How did Christianity and Islamstart?Jesus was born during 6 to 4 B.C. At this time, theRomans ruled Judea, the homeland of the Jews.Jesus began to preach at the age of 30. His preach-ing contained many ideas from Jewish tradition,including the Ten Commandments. He alsostressed the importance of people’s love for God,their neighbors, their enemies, and themselves.When Jesus and his teachings seemed to threatenthe power both of the Jewish priests and theRomans, they put him to death.

In the first century after Jesus’s death, his fol-lowers started a new religion based on his mes-sages. It was called Christianity. The apostle Paulwas important in spreading this religion. Hepreached that all human beings were equal.

The Romans opposed both Judaism andChristianity. But these religions spread throughoutthe Roman Empire. When the Jews rebelledagainst the Romans, they were forced from theirhomeland. The Jews then fled to many parts of theworld. They carried their beliefs with them. AsChristianity expanded, it became a powerful reli-gion within the empire. By 380, it had become theempire’s official religion.

Islam was another religion that believed in onegod. It started in southwest Asia in the early 600s.This religion, too, taught that all people wereequal. It also believed in the worth of the individ-ual and the responsibility of the community to helpits unfortunate members.

Several beliefs of these three religions helpedto shape democratic ideas. These beliefs included:

• the duty of individuals and the community tohelp oppressed people

• the worth of the individual• the equality of people before God

2. How did Judaism and Christianity spread through-out the world?

Renaissance and Reformation (pages 16–17)

How did the Renaissance andReformation help democracy?The Roman Catholic Church was the churchthat developed from early Christianity. By theMiddle Ages, it was the most powerful institutionin Europe. It influenced all parts of life.

In the 1300s, a cultural movement called theRenaissance spread through Europe. This move-ment led to an interest in the works of the Greeksand the Romans. Renaissance thinkers were con-cerned about earthly life. They did not think aboutit as a preparation for life after death. TheRenaissance also focused on the importance of theindividual. Artists focused on capturing individualcharacter. Explorers went out to find new lands.Merchants took many risks to gain huge wealth.

The Renaissance also led people to question theChurch. This questioning caused the Reformation.The Reformation was a protest movement againstthe power of the Church. It started out as a call forreform. It ended up producing a new division ofChristianity—Protestantism.

The Reformation began in Germany. MartinLuther criticized the Church for selling pardonsfor sins. He also disagreed with the Church in itsteaching that people were saved by grace and goodworks. Luther said people could be saved onlythrough faith in God. Soon, many new Protestantfaiths sprang up.

Protestant ideas strengthened the belief in theimportance of the individual. In Protestant faiths,the clergy did not have special powers. Peoplecould find their own way to God. They could readand interpret the Bible for themselves.

The Reformation broke apart the religiousunity of Europe. It challenged the authority ofCatholic monarchs and popes. It contributed to thegrowth of democracy.

3. How did the Reformation contribute to the growth ofdemocracy?

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PROLOGUE THE LEGACY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME 9

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

PROLOGUE Section 3 (pages 18–23)TERMS AND NAMEScommon law Body of English lawthat reflected customs and principlesestablished over time Magna Carta Document drawn up bynobles in 1215 guaranteeing basicpolitical rights in Englanddue process of law Administration oflaw in known, orderly ways to protectpeople’s rightsParliament Lawmaking body ofEnglanddivine right Theory that a monarch’spower came from GodGlorious Revolution Bloodlessoverthrow of King James II ofEngland and his replacement byWilliam and Maryconstitutional monarchy Monarchyin which the ruler’s power is limitedby lawbill of rights List of rights andfreedoms considered essential to thepeople

Democracy Developsin EnglandBEFORE YOU READ

In the last section, you read about the ideas of Judaism,Christianity, and Islam.

In this section, you will learn how democracy developed inEngland.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on the events thatled to the development of democracy in England.

Reforms in Medieval England(pages 18–20)

How did democracy develop inEngland?In 1066, William of Normandy, a French duke,invaded England. He claimed the English throne.This conquest gradually led to the end of feudalismin England. Feudalism was the political and eco-nomic system of the Middle Ages. The conquest

also set in motion events that led to the develop-ment of democracy in England.

An early development in English democracywas a form of trial by jury. It began in the 12th cen-tury. Unlike modern juries, these early juries didnot decide whether someone was guilty or inno-cent. Instead, they were asked by a judge to answerquestions about the facts of a case.

Another way that democracy developed inEngland was through common law. Common law

1642 1679

1295 1660 1689

1215Signing of the Magna Carta

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10 PROLOGUE SECTION 3

was not like Roman law, which included things theruler wanted. Common law was made up of customsand principles established over time. It became thebasis of the legal systems in many English-speakingcountries, including the United States.

In 1215, King John became involved in a con-flict with the English nobles. They presented theirdemands to him in the Magna Carta. This docu-ment contained important principles that placedlimits on the power of the English monarch.

One of the Magna Carta’s 63 clauses said that theking could not demand taxes. He had to ask for con-sent from the people. Another clause had to do withan accused person. The accused had a right to a jurytrial and to the protection of the law. This right hascome to be called due process of law. Over time,the clause that said the king could not tax peoplewithout their consent was interpreted to mean with-out the consent of Parliament. Parliament wasEngland’s lawmaking body.

In 1295, King Edward I needed money to payfor a war. He called together all the lords, plus someknights and leading citizens from the towns. Theyhelped Edward make decisions. This gathering hascome to be known as the Model Parliament.

1. How did the Magna Carta change the way peoplewere taxed?

Parliament Grows Stronger (pages 20–21)

How did Parliament increase itspower?Over the centuries, Parliament had begun to seeitself as a partner to the monarch in governing. Itspower had grown. It voted on taxes, passed laws,and advised on royal policies.

In the 17th century, European monarchs beganto claim greater authority. They insisted theirpower came from God. It was their divine right.Conflicts soon arose. In England, Parliamentclashed with James I over the rights of the people.When James’s son, Charles, became king,Parliament tried to limit royal power. In 1628 theytried to force him to accept the Petition of Right.

The Petition was very important in constitu-tional history. It demanded an end to:

• taxing without consent• imprisoning citizens illegally• housing troops in citizens’ homes• military government in peacetimeCharles signed the petition. Later, he ignored

the promises he made. Conflicts between thosewho supported Charles and those who supportedParliament eventually caused civil war in 1642.Several years of fighting followed. The king’s oppo-nents, led by Oliver Cromwell, won control of thegovernment. Charles was executed in 1649.

2. Why did Parliament force the monarch to sign thePetition of Right?

Establishment of ConstitutionalMonarchy (pages 22–23)

What was the Glorious Revolution?Oliver Cromwell ruled briefly. Then, a new parlia-ment restored the monarchy. Charles’s son becameking as Charles II. Things had changed, however.The monarch could not tax without Parliament’sconsent. Also, Parliament passed the HabeasCorpus Amendment Act, which kept authoritiesfrom wrongly arresting or holding a person.

Charles II was followed by his brother, who ruledas James II. James was a believer in the divine rightof kings. Within a few years, Parliament withdrew itssupport of James. Instead, it offered the throne toJames’s daughter, Mary, and her husband, William ofOrange, ruler of the Netherlands. This change inrulers was called the Glorious Revolution. Itshowed that Parliament had the right to limit amonarch’s power. And it had the right to control whowould succeed to the throne. As a result, Englandbecame a constitutional monarchy. In a constitu-tional monarchy, a ruler’s powers are controlled by aconstitution and the laws of the country.

In 1689, William and Mary accepted a bill ofrights from Parliament. It listed the rights and lib-erties essential to the people and limited the powerof the monarchy. Democratic protections includedfree speech in Parliament, and no taxation withoutthe consent of Parliament.

3. What event led to England’s becoming a constitu-tional monarchy?

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PROLOGUE THE LEGACY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME 11

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

PROLOGUE Section 4 (pages 24–29)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the development ofdemocracy in England.

In this section, you will learn how new ways of thinkingabout the rights of people led to the American and Frenchrevolutions.

AS YOU READUse the diagram below to take notes on Enlightenmentideas that contributed to the development of democracy.

TERMS AND NAMESEnlightenment Intellectualmovement that started in Europesocial contract Agreement betweencitizens and the governmentnatural rights Rights all people haveseparation of powers Division ofgovernment into separate branchesAmerican Revolution Americans’fight for independence from Britainrepresentative governmentGovernment in which citizens electrepresentatives to make lawsfederal system Government in whichpowers are divided between federaland state governmentsFrench Revolution French people’sfight for democratic freedomsUnited Nations Internationalorganization established in 1945

The Enlightenmentand DemocraticRevolutions

Enlightenment Thinkers and Ideas (pages 24–25)

What was the Enlightenment?The Enlightenment was an intellectual move-ment that developed in Europe in the 17th and18th centuries. Thinkers of this movement hadbeen influenced by the Scientific Revolution. Theyhoped to use reasoning instead of traditionalbeliefs to discover natural laws that govern society.

One Enlightenment thinker was ThomasHobbes. He believed that the best form of govern-ment was absolute monarchy. He said peopleshould form a type of social contract, or agree-

ment, with a ruler. They would submit to a ruler toprevent disorder.

John Locke took a different view. He said allpeople had natural rights. These were the rightsto life, liberty, and property. He said people formgovernments to protect these natural rights. Healso said people have a right to rebel against a gov-ernment that does not protect their rights.

French Enlightenment thinkers includedVoltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Baron deMontesquieu. Voltaire fought for tolerance, free-dom of religion, and free speech. Rousseau said theonly legitimate government was one in which thepeople chose what was best for the community.

Enlightenmentideas

All people have natural rights

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12 PROLOGUE SECTION 4

Montesquieu believed that government shouldbe kept under control to protect people’s freedoms.He believed that could best be done through aseparation of powers. This meant dividing thegovernment into branches that would include alawmaking body, an executive branch to carry outthe laws, and courts to interpret laws.

1. According to Locke, why are governments formed?

The Beginnings of Democracyin America (pages 25–27)

Why did Americans fight for independence?Enlightenment ideas had a strong impact on thecolonists in Britain’s North American colonies. Thecolonists helped Britain defeat France in theFrench and Indian War. The victory gave Britain allof North America east of the Mississippi River. Tohelp pay for the war, the British Parliament placedtaxes on the colonists. The colonists opposed thesetaxes because they were not represented inParliament. This was just one of a series of meas-ures that the colonists thought violated their rights.

The colonists fought for independence in theAmerican Revolution. They issued a Declarationof Independence on July 4, 1776. After years ofwar, the British army surrendered in 1781.

In 1787, a group of American leaders met inPhiladelphia. They met to set up a new plan forgoverning the nation. Enlightenment ideas helpedshape this plan. The U.S. Constitution included arepresentative government, as advocated byRousseau. This is a government in which citizenselect representatives to make laws for them. TheConstitution created a federal system. In this sys-tem, the powers of government are dividedbetween the federal government and state govern-ments. The Constitution also included a separationof powers between branches in the federal govern-ment. This was based on the ideas of Montesquieu.

2. What kind of government did Americans create?

The French Revolution (pages 27–28)

Why did the French revolt?In the late 1780s, there was great unrest in France.

The middle class was dissatisfied with Louis XVI’sweak leadership. The Enlightenment raised ques-tions about people’s rights. The economy was fail-ing, and the peasants were hungry and restless.

In 1789 the common people formed theNational Assembly. They felt that they were notrepresented in their government. Soon peoplefrom other classes joined them. Peasants in Parisbegan an uprising to win democratic freedoms.This fight is known as the French Revolution.

The National Assembly made many reforms. Itadopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man andof the Citizen. This document guaranteed certainrights to all French people. The Assembly alsoended the feudal system and drafted a constitutionthat made France a limited monarchy.

The work of the Assembly did not last long, how-ever. A radical lawmaking body took charge. Soon, aReign of Terror took place. Many who opposed therevolution were killed for their beliefs. In 1799, amilitary leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, took controland created a dictatorship. Democracy in France didnot develop until the mid-1800s.

3. What was the French Revolution?

The Struggle for DemocracyContinues (pages 28–29)

How does the United Nations promote democracy?It took centuries for democracy to developthroughout the world. Today, most people lookupon it as the best form of government.

An international organization called the UnitedNations (UN) was established in 1945. Its goal isto keep world peace and to make people’s lives bet-ter. In 1948 the UN adopted the Universal Decla-ration of Human Rights. This document includessuch democratic ideas as the right to life, liberty,and security. It also includes rights to equal protec-tion under the law and to the freedom to assemble.

There are many places in the world today wherepeople do not have these rights. Recent strugglesfor democracy have taken place in a number ofnations, including the republics of the formerSoviet Union, South Africa, and East Timor.

4. What is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

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CHAPTER 1 EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 15

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 1 Section 1 (pages 37–45)

BEFORE YOU READIn the prologue, you read about the development ofdemocratic ideas.

In this section, you will begin your in-depth reading ofmodern history starting with the Renaissance.

AS YOU READUse this chart to take notes on important changes thatoccurred during the Renaissance in Italy.

TERMS AND NAMESRenaissance Period of rebirth of artand learning in Europe lasting fromabout 1300 to 1600humanism Focus on human potentialand achievementssecular Concerned with worldlyrather than spiritual matterspatrons People who financiallysupported artistsperspective Art technique thatrecreates three dimensions vernacular Use of native languageinstead of classical Latin

Italy: Birthplace of theRenaissance

Italy’s Advantages (pages 37–38)

Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy?The years 1300 to 1600 saw a rebirth of learningand culture in Europe called the Renaissance.This rebirth spread north from Italy. It began therefor three reasons. First, Italy had several importantcities. Cities were places where people exchangedideas. Second, these cities included a class of mer-chants and bankers who were becoming wealthy

and powerful. This class strongly believed in theidea of individual achievement. Third, Italianartists and scholars were inspired by the ruinedbuildings and other reminders of classical Rome.

1. What are three reasons why the Renaissance beganin Italy?

CHANGES IN VALUES CHANGES IN AR T CHANGES IN L I TERATURE

Humanism—new focus on human potential and achievements

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16 CHAPTER 1 SECTION 1

Classical and Worldly Values (pages 38–39)

What new values did people hold?The new interest in the classical past led to animportant value in Renaissance culture—human-ism. This was a deep interest in what people havealready achieved as well as what they could achievein the future. Scholars did not try to connect clas-sical writings to Christian teaching. Instead, theytried to understand them on their own terms.

In the Middle Ages, the emphasis had beenmostly on spiritual values. Renaissance thinkersstressed secular ideas. These ideas centered onthe things of the world. One way that powerful orwealthy people showed this interest in worldlythings was by paying artists, writers, and musiciansto create beautiful works of art. Wealthy peoplewho supported artists were known as patrons.

People tried to show that they could mastermany fields of study or work. Someone who suc-ceeded in many fields was admired greatly. Theartist Leonardo da Vinci was an example of thisideal. He was a painter, a scientist, and an inventor.Men were expected to be charming, witty, well-educated, well mannered, athletic, and self-con-trolled. Women were expected to have manyaccomplishments, too. But women were not toshow them in public.

2. What are secular ideas?

The Renaissance Revolutionizes Art (pages 40–41)

How did art change during the Renaissance?Renaissance artists sometimes used new methods.Sculptors made figures more realistic than thosefrom the Middle Ages. Painters used perspectiveto create the illusion that their paintings werethree-dimensional. The subject of artwork changed

also. Art in the Middle Ages was mostly religious.Renaissance artists reproduced other views of life.Michelangelo showed great skill as an architect, asculptor, and a painter.

3. How did the methods and subjects in art change?

Renaissance Writers ChangeLiterature (pages 41–45)

How did literature change duringthe Renaissance?Renaissance writers also achieved greatness.Several wrote in the vernacular. This means theywrote in their native languages. It was a changefrom the Middle Ages, when most writing wasdone in Latin. Writers also changed their subjectmatter. They began to express their own thoughtsand feelings. Sometimes they gave a detailed lookat an individual. Dante and others wrote poetry,letters, and stories that were more realistic.Niccoló Machiavelli took a new approach to under-standing government. He focused on telling rulershow to expand their power. He believed rulersshould do what was politically effective, even if itwas not morally right.

4. What did Renaissance writers write about?

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CHAPTER 1 EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 17

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 1 Section 2 (pages 46–53)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how the Renaissance began in Italy.

In this section, you will learn how Renaissance ideas spreadin northern Europe.

AS YOU READUse the web below to show what happened during thenorthern Renaissance.

TERMS AND NAMESUtopia An ideal placeWilliam Shakespeare FamousRenaissance writerJohann Gutenberg Germancraftsman who developed theprinting press

The NorthernRenaissance

The Northern RenaissanceBegins (page 46)

Why was the time right for thenorthern Renaissance to begin?

By 1450, the bubonic plague had ended innorthern Europe. Also, the Hundred Years’ Warbetween France and England was ending. Thisallowed new ideas from Italy to spread to northernEurope. They were quickly adopted. Here, too,

rulers and merchants used their money to sponsorartists. But the northern Renaissance had a differ-ence. Educated people combined classical learningwith interest in religious ideas.

1. How was the northern Renaissance different from the Renaissance in Italy?

Ideas came from Italy and spread to

northern Europe

THE

NOR THERN

RENAISSANCE

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18 CHAPTER 1 SECTION 2

Artistic Ideas Spread (pages 46–47)

What ideas about art developedin northern Europe?The new ideas of Italian art moved to the north,where artists began to use them. Major artistsappeared in parts of Germany, France, Belgium,and the Netherlands. Dürer painted religious sub-jects and realistic landscapes. Holbein, Van Eyck,and Bruegel painted lifelike portraits and scenes ofpeasant life. They revealed much about the times.They began to use oil-based paints. Oils becamevery popular, and their use spread to Italy.

2. What did northern European artists paint?

Northern Writers Try to ReformSociety; The Elizabethan Age(pages 48–49)

What did northern writers write?Writers of the northern Renaissance combinedhumanism with a deep Christian faith. They urgedreforms in the Church. They tried to make peoplemore devoted to God. They also wanted society tobe more fair. In England, Thomas More wrote abook about Utopia, an imaginary ideal societywhere greed, war, and conflict do not exist.

William Shakespeare is often called thegreatest playwright of all time. His plays showed abrilliant command of the English language. Theyalso show a deep understanding of people and howthey interact with one another.

3. Who were two of the most famous writers of thenorthern Renaissance?

Printing Spreads RenaissanceIdeas; The Legacy of theRenaissance (pages 50–53)

Why was the printing press suchan important development?One reason that learning spread so rapidly duringthe Renaissance was the invention of movable type.The Chinese had invented the process of carvingcharacters onto wooden blocks. They thenarranged them in words, inked the blocks, andpressed them against paper to print pages.

In 1440, a German, Johann Gutenberg, usedthis same practice to invent his printing press. Heproduced his first book—the Gutenberg Bible—in1455 on this press. The technology then spreadrapidly. By 1500, presses in Europe had printednearly 10 million books.

Printing made it easier to make many copies ofa book. As a result, written works became availablefar and wide. Books were printed in English,French, Spanish, Italian, or German. More peoplebegan to read. The Bible was a popular book. Afterreading the Bible, some people formed new ideasabout Christianity. These ideas were different fromthe official teachings of the Church.

The Renaissance prompted changes in both artand society. Artists and writers portrayed people inmore realistic ways and celebrated individualachievement. In a larger sense, the Renaissanceopened up a world of new ideas to people and ledthem to examine and question things more closely.

4. What effects did the printing press have on northern European life?

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CHAPTER 1 EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 19

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 1 Section 3 (pages 54–60)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how the Renaissance spread tonorthern Europe.

In this section, you will see how Renaissance ideas helpedbring about the Reformation.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the responses toLuther’s challenge.

TERMS AND NAMESindulgence Release frompunishments due for a sinReformation 16th-century movementfor religious reform, leading to thefounding of new Christian churchesLutheran Member of a Protestantchurch founded on the teachings ofMartin LutherProtestant Member of a Christianchurch founded on the principles ofthe ReformationPeace of Augsburg Agreement in1555 declaring that the religion ofeach German state would be decidedby its rulerannul Cancel or put an end toAnglican Relating to the Church ofEngland

Luther Leads theReformation

Causes of the Reformation(pages 54–55)

Why was the Church criticized?By 1500, the influence of the Church on the livesof people had weakened. Some people resentedpaying taxes to support the Church in Rome.Others sharply criticized the Church for some of itspractices. Popes seemed more concerned with lux-ury and political power than with spiritual matters.The lower clergy had faults, too. Many local priestslacked education and were not able to teach peo-ple. Some lived immoral lives.

Reformers urged the Church to change its waysto become more spiritual and humble. Christianhumanists such as Erasmus and Thomas Moreadded their voices to calls for change. In the early1500s, the calls grew louder.

1. What kinds of changes did Church critics want to make?

BATTLE / POL IT ICAL ISSUE EFFECT

Responses to Luther’s Challenge The Pope threatens Luther with excommunication.

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20 CHAPTER 1 SECTION 3

Luther Challenges the Church(page 55)

How did the Reformation begin?In 1517, a German monk named Martin Lutherprotested the actions of a Church official. That per-son was selling indulgences. An indulgence was akind of forgiveness. By paying money to theChurch, people thought they could win salvation.

Luther challenged this practice and others. Heposted a written protest on the door of a castlechurch. His words were printed and spreadthroughout Germany. This was the beginning ofthe Reformation, a movement for reform that ledto the founding of new Christian churches.

2. What role did Martin Luther play in theReformation?

The Response to Luther (pages 56–58)

What effects did Luther’s protest have?Pope Leo X punished Luther for his views, but herefused to change them. Holy Roman EmperorCharles V, a strong Catholic, called Luther an out-law. Luther’s books were burned. But it was toolate. Many of his ideas were already being prac-ticed. The Lutheran Church started around 1522.

In 1524, peasants in Germany hoped to useLuther’s ideas about Christian freedom to changesociety. They demanded an end to serfdom—acondition like slavery. When it was not granted,they revolted. Luther disagreed with this revolt.German princes killed thousands in putting therevolt down.

Some nobles supported Luther’s ideas. Theysaw a chance to weaken the emperor’s power overthem. Other German princes joined forces againstLuther’s supporters. They signed an agreement toremain loyal to the pope and the emperor.Supporters of Luther’s ideas protested this agree-ment. They were called the Protestants.Eventually, the term Protestant meant Christianswho belonged to non-Catholic churches.

War broke out between Catholic andProtestant forces in Germany. It finally ended in1555 with the Peace of Augsburg. This treatygranted each prince the right to decide whether hissubjects would be Catholic or Protestant.

3. Why did Luther’s ideas lead to war?

England Becomes Protestant (pages 58–60)

How did England becomeProtestant?The Catholic Church faced another challenge to itspower in England. Henry VIII, the king, was mar-ried to a Spanish princess. She gave birth to adaughter. England had never had a female ruler.Henry feared a civil war would start if he had noson. He believed his wife was too old to haveanother child. He tried to get the pope to annul,or put an end to, the marriage so he could remar-ry. The pope refused.

To remarry, Henry had to get out of theCatholic church. In 1534, Henry had Parliamentpass laws that created the Church of England.These laws made the king or queen, not the pope,head of the Church of England. Henry no longerhad to obey the pope. Henry remarried five times.His only son was from his third wife.

One of Henry’s daughters, Elizabeth, becamequeen in 1558. She finished creating a separateEnglish church. The new church was calledAnglican. It had some practices that would appealto both Protestants and Catholics. In this way,Elizabeth hoped to end religious conflict.

4. What role did Henry VIII play in creating the Church of England?

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CHAPTER 1 EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 21

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 1 Section 4 (pages 61–66)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how the Reformation began.

In this section, you will learn how it developed and spread.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the reforms thatoccurred as the Reformation continued.

TERMS AND NAMESpredestination Doctrine that God hasdecided all things beforehand,including which people will be savedCalvinism Religious teachings basedon the ideas of the reformer JohnCalvintheocracy Government controlled byreligious leadersPresbyterian Member of a Protestantchurch governed by elders andfounded by John KnoxAnabaptist Member of a Protestantgroup during the Reformation whobelieved only adults should bebaptized. Also believed that churchand state should be separateCatholic Reformation 16th-centuryCatholic reform movement inresponse to Protestant ReformationJesuits Members of the Society ofJesus, a Roman Catholic religiousorder founded by Ignatius of LoyolaCouncil of Trent Meeting of RomanCatholic leaders to rule on doctrinescriticized by the Protestant reformers

The ReformationContinues

Calvin Continues theReformation (pages 61–62)

What did Calvin teach?Protestantism arose elsewhere in the 1530s. Thistime under the leadership of John Calvin. Calvinwrote an important book that gave structure toProtestant beliefs. He taught that people are sinfulby nature. He also taught predestination, the ideathat God determines beforehand who will besaved. The religion based on Calvin’s teachings iscalled Calvinism.

Calvin created a theocracy in Geneva,Switzerland. It was government run by religiousleaders. It had strict rules of behavior that requiredpeople to live religious lives. Anyone who preached

different religious ideas might be burned at thestake.

A preacher named John Knox was impressed byCalvin’s high moral ideals. Knox put these ideasinto practice in Scotland. This was beginning of thePresbyterian Church. Others in Holland, France,and Switzerland adopted Calvin’s ideas as well. InFrance, his followers were called Huguenots.Conflict between them and Catholics often turnedinto violence. In 1572, mobs killed about 12,000Huguenots.

1. What is Calvinism?

Calvin beginsanother Protestantchurch

ContinuingReforms

During theReformation

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22 CHAPTER 1 SECTION 4

Other Protestant Reformers (pages 62–64)

What other reformers wereimportant during the Reformation?Another new Protestant group was theAnabaptists. They preached that people shouldbe baptized into the faith as adults. Anabaptistsalso taught that the church and state should be sep-arate. In addition, they refused to fight in wars.

Many women played key roles in theReformation. They included Marguerite ofNavarre. She protected John Calvin from beingkilled for his beliefs. Katherina von Bora was thewife of Martin Luther. She supported an equal rolefor women in marriage.

2. Who were two women who played important rolesin the Reformation?

The Catholic Reformation (pages 64–65)

What was the CatholicReformation?Protestant churches grew all over Europe. To keepCatholic believers loyal, the Catholic Church tooksteps to change itself. This was called the CatholicReformation.

One Catholic reformer was a Spanish noblenamed Ignatius. He founded a new group in theChurch based on deep devotion to Jesus. Membersof this group, called the Jesuits, started schoolsacross Europe. They sent missionaries to convertpeople to Catholicism. In addition, they tried tostop the spread of Protestant faiths in Europe.

Two popes of the 1500s helped bring aboutchanges in the Church. Pope Paul III set up a kindof court called the Inquisition. It was charged withfinding, trying, and punishing people who brokethe rules of the Church. He also called a meeting

of church leaders, the Council of Trent. Thecouncil, which met in 1545, passed these doctrines:

• the Church’s interpretation of the Bible was final

• Christians needed good works as well as faith to win salvation

• the Bible and the Church had equal authority in setting out Christian beliefs

• indulgences were valid expressions of faithThe next pope, Paul IV, put these doctrines into

practice. These actions helped revive the Church.They also allowed it to survive the challenge of theProtestants.

3. What happened at the Council of Trent?

The Legacy of the Reformation(page 66)

What was the legacy of theReformation?The Reformation had an enduring impact on soci-ety. In the wake of the movement, Protestantchurches flourished. Meanwhile, the CatholicChurch became more unified as a result of thereforms started at the Council of Trent.

The Reformation caused an overall decline inthe authority of the church. As a result, individualmonarchs and states gained greater power. This inturn led to the development of modern nation-states.

Women thought that their status in societymight improve as a result of the Reformation.However, this did not happen. Women were stillmainly limited to the concerns of home and family.

4. What was the result of the declining authority of thechurch?

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CHAPTER 2 THE MUSLIM WORLD EXPANDS 25

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 2 Section 1 (pages 73–77)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last chapter, you read about changes in Europe during 1300–1600.

In this section, you will read about the rise of the Ottoman Empire during the same period.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on the major events in the history of the Ottoman Empire.

TERMS AND NAMESghazis Warriors for IslamOsman Successful ghazi who built asmall state in Anatoliasultans Rulers of Muslim statesTimur the Lame Conqueror of Persiaand RussiaMehmed II Conqueror who madeIstanbul his capitalSuleyman the Lawgiver Ruler whobrought Ottoman Empire to its heightdevshirme Policy for creating thesultan’s armyjanissary Soldier slave drawn fromconquered Christian territories

The Ottomans Build a Vast Empire

Turks Move into Byzantium (pages 73–74)

How did the Ottoman Empirebegin?In 1300, the world of the eastern Mediterraneanwas also changing. The Byzantine Empire was fad-ing. The Seljuk Turk state had been destroyed.Anatolia, the area of modern Turkey, was nowinhabited by groups of nomadic Turks. They saw

themselves as ghazis, or Muslim warriors for Islam.They raided the lands where non-Muslims lived.

The most successful ghazi was Osman.Western Europeans thought his name wasOthman. They called his followers Ottomans.Between 1300 and 1326, Osman built a strong butsmall kingdom in Anatolia. Leaders who cameafter Osman called themselves sultans, or “oneswith power.” They extended the kingdom by buy-ing land. They also formed alliances with otherchieftains and conquered everyone they could.

1451

1402 1520-1566

1300-1326

Osman builds a small empire in Anatolia

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26 CHAPTER 2 SECTION 1

The Ottomans ruled in a kindly way. Muslimshad to serve in the army but paid no taxes. Non-Muslims paid tax but did not serve in the army.Many joined Islam just to avoid the tax. Most peo-ple adjusted easily to their new rule.

One warrior did not. He was Timur the Lame.He conquered Russia and Persia. In 1402, hedefeated the Ottoman forces and captured the sul-tan and took him to Samarkand in a cage.

1. Who were the Ottomans?

Powerful Sultans Spur Dramatic Expansion (pages 74–75)

How did the empire grow?In Anatolia, the four sons of the last sultan foughtfor control of the empire. Mehmed I won control.His son and the four sultans who came after himbrought the Ottoman Empire to its greatest power.One of them—Mehmed II—took power in 1451.He built a force of 100,000 foot soldiers and 125ships to gain control of Constantinople. In 1453, hetook the city and the waterway it controlled.Mehmed made the city his capital. He renamed itIstanbul. The rebuilt city became home to peoplefrom all over the Ottoman Empire.

Other emperors used conquest to make theempire grow. After 1514, Selim the Grim tookPersia, Syria, and Palestine. He then capturedArabia, took the Muslim holy cities of Medina andMecca, and gained control of Egypt.

2. Who was Mehmed II?

Suleyman the Lawgiver; TheEmpire Declines Slowly (pages 76–77)

Why was Suleyman the Lawgiver a great leader?Suleyman I took power in 1520 and ruled for 46years. He brought the Ottoman Empire to itsgreatest size and most impressive achievements.He conquered parts of southeastern Europe. Hewon control of the entire eastern MediterraneanSea and took North Africa as far west as Tripoli.

Suleyman revised the laws of the empire. Hispeople called him Suleyman the Lawgiver.Suleyman ruled his empire with a highly structuredgovernment. Thousands of slaves served the royalfamily. The policy of making people slaves wascalled devshirme. The janissaries were anenslaved group of soldiers. They were Christianstaken as children and made slaves. They weretrained as soldiers and fought fiercely for the sultan.Other slaves held important government jobs.

The empire allowed people to follow their ownreligion. Jews and Christians were not mistreated.His empire was also known for great works of artand many fine buildings.

Although the empire lasted long afterSuleyman, it spent the next few hundred years indecline. That means its power slipped. None of thesultans were as accomplished as Suleyman hadbeen.

3. What were two of Suleyman’s accomplishments?

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CHAPTER 2 THE MUSLIM WORLD EXPANDS 27

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 2 Section 2 (pages 78–81)TERMS AND NAMESSafavid Member of a Shi’a Muslimgroup that built an empire in PersiaIsma’il Safavid warrior who seizedmost of what is now Iranshah Persian title meaning kingShah Abbas Leader during theSafavid golden ageEsfahan Capital city of the SafavidEmpire

Cultural Blending Case Study: The Safavid Empire

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the Ottomans.

In this section, you will learn about the development ofanother empire, the Safavid.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to show three of the long-lasting effectsof the Safavid Empire.

Patterns of Cultural Blending (pages 78–79)

What is cultural blending?Throughout history, different peoples have livedtogether. Their cultures have influenced oneanother. Often these people have blended one cul-ture with another. This can happen because ofmigration, trade, conquest, or pursuit of religiousfreedom or conversion.

Cultural blending results in changes in society.Some results of cultural blending are changes inlanguage, religion, styles of government, or artsand architecture.

Societies that are able to benefit from culturalblending are open to new ways. They are willing toadapt and change.

1. What are the four causes of cultural blending?

The Safavids Build a Shi’aEmpire (pages 79–80)

How did the Safavids rise to power?Cultural blending took place in the Safavid Empireof Persia. The Safavids were members of the Shi’a,a branch of Islam. The major group of Muslims, theSunnis, persecuted the Shi’a for their views. TheSafavids feared the Sunni Muslims. They decided tobuild a strong army to protect themselves.

In 1499, a 14-year-old leader named Isma’il ledthis army to conquer Iran. He took the traditionalPersian title of shah, or king, and made Shi’a the

Tension between Shi ’a andSunni Muslims

Effects of the Safavid Empire

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religion of the new empire. He destroyed Baghdad’sSunni population. Ottoman Turk rulers—who wereSunni Muslims—in turn killed all the Shi’a that theymet. This conflict between the two groups ofMuslims continues today.

2. Why are the Shi’a and Sunni Muslims enemies?

A Safavid Golden AgeWho was Shah Abbas?The Safavids reached their height in the late 1500sunder Shah Abbas. He created two armies thatwere loyal to him and him alone. He also gave newweapons to the army to make them better fighters.He got rid of corrupt officials in the government.He also brought gifted artists to his empire.

Shah Abbas drew on good ideas from other cul-tures. The main elements of that culture were thejoining together of the Persian tradition of learningand sophistication with the strong faith of the Shi’a.He used Chinese artists. They helped create gor-geous artwork that decorated the rebuilt capital ofEsfahan.

Under Shah Abbas, the Safavids enjoyed goodrelations with nations of Europe. The demand forPersian rugs increased greatly in Europe. In thisperiod, rug-making, which had been a local craft inPersia, became a major industry for the country.

3. What were four reforms made by Shah Abbas?

The Dynasty Declines Quickly(page 81)

Why did the Safavids lose power?Like the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empirebegan to decline soon after it had reached its great-est height. Shah Abbas had killed or injured hismost talented sons—just as Suleyman had done.Shah Abbas feared that his sons would seize powerfrom him. As a result, a weak and ineffective grand-son became shah after him.

4. Why weren’t there strong leaders after Shah Abbas?

SkillbuilderUse the chart to answer the questions.

1. Determining Main Ideas What are two reasons for interaction?

2. Recognizing Effects What are some results of cultural interaction?

Cultural Blending

Some Resultsof Interaction

Reason for Interaction

Interacting CulturesLocation

India—1000 B.C.

East Africa—A.D. 700

Russia—A.D. 1000

Mexico—A.D. 1500

United States—A.D. 1900

Aryan and Dravidian IndianArab, African, Indian

Islamic, Christian

Christian and Slavic

Spanish and Aztec

European, Asian, Caribbean

Migration

Trade, religious conversion

Religious conversion

Conquest

Migration, religious freedom

Vedic culture, forerunner of Hinduism

New trade language, Swahili

Eastern Christianity,Russian identity

Mestizo culture, Mexican Catholicism

Cultural diversity

28 CHAPTER 2 SECTION 2

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CHAPTER 2 THE MUSLIM WORLD EXPANDS 29

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 2 Section 3 (pages 82–87)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learn about how the Safavidsestablished an empire in what is present-day Iran.

In this section, you will learn about the establishment of the Mughal Empire in what is now India.

AS YOU READUse the web diagram below to take notes. In each circle,write the name of one important Mughal ruler. Also writetwo or three words that identify each person or name amajor accomplishment or problem of his rule.

TERMS AND NAMESBabur Founder of the Mughal EmpireMughal One of the nomads whoinvaded the Indian subcontinent andestablished a powerful empire thereAkbar Mughal ruler with a genius forcultural blending, military conquest,and artSikh Nonviolent religious group thatbecame the enemy of the MughalsShah Jahan Mughal ruler who builtTaj MahalTaj Mahal Tomb built by Shah Jahanfor his wifeAurangzeb Last important Mughalruler

The Mughal Empire in India

Early History of the Mughal Empire (page 82)

How did the Mughal Empirebegin?Starting in the 600s, India went through a long,unsettled period. Nomads from central Asia invad-ed the area and created many small kingdoms. Inthe 700s, Muslims arrived on the scene. This begana long history of fighting with the Hindus who hadlived in India for centuries.

After about 300 years, a group of Muslim Turksconquered a region around the city of Delhi. They

set up a new empire there. They treated theHindus in their area as conquered peoples. Theirrule was brought to an end in 1398.

A little over a hundred years later, a new leadernamed Babur raised an army and began to winlarge parts of India. He had many talents. He wasa lover of poetry and gardens. He was also an excel-lent general. His empire was called the MughalEmpire because he and his families were related tothe Mongols.

1. Who was Babur?

KeyMughalLeaders

Babur: founderof the empire

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30 CHAPTER 2 SECTION 3

The Golden Age of Akbar(pages 83–84)

Who was Akbar?Babur’s grandson was Akbar. His name means“Greatest One.” He ruled with great wisdom andfairness for almost 40 years.

Akbar was a Muslim. However, he believedstrongly that people should be allowed to follow thereligion they choose. Both Hindus and Muslimsworked in the government. He hired people in hisgovernment based on their ability and not theirreligion.

Akbar ruled fairly. He ended the tax that Hindupilgrims had to pay. He also ended the tax that allnon-Muslims had to pay. To raise money, he taxedpeople on a percentage of the food they grew. Thismade it easier for peasants to pay the tax. His landpolicy was less wise. He gave much land to govern-ment officials. However, when they died he took itback. As a result, workers did not see any point incaring for the land.

He had a strong, well-equipped army thathelped him win and keep control of more lands.His empire held about 100 million people—morethan lived in all of Europe at the time.

During Akbar’s reign, his policy of blending dif-ferent cultures produced two new languages. Thelanguages were blends of several languages. Onewas Hindi, which is widely spoken in India today.The other was Urdu. It is now the official languageof Pakistan. The empire became famous for its art,literature, and architecture. The best example ofthis art was small, highly detailed, colorful picturescalled miniatures. He also sponsored the buildingof a new capital city.

2. What are some examples of Akbar’s policy of fairrule?

Akbar’s Successors (pages 84–87)

Who ruled after Akbar?After Akbar’s death in 1605, his son Jahangir, tookcontrol of the empire. During his reign, the real

power was his wife, Nur Jahan. She plotted withone son to overthrow another son. She had a bitterpolitical battle with the Sikhs, members of a sepa-rate, nonviolent religion. That group became thetarget of attacks by the government.

The next ruler was Shah Jahan. He too chosenot to follow Akbar’s policy of religious toleration.Shah Jahan was a great patron of the arts and builtmany beautiful buildings. One was the famous TajMahal, a tomb for his wife. His ambitious buildingplans required high taxes, though. People sufferedunder his rule.

His son Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years.He made the empire grow once again with newconquests. His rule also brought new problems. Hewas a devout Muslim, and he punished Hindus anddestroyed their temples. This led to a rebellion thattook part of his empire. At the same time, the Sikhswon control of another part of the empire.

3. How did Aurangzeb deal with Hindus?

The Empire’s Decline and Decay (page 87)

How did the Mughal Empire lose its power?Aurangzeb used up the empire’s resources. Peopledid not feel loyalty to him. As the power of the stateweakened, the power of local lords grew. Soonthere was only a patchwork of independent states.There continued to be a Mughal emperor, but hewas only a figurehead, not a ruler with any realpower. As the Mughal empire was rising andfalling, Western traders were building power. Theyarrived in India just before Babur did. Shah Jahanlet the English build a trading fort in Madras.Aurangzeb handed them the port of Bombay. Thisgave India’s next conquerors a foothold in India.

4. How did the Mughal Empire change after Akbar?

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CHAPTER 3 AN AGE OF EXPLORATIONS AND ISOLATION 33

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 3 Section 1 (pages 95–101)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last chapter, you read about empire building in Asia.

In this section, you will learn why and how Europeansbegan an age of exploration.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on important eventsin European exploration.

TERMS AND NAMESBartolomeu Dias Portugueseexplorer who rounded the tip ofAfricaPrince Henry Portuguese supporterof explorationVasco da Gama Explorer who gavePortugal a direct sea route to IndiaTreaty of Tordesillas Treaty betweenSpain and Portugal dividing newlydiscovered lands between themDutch East India Company Dutchcompany that established anddirected trade throughout Asia

Europeans Explore the East

For “God, Glory, and Gold”(pages 95–96)

Why did Europeans begin toexplore new lands?For many centuries, Europeans did not have muchcontact with people from other lands. Thatchanged in the 1400s. Europeans hoped to gainnew sources of wealth. By exploring the seas,traders hoped to find new, faster routes to Asia—

the source of spices and luxury goods. Another reasonfor exploration was spreading Christianity to newlands.

Bartolomeu Dias, an early Portuguese explor-er, explained his motives: “to serve God and HisMajesty, to give light to those who were in darknessand to grow rich as all men desire to do.”

Advances in technology made these voyagespossible. A new kind of ship, the caravel, wasstronger than earlier ships. It had triangle-shapedsails that allowed it to sail against the wind. Ships

1492

1488 1498

1419Prince Henry starts

a school of navigation

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34 CHAPTER 3 SECTION 1

could now travel far out into the ocean. The magneticcompass allowed sea captains to stay on course better.

1. What were the two main reasons for Europeanexploration?

Portugal Leads the Way; Spain Also Makes Claims (pages 96–99)

How did Portugal lead the way in exploration?The first nation to develop and use the caravel andthe magnetic compass was Portugal. PrinceHenry was committed to the idea of exploring. In1419, he started a school of navigation. Sea cap-tains, mapmakers, and navigators met andexchanged ideas there.

Over the next few decades, Portuguese captainssailed farther and farther down the west coast ofAfrica. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias reached thesouthern tip of Africa. Ten years later, Vasco daGama led a ship around Africa, to India, and back.The Portuguese had found a sea route to Asia.

The Spanish, meanwhile, had plans of theirown. Christopher Columbus convinced the kingand queen that he could reach Asia by sailing west.In 1492, instead of landing in Asia, Columbustouched land in the islands of the Americas. Spainand Portugal argued over which nation had therights to the land that Columbus had claimed. In1494, they signed the Treaty of Tordesillas. Itdivided the world into two areas. Portugal won theright to control the eastern parts—includingAfrica, India, and other parts of Asia. Spain got thewestern parts—including most of the Americas.

2. How did Spain and Portugal solve their differencesover claims to new lands?

Trading Empires in the IndianOcean (pages 99–101)

Who established trading empiresin the Indian Ocean?Portugal moved quickly to make the new IndianOcean route pay off. Through military might,Portugal gained power over islands that were richin desirable spices. They were called the SpiceIslands. Spices now cost Europeans one-fifth ofwhat they had cost before, while still makingPortugal very wealthy.

Other European nations joined in this trade. Inthe 1600s, the English and Dutch entered the EastIndies. They quickly broke Portuguese power inthe area. Then both nations set up an East IndiaCompany to control Asian trade. These companieswere more than businesses. They were like govern-ments. They had the power to make money, signtreaties, and raise their own armies. The DutchEast India Company was richer and more pow-erful than England’s company.

By 1700, the Dutch ruled much of Indonesia.They had trading posts in many other Asian coun-tries and commanded the southern tip of Africa. Atthe same time, both England and France finallygained footholds in India.

Nevertheless, even though Europeans controlledthe trade between Asia and Europe, they had littleimpact on most people living in these areas.

3. How did the Dutch and English become Indian Ocean trading powers ?

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CHAPTER 3 AN AGE OF EXPLORATIONS AND ISOLATION 35

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 3 Section 2 (pages 102–107)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about European exploration in the East.

In this section, you will read about China’s reactions to theworld around it.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to show important developments inthe Ming Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty.

China Limits European Contacts

China Under the Powerful MingDynasty (pages 102–105)

What occurred during the Ming Dynasty?Mongol rule in China ended in 1368 whenHongwu led a rebel army that took control of thecountry. He declared himself the first emperor ofthe Ming Dynasty, which was to last for almost300 years. Hongwu began his rule by increasing theamount of food produced and improving the gov-ernment. Later he grew suspicious and untrusting.He caused the deaths of many people whom hesuspected of plotting against him.

His son Yonglo continued his better policies.He also launched a major effort at making contactwith other Asian peoples. Beginning in 1405, anadmiral named Zheng He led several voyages toSoutheast Asia, India, Arabia, and Africa.Wherever he went, he gave away gifts to showChinese superiority.

Eventually the Chinese changed their positionon foreign trade. They began to isolate themselves.China allowed Europeans to trade officially at onlythree ports, but illegal trade took place all along thecoast. Europeans wanted Chinese silk and ceram-ics, and they paid silver for them. Manufacturingnever grew very large in China, however. The

TERMS AND NAMESHongwu Commander of the rebelarmy that drove the Mongols out ofChina in 1368Ming Dynasty Chinese dynasty thatruled from 1368 to 1644Yonglo Ming ruler; son of HongwuZheng He Muslim admiral who ledseven voyages of exploration duringthe Ming DynastyManchus People from ManchuriaQing Dynasty Chinese dynasty thatfollowed the Ming Dynasty and wasbegun by the ManchusKangxi Powerful Manchu emperor ofthe Qing Dynasty

MING DYNASTY QING DYNASTY

Hongwu becomes the first emperor.

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36 CHAPTER 3 SECTION 2

Confucian ideas that shaped Chinese thinking saidthat farming was a better way of life, so manufac-turing was heavily taxed. Missionaries enteredChina at this time, bringing both Christianity andtechnology.

1. How was China influenced by foreigners during the Ming Dynasty?

Manchus Found the QingDynasty (pages 105–106)

How did China change during the Qing Dynasty?

The Ming Dynasty lost power because the gov-ernment could not solve several problems.Manchus, people who came from a land north ofChina called Manchuria, took control of the coun-try in 1644. They started the Qing Dynasty. Twoimportant emperors were Kangxi and his grand-son Qian-long. They brought China to its largestsize, increased its wealth, and sponsored anincrease in artistic production.

The Chinese insisted that Europeans had to fol-low certain rules in order to continue trading withthem. These rules include trading only at specialports and paying fees. The Dutch were willing todo so, and they carried on the largest share of tradewith China. The British, though, did not agree tofollowing these rules.

At the same time, a feeling of national pride wasrising in Korea, which had long been dominated byChina.

2. Why was trade a problem during the Qing Dynasty?

Life in Ming and Qing China(page 107)

What was life like in China underthe Ming and Qing?In China, the production of rice and the long peri-od of peace gave the people better lives. In the1600s and 1700s, the number of people in Chinaalmost doubled. The huge majority of these peoplewere farmers. Because of the use of fertilizer andbetter irrigation, they could grow more food. Thelevel of nutrition improved. This caused the popu-lation to grow.

In Chinese families, sons were valued overdaughters. It was believed that only sons couldcarry out family religious duties and tend to thefamily farm. For that reason, many infant girlswere killed, and adult women had few rights.

The invasions by the foreigners fromManchuria and the pressure from Europeantraders bothered the Chinese. They tried to pre-serve their traditions and their isolation. Artistscreated books and paintings that showed tradition-al Chinese values and ideas. Plays about Chinesehistory and heroes were popular. They helped tounify the Chinese people.

3. Which parts of society improved during this time,and which continued to be the same?

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CHAPTER 3 AN AGE OF EXPLORATIONS AND ISOLATION 37

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 3 Section 3 (pages 108–113)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how the Chinese reacted toforeigners.

In this section, you will read about civil war in Japan andits effects.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to show some ways in which Japanchanged after it was unified

TERMS AND NAMESdaimyo Warrior-chieftainsOda Nobunaga Daimyo who hoped tocontrol all of Japan and seized KyotoToyotomi Hideyoshi Daimyo whotook control of almost all of JapanTokugawa Shogunate Dynasty thatruled Japan from 1603 to 1868kabuki Type of Japanese theaterhaiku Type of Japanese poetry

Japan Returns to Isolation

A New Feudalism Under Strong Leaders (pages 108–110)

Why were warriors fightingin Japan?From 1467 to 1568, Japan entered a long, darkperiod of civil war. Powerful warriors took controlof large areas of land. They were called daimyo.They became the most important powers in thecountry. The daimyo fought each other constantlyto gain more land for themselves.

In 1568, one of the daimyo, Oda Nobunaga,took control of Kyoto. It was the site of the emper-or’s capital. Another general, ToyotomiHideyoshi, continued the work of bringing all ofJapan under one rule. Using military conquest andclever diplomacy, he won that goal in 1590. Hefailed in his effort to capture Korea, however.

The work of unifying Japan was completed byTokugawa Ieyasu. He became the shogun, or soleruler. He moved the capital of Japan to a small fish-ing village named Edo. Later, it grew to becomethe city of Tokyo.

While all of Japan was ruled by Tokugawa, thedaimyo still held much power in their lands.Tokugawa solved that problem by forcing them tofollow his orders. Tokugawa died in 1616. All of theshoguns to follow him were from his family. Theymaintained a strong central government in Japan.This system of rule, called the TokugawaShogunate, lasted until 1867.

1. Which three leaders helped bring Japan under one rule?

Japan Is Unified

politicalnew system of rule—Tokugawa Shogunate

economic cultural social

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38 CHAPTER 3 SECTION 3

Life in Tokugawa Japan (page 110)

How was Tokugawa society organized?The new government brought about a long periodof peace and prosperity for most people. Peasantfarmers suffered greatly during this time, however.They worked long and hard on the farms and paidheavy taxes. Many left the countryside to move tothe cities. By the mid-1700s, Edo had more than amillion people. It was perhaps the largest city inthe world. Women found more opportunities forwork in this and other cities than they had in thecountry.

A traditional culture thrived. It preferred cere-monial dramas, stories of ancient warriors, andpaintings of classical scenes. However, in cities,new styles emerged. Townspeople attended kabu-ki, dramas of urban life. They hung woodblockprints of city scenes in their homes. They also readhaiku, poetry that presents images instead ofexpressing ideas.

2. What kinds of old and new culture were found in the cities?

Contact Between Europe and Japan; The Closed CountryPolicy (pages 111–113)

Who came to Japan?In 1543, Europeans began to arrive in Japan. ThePortuguese were first. In the beginning, Japanesemerchants and the daimyo welcomed them. Theyeven welcomed the Christian missionaries whocame after 1549. Some missionaries scorned tradi-tional Japanese beliefs. They also got involved inlocal politics. Tokugawa became worried. In 1612,he banned Christianity from the country.Christians were persecuted. Over the next 20 yearsor so, Japan managed to rid the country of allChristians. This was part of a larger plan to protectthe country from European influence.

In 1639, leaders sealed Japan’s borders exceptfor one port city. It was open to only the Chineseand the Dutch. The Tokugawa shoguns controlledthat port city, so they had tight control over all for-eign contact. For the next 200 years, Japanremained closed to just about all European contact.

3. Why did the Japanese seal almost all oftheir borders?

SkillbuilderUse the illustration to answer these questions.

1. What three people or groups of people controlled Japanese society?

2. What was the relationship of the samurai to the other classes in Japanese society?

J A P A N E S E S O C I E T Y

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CHAPTER 4 THE ATLANTIC WORLD 41

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 4 Section 1 (pages 119–125)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last chapter, you read about European exploration in the East.

In this section, you will study the Spanish and Portuguese exploration of the Americas.

AS YOU READUse the web below to show some of the results of Spanish conquest.

TERMS AND NAMESChristopher Columbus Italianexplorer who landed in the Americascolony Land controlled by anothernationHernando Cortés Conquistador whodefeated the Aztecconquistadors Spanish explorers inthe AmericasFrancisco Pizarro Conquistador whodefeated the IncaAtahualpa Last Incan emperormestizo Person with mixed Spanishand Native American bloodencomienda System of mining andfarming using natives as slave labor

Spain Builds anAmerican Empire

The Voyage of Columbus (pages 119–120)

How did the voyage of Columbuschange the Americas?In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italiansailor, led a voyage for Spain. He sailed west hop-ing to reach Asia. Instead, he landed in theAmericas. Columbus thought that he had reachedthe East Indies in Asia. He misnamed the nativeshe met there, calling them Indians. He claimed theland for Spain. From then on, Spain began to cre-ate colonies. Colonies are lands controlled byanother nation.

In 1500, a Portuguese explorer claimed Brazil.In 1501, Amerigo Vespucci explored the easterncoast of South America. He said that these landswere a new world. Soon after, a mapmaker showedthe lands as a separate continent. He named themAmerica after Vespucci.

Other voyages gave Europeans more knowl-edge about the world. Balboa reached the PacificOcean. Ferdinand Magellan sailed completelyaround the world.

1. Which voyages gave Europeans new knowledge of the world?

Effects of Spanish Conqueston the Americas

politicalNew France

social economic

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42 CHAPTER 4 SECTION 1

Spanish Conquests in Mexico(pages 120–122)

Why did Spain conquer theAztecs?Hernando Cortés was one of the Spanish con-quistadors, or conquerors. In the 16th century,they began to explore the lands of the Americas.They were seeking great riches. In 1519, Cortéscame to Mexico and defeated the powerful AztecEmpire led by Montezuma II.

2. What was the main goal of Cortéz in his conquests?

Spanish Conquests in Peru (pages 122–123)

How did Spain build an empire?About 15 years later, Francisco Pizarro ledanother Spanish force. It conquered the mightyInca Empire of South America, led by Atahualpa,the last of the Incan emperors. Once again, theSpanish found gold and silver. By the mid-1500s,Spain had formed an American empire thatstretched from modern-day Mexico to Peru. After1540, the Spanish looked north of Mexico andexplored the future United States.

The Spanish lived among the people they con-quered. Spanish men married native women. Theirchildren and descendants were called mestizo—people with mixed Spanish and Native Americanblood. The Spanish also formed large farms andmines that used natives as slave labor. This systemwas known as encomienda.

One large area of the Americas—Brazil—wasthe possession of Portugal. In the 1830s, colonistsbegan to settle there. Colonists built huge farmscalled plantations to grow sugar, which was indemand in Europe.

3. Give two examples of conquistadors and explainwhat they did.

Spain’s Influence Expands(page 124)

Where did Spain hope to gain more power?Soon Spain began to want even more power in theAmericas. It started to look at land that is now partof the United States. Explorers like Coronado ledexpeditions to the area. Catholic priests wentalong.

4. What area did Coronado explore?

Opposition to Spanish Rule (page 125)

Who opposed Spanish rule?Spanish priests began to make some protests, how-ever. One thing they criticized was the encomiendasystem. A monk named Bartolomé de Las Casasand others successfully called for the end of thesystem.

Native Americans also resisted new or contin-ued Spanish rule. One of the most serious rebel-lions occurred in New Mexico. A Pueblo leadernamed Popé led a well-organized effort. It involvedabout 17,000 warriors and drove the Spanish backinto New Spain for 12 years.

5. What challenges to their power did the Spanish face?

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CHAPTER 4 THE ATLANTIC WORLD 43

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 4 Section 2 (pages 127–131)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last chapter, you read about Spanish conquests.

In this section, you will see how other nations competedfor power in North America.

AS YOU READUse the web below to show different claims in NorthAmerica.

TERMS AND NAMESNew France Area of the Americasexplored and claimed by FranceJamestown First permanentsettlement in AmericaPilgrims Group of English peoplewho founded a colony in PlymouthPuritans People who did not agreewith the practices of the Church ofEnglandNew Netherland Dutch colonybegun in modern New York CityFrench and Indian War War betweenBritain and France over land in NorthAmericaMetacom Native American leaderwho led an attack on the villages ofMassachusetts; also called KingPhilip

European NationsSettle North America

Competing Claims in NorthAmerica (pages 127–128)

What new colonies were formed in North America?In the early 1500s, the French began to exploreNorth America. Jacques Cartier discovered andnamed the St. Lawrence River. He then followed itto the site of what is now Montreal. In 1608,Samuel de Champlain sailed as far as modern-dayQuebec. In the next 100 years, the Frenchexplored and claimed the area around the GreatLakes and the Mississippi River all the way to itsmouth at the Gulf of Mexico. The area became

known as New France. The main activity in thiscolony was trade in beaver fur.

1. What was the main economic activity in New France?

The English Arrive in NorthAmerica (pages 128–129)

Why did the English settle inMassachusetts?The English also began to colonize North America.The first permanent settlement was at Jamestown,

FrenchNew France

English

Native AmericanDutch

NorthAmerica

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44 CHAPTER 4 SECTION 2

in modern Virginia, in 1607. The colony struggled atfirst. Many settlers died from disease, hunger, or warwith the native peoples. Soon, farmers began to growtobacco to meet the high demand for it in Europe.

In 1620, a group known as Pilgrims founded asecond English colony in Plymouth, inMassachusetts. These settlers and others who fol-lowed were deeply religious people who did notagree with the practices of the Church of England.They were called Puritans.

Meanwhile, the Dutch also started a newcolony. They settled in the location of modern NewYork City and called it New Netherland. Like theFrench, they traded fur. The colony became knownas a home to people of many different cultures.Europeans also took possession of many islands ofthe Caribbean. There they built tobacco and sugarplantations that used enslaved Africans as workers.

2. In which two places did English colonistsfirst settle?

The Struggle for North America (pages 129–130)

Who fought for control of North America?The European powers began to fight for control ofNorth America. First, the English forced theDutch to give up their colony. New Amsterdamwas renamed New York. The English also startedother colonies along the Atlantic coast, from NewHampshire to Georgia. These English colonistsinterfered with the French settlers in Canada.

The British and the French clashed over theOhio Valley in 1754. The fight was called theFrench and Indian War. When it ended in 1763,France was forced to give up all its land in NorthAmerica to England.

3. How did England gain land from the French?

Native Americans Respond(pages 130–131)

How did native peoples respond to the colonists?The native peoples responded to the colonists inmany different ways. Many worked closely with theFrench and Dutch, joining in the fur trade andbenefiting from it. Those who lived near theEnglish, though, had stormier relations withcolonists. More than just trade, the English wereinterested in settling the land and farming it. Thiswas land that Native Americans would not be ableto use for hunting or growing their own food.

Conflicts over land erupted into war severaltimes. One of the bloodiest times was known asKing Philip’s War. The Native American rulerMetacom (also known as King Philip) led an attackon 52 colonial villages throughout Massachusetts.However, Metacom’s forces were no match for thesettlers’ guns and cannons.

As in Spanish lands, the native peoples sufferedeven more from disease than from warfare.Thousands upon thousands of Native Americansdied from European illnesses. This made it impos-sible for them to resist the growth of the colonies.

4. Why did Native Americans lose their way of life?

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CHAPTER 4 THE ATLANTIC WORLD 45

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 4 Section 3 (pages 132–136)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how different Europeannations settled in North America.

In this section, you will read about the slave trade that brought Africans to the Americas.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the triangular trade system.

TERMS AND NAMES

Atlantic slave trade Buying andselling of Africans for work in theAmericastriangular trade European tradebetween the Americas, Africa, andEurope involving slaves and othergoodsmiddle passage Voyage that broughtcaptured Africans to the West Indiesand the Americas

The Atlantic Slave Trade

The Causes of African Slavery(pages 132–133)

What was the Atlantic slave trade?Slavery has had a long history in Africa and in theworld. For most of that history in Africa, though,large numbers of people had not been enslaved.That changed in the 600s, when Muslim tradersstarted to take many slaves to Southwest Asia.

Most worked as servants, and they did have cer-tain rights. Also, the sons and daughters of slaveswere considered to be free. The European slavetrade that began in the 1500s was larger. Theenslaved Africans also were treated far more harshly.

In the Americas, Europeans first used NativeAmericans to work farms and mines. When thenative peoples began dying from disease, theEuropeans brought in Africans. The buying and sell-ing of Africans for work in the Americas becameknown as the Atlantic slave trade. From 1500 to1870, when the slave trade in the Americas finallyended, about 9.5 million Africans had been importedas slaves.

The Spanish first began the practice of bringingAfricans to the Americas. However, the Portugueseincreased the demand for slaves. They were look-ing for workers for their sugar plantations in Brazil.

Where were goodssent?

What wastraded?

Who traded?Spanish, Portuguese, andothers

Triangulartrade

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46 CHAPTER 4 SECTION 3

1. Why were slaves brought to the Americas?

Slavery Spreads Throughout theAmericas (pages 133–134)

What sorts of plantations existedin the Americas?Other European colonies also brought slaves towork on tobacco, sugar, and coffee plantations.About 400,000 slaves were brought to the Englishcolonies in North America. Their population hadincreased to about 2 million in 1830.

Many African rulers joined in the slave trade.They captured people inland and brought them tothe coast to sell to European traders.

2. How did some African rulers participate in the slavetrade?

A Forced Journey (page 134–135)

What kinds of trade includedhuman beings?Africans taken to the Americas were part of a tri-angular trade between Europe, Africa, and theAmericas. European ships brought manufacturedgoods to Africa, trading them for people. They car-ried Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas,where they were sold into slavery. The traders thenbought sugar, coffee, and tobacco to bring back toEurope.

Another triangle involved ships sailing from thenorthern English colonies in North America. They

carried rum to Africa, people to the West Indies,and sugar and molasses back to the colonies tomake more rum.

The part of the voyage that brought people tothe Americas was called the middle passage. Itwas harsh and cruel. People were crammed intoships, beaten, and given little food. About 20 per-cent of the people on these ships died.

3. What was the triangular trade?

Slavery in the Americas;Consequences of the Slave Trade (pages 135–136)

What was life like for the slaves?Life on the plantations was harsh as well. Peoplewere sold to the highest bidder. They worked fromdawn to dusk in the fields. They lived in small hutsand had little food and clothing. Africans kept alivetheir traditional music and beliefs to try to main-tain their spirits. Sometimes they rebelled. FromNorth America to Brazil, from 1522 to the 1800s,there were small-scale slave revolts.

The Atlantic slave trade had a huge impact onboth Africa and the Americas. In Africa many cul-tures lost generations of members. Africans beganfighting Africans over the control of the slave trade.

The Africans’ labor helped build the Americas.They brought skills and culture too. Many of thenations of the Americas have mixed populationsrace.

4. How did Africans change the Americas?

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CHAPTER 4 THE ATLANTIC WORLD 47

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 4 Section 4 (pages 137–141)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the slave trade.

In this section, you will learn about other kinds of trade.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the ColumbianExchange.

TERMS AND NAMESColumbian Exchange Global transferof foods, plants, and animals duringthe colonization of the Americascapitalism Economic system basedon private ownership and theinvestment of wealth for profitjoint-stock company Company inwhich people pooled their wealth fora common purposemercantilism Economic policy ofincreasing wealth and power byobtaining large amounts of gold andsilver and selling more goods thanare bought favorable balance of trade Conditionresulting from selling more goodsthan are bought

The ColumbianExchange and GlobalTrade

The Columbian Exchange (pages 137–139)

What was the ColumbianExchange?There was constant movement of people and prod-ucts from Europe and Africa to the Americas. Thelarge-scale transfer of foods, plants, and animalswas called the Columbian Exchange. Importantfoods such as corn and potatoes were taken fromthe Americas to Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Some foods moved from the Old World to theNew. Bananas, black-eyed peas, and yams weretaken from Africa to the Americas. Cattle, pigs, andhorses had never been seen in the Americas untilthe Europeans brought them. Deadly illnesses alsomoved to the Americas. They killed a large part ofthe Native American population.

1. What did the Columbian Exchange take from theAmericas, and what did it bring?

COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE

Leaving the Americas Arriving in the Americas

tomatoes, corn, potatoes

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Global Trade (pages 139–140)

How did business change?The settling of the Americas and the growth oftrade started an economic revolution. This revolu-tion led to a new set of business practices still fol-lowed today. One was the rise of an economic sys-tem called capitalism. It is based on private own-ership of property and the right of a business toearn a profit on money it has invested.

Another new business idea was the joint-stockcompany. In this type of company, many investorspool their money to start a business and share inthe profits.

2. What is capitalism?

The Growth of Mercantilism (pages 140–141)

Why were colonies important inmercantilism?During the Commercial Revolution, Europeangovernments began to follow an idea called mer-cantilism. According to this theory, a country’spower depended on its wealth. Getting more goldand silver increased a country’s wealth. So did sell-ing more goods than it bought. Selling more than itbought would result in a favorable balance oftrade. Colonies played an important role becausethey provided goods that could be sold in trade.

The American colonies changed European soci-ety. Merchants grew wealthy and powerful. Townsand cities grew larger. Still, most people lived inthe countryside, farmed for a living, and were poor.

3. Why were colonies important to European mercantilism?

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CHAPTER 5 ABSOLUTE MONARCHS IN EUROPE 51

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 5 Section 1 (pages 155–161)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last chapter, you read about Europe’s new relation-ship to the Americas.

In this section, you will learn about changes occurring inEurope in the 1500s and 1600s.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to record reasons for change in Spainin the 16th century.

TERMS AND NAMESPhilip II Spanish king who tookcontrol of Portugal but failed in hisinvasion of Englandabsolute monarch King or queenwith complete controldivine right Idea that a ruler receivesthe right to rule from God

Spain’s Empire andEuropean Absolutism

A Powerful Spanish Empire (pages 155–157)

How did Spain’s power increaseand then decrease?Charles V of Spain ruled the Holy Roman Empireand other European countries. In 1556, he left thethrone and split his holdings. His brother Ferdinandreceived Austria and the Holy Roman Empire. Hisson, Philip II, got Spain and its colonies.

Philip II expanded his holdings by taking controlof Portugal when the king of Portugal, his uncle,

died without an heir. Philip also got its global terri-tories in Africa, India, and the East Indies. Whenhe tried to invade England in 1588, though, hefailed. The defeat made Spain weaker. However,Spain still seemed strong because of the wealth—gold and silver—that flowed in from its colonies inthe Americas.

1. Who was Philip II?

CAUSES EFFECT

Inflation and unfair taxes hurt the poor Spain’s economy declines

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Golden Age of Spanish Art andLiterature (pages 157–158)

How did works from the goldenage of Spanish art and literaturereflect the values and attitudes ofthe period?Spain’s great wealth allowed monarchs and noblesto become patrons of artists. Two of the greatestartists of the 16th and 17th century were El Grecoand Diego Velásquez. El Greco’s work reflectedthe faith of Spain during this period. The paintingsof Velásquez reflected the pride of the Spanishmonarchy.

In literature, Miguel de Cervantes wrote DonQuixote de la Mancha, which ushered in the birthof the modern European novel. The novel tells thestory of a Spanish nobleman who reads too manybooks about heroic knights.

2. Who were some of the artists and writers of Spain’sgolden age?

The Spanish Empire Weakens(pages 158–159)

What weakened the SpanishEmpire?Spain’s new wealth led to some serious problems.The prices of goods constantly rose. Unfair taxeskept the poor from building up any wealth of theirown. As prices rose, Spaniards bought more goodsfrom other lands. To finance their wars, Spanishkings had to borrow money from banks in foreigncountries. The silver from the colonies began toflow to Spain’s enemies.

In the middle of these troubles, Spain lost land.Seven provinces of the Spanish Netherlands rose inprotest against high taxes and attempts to crushProtestantism in the Netherlands. These sevenprovinces were Protestant, whereas Spain wasstrongly Catholic. In 1579, they declared theirindependence from Spain and became the UnitedProvinces of the Netherlands. The ten southern

provinces (present-day Belgium) were Catholic andremained under Spanish control.

3. Why did Spain lose its power?

The Independent Dutch Prosper (pages 159–160)

Why did the Dutch prosper?The United Provinces of the Netherlands wasdifferent from other European states of the time. Itwas a republic, not a kingdom. Each province had aleader elected by the people.

The Dutch also practiced religious tolerance,letting people worship as they wished. Dutch mer-chants established a trading empire. They had thelargest fleet of merchant ships in the world. Theywere also the most important bankers in Europe.

4. Give two reasons for the success of the Dutch in trading.

Absolutism in Europe (pages 160–161)

What is absolutism?Though he lost his Dutch possessions, Philip con-tinued to hold tight control over Spain. He wantedto control the lives of his people. Philip and otherswho ruled in the same way were called absolutemonarchs. They believed in holding all power.They also believed in divine right. This is the ideathat a ruler receives the right to rule from God.

Widespread unrest in Europe in the 17th centu-ry led to an increase in absolute rule, or abso-lutism, and its restrictions. Absolute rulers usedtheir increased power to impose order. They want-ed to free themselves from the limitations imposedby the nobility and government bodies.

5. What did absolute monarchs believe?

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CHAPTER 5 ABSOLUTE MONARCHS IN EUROPE 53

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 5 Section 2 (pages 162–168)TERMS AND NAMESEdict of Nantes Order that gaveHuguenots the right to live in peace inCatholic FranceCardinal Richelieu Chief minister ofFrance who reduced the power of thenoblesskepticism Belief that nothing couldbe known for certainLouis XIV French king who was anabsolute rulerintendant Official of the FrenchgovernmentJean Baptiste Colbert Chief Ministerof Finance under Louis XIVWar of the Spanish Succession Warfought by other European nationsagainst France and Spain when thosetwo states tried to unite their thrones

The Reign of Louis XIVBEFORE YOU READ

In the last section, you were introduced to the idea ofabsolutism.

In this section, you will read about absolute power inFrance.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to show important events inFrance.

Religious Wars and PowerStruggles; Writers Turn TowardSkepticism (pages 162–164)

What changes were occurring in France?France was torn by eight religious wars betweenCatholics and Protestants from 1562 to 1598.

In 1589, a Protestant prince, Henry of Navarre,became King Henry IV. In 1593, he changed reli-gions. He became a Catholic to please the majori-ty of his people. In 1598, he issued an order calledthe Edict of Nantes. It gave Huguenots—FrenchProtestants—the right to live in peace and havetheir own churches in some cities.

Henry rebuilt the French economy and broughtpeace to the land. He was followed by his son,

Louis XIII, a weak king. However, Louis had a verycapable chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu.Richelieu ruled the land for Louis and increasedthe power of the crown.

The cardinal ordered the Huguenots not tobuild walls around their cities. He also said nobleshad to destroy their castles. As a result, Protestantsand nobles could not hide within walls to defy theking’s power. Richelieu used people from the mid-dle class—not nobles—to work in his government.That also reduced the power of the nobles.

French thinkers had reacted to the religiouswars with horror. They developed a new philoso-phy called skepticism. Nothing could be knownfor certain, they argued. Doubting old ideas wasthe first step to learning the truth, they said.

1643

1598 1700-1713

1562-1598Religious wars between

Catholics and Protestants

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54 CHAPTER 5 SECTION 2

SkillbuilderUse the graph to answer these questions.

1. What is the general trend shown in this graph?

2. What was the difference in the debt, in millions oflivres, between 1683 and 1715?

1. How did the monarchy get stronger in France?

Louis XIV Comes to Power (pages 164–165)

How did Louis XIV rule?In 1643, Louis XIV became king at the age ofabout five. Cardinal Mazarin, who succeededRichelieu as minister, ruled for Louis until he was22. Louis became a powerful ruler, who had totalcontrol of France. He was determined to never letnobles challenge him.

He kept the nobles out of his government. Hegave more power to government officials calledintendants and made sure that they answeredonly to him. He also worked hard to increase thewealth of France. His chief minister of finance,Jean Baptiste Colbert, tried to build Frenchindustry. Colbert wanted to persuade French peo-ple to buy French-made goods and not those fromother countries. He urged people to settle in thenew French colony of Canada in North America.The fur trade there brought wealth to France.

2. How did Louis make sure he kept his power?

The Sun King’s Grand Style;Louis Fights Disastrous Wars (pages 165–168)

What changes did Louis make?Louis enjoyed a life of luxury at his court. He builta huge and beautiful palace at Versailles near Paris.He also made sure that nobles had to depend onhis favor to advance in society.

Louis made France the most powerful nation inEurope. France had a larger population and a biggerarmy than any other country. However, Louis madesome mistakes that later proved costly. After win-ning some wars against neighboring countries, hebecame bolder and tried to seize more land. Othernations allied to stop France in the late 1680s. Thehigh cost of these wars combined with poor harveststo produce problems at home in France.

The final war fought in Louis’s time was foughtover succession to the throne of Spain and lastedfrom 1700 to 1713. In this War of the SpanishSuccession, France and Spain attempted to set upunited thrones. The rest of Europe felt threatenedand joined in war against them. Both France andSpain were forced to give up some of their Americanand European colonies to England. England was thenew rising power.

3. How did Louis XIV bring disaster to France?

Livr

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A livre is equal to approximately $10.50 in 1992 U.S. dollars.

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200

400

600

800

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1,200

1,400

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1,800

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1715170816991683166116481643

Source: Early Modern France 1560-1715Deb

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CHAPTER 5 ABSOLUTE MONARCHS IN EUROPE 55

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 5 Section 3 (pages 169–173)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how absolute power grew inFrance.

In this section, you will learn about absolutism in Austriaand Prussia.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on key events inCentral Europe.

TERMS AND NAMESThirty Years’ War Conflict overreligion, territory, and power amongEuropean ruling familiesMaria Theresa Empress of Austriawhose main enemy was PrussiaFrederick the Great Leader ofPrussia who sought to increase itsterritorySeven Years’ War Conflict from 1756to 1763 in which the forces of Britainand Prussia battled those of Austria,France, Russia, and other countries.

Central EuropeanMonarchs Clash

The Thirty Years’ War (pages 169–170)

What caused the Thirty Years’ War?Germany had suffered from religious wars thatended in 1555. Rulers of each German state agreedthat they would decide whether their lands wouldbe Catholic or Protestant. Relations between sidesbecame tense over the next decades. Then in 1618,a new war broke out and lasted for 30 terribleyears. It was called the Thirty Years’ War.

During the first half of the war, Catholic forcesled by Ferdinand, the Holy Roman Emperor, won.However, Germany suffered because he allowedhis large army to loot towns. Then the Protestantking of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus, won severalbattles against him.

In the last years of the war, France helped theProtestants. Although France was a Catholicnation, Richelieu feared the growing power of theHapsburg family, which was headed by Frederick.

The Thirty Years’ War ended in 1648 with thePeace of Westphalia. It had been a disaster forGermany. About 4 million people had died, and theeconomy was in ruins. It took Germany two cen-turies to recover.

The peace treaty weakened the power ofAustria and Spain. But it made France stronger.The French gained German territory. The treatyalso made German princes independent of theHoly Roman Emperor. It ended religious wars inEurope. Lastly, the treaty introduced a new way ofnegotiating peace—a method still used today. Allstates involved in the fighting meet to settle theproblems of a war and decide the terms of peace.

1756-1763

1740

1618-1648Thirty Years’ War fought

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1. What were three results of the Thirty Years’ War?

States Form in Central Europe(page 171)

Who ruled Austria?The formation of strong states took place slowly incentral Europe. The economies there were lessdeveloped than in western Europe. Most peoplewere still peasants. This region had not built aneconomy based on cities and commercialism.Nobles enjoyed great influence. This helped themkeep the serfs on the land and prevent the rise ofstrong rulers. Still, two important states arose.

The Hapsburg family ruled Austria, Hungary,and Bohemia. Their empire linked many differentpeoples—Czechs, Hungarians, Italians, Croatians,and Germans. Maria Theresa, the daughter ofCharles VI, was empress of Austria in themid–1700s. She managed to increase her powerand reduce that of the nobles. She was opposed bythe kings of Prussia, a new powerful state in north-ern Germany.

2. Who were the Hapsburgs?

Prussia Challenges Austria (pages 172–173)

What was Prussia?Like Austria, Prussia rose to power in the late1600s. Like the Hapsburgs of Austria, Prussia’s rul-ing family, the Hohenzollerns, also had ambitions.

Prussia was a strong state that gave much powerto its large, well-trained army. In 1740, Frederickthe Great of Prussia invaded one of MariaTheresa’s lands. Austria fought hard to keep theterritory, but lost. Still, in fighting the War of theAustrian Succession, Maria Theresa managed tokeep the rest of her empire intact.

The two sides fought again, beginning in 1756.In the Seven Years’ War, Austria abandonedBritain, its old ally, for France and Russia. Prussiajoined with Britain. The Prussians and British won.In that victory, Britain gained economic domina-tion of India.

3. What effect did fighting between Austria and Prussia have on Britain?

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CHAPTER 5 ABSOLUTE MONARCHS IN EUROPE 57

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 5 Section 4 (pages 174–177)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how Austria and Prussiabecame strong states.

In this section, you will learn how Russia developed into apowerful state.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the changes made inRussia by Peter the Great.

TERMS AND NAMESIvan the Terrible Ruler who addedlands to Russia, gave it a code oflaws, and also used his secret policeto execute “traitors”boyar Russian noble who ownedlandPeter the Great Important leader ofRussia who started westernizationwesternization Use of westernEurope as a model of change

Absolute Rulers of Russia

The First Czar (pages 174–175)

Who was Ivan the Terrible?Ivan III had begun centralizing the Russian gov-ernment. His son, Vasily, continued the work ofadding territory to the growing Russian state. Ivan’sgrandson, Ivan IV, was called Ivan the Terrible.He came to the throne in 1533, when he was threeyears old.

At first, landowning nobles, known as boyars,tried to control Ivan. Eventually, he ruled success-fully on his own. He added lands to Russia andgave the country a code of laws. After his wife,Anastasia, died, however, his rule turned harsh. Heused secret police to hunt down enemies and killthem. Ivan even murdered his oldest son.

A few years after he died, Russian nobles met toname a new ruler. They chose Michael Romanov,the grandnephew of Ivan the Terrible’s wife. Hebegan the Romanov dynasty, which ruled Russiafor about 300 years.

1. What good and bad did Ivan the Terrible do?

Peter the Great Comes toPower (page 175)

Who was Peter the Great?The Romanovs restored order to Russia. In the late1600s, Peter I came to power. He was called Peterthe Great because he was one of Russia’s greatest

politicalIncreased power of theczar

social cultural economic

Peter the Great’s Changes

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58 CHAPTER 5 SECTION 4

reformers. He began an intense program of tryingto modernize Russia. He also continued the trendof increasing the czar’s power.

When Peter came to power, Russia was still aland of boyars and serfs. Serfdom lasted muchlonger in Russia than it did in western Europe. Itcontinued into the mid–1800s.

When a Russian landowner sold a piece of land,he sold the serfs with it. Landowners could giveaway serfs as presents or to pay debts. It was alsoagainst the law for serfs to run away from theirowners.

Most boyars knew little of western Europe. ButPeter admired the nations of western Europe. Hetraveled in Europe to learn about new technologyand ways of working. It was the first time a czartraveled in the West.

2. Why did Peter the Great visit Europe?

Peter Rules Absolutely (pages 176–177)

What changes did Peter the Great make?Peter the Great wanted Russia to be the equal ofthe countries of western Europe. He wanted

Russia to be strong both in its military and in itstrade.

To meet these goals, Peter changed Russia. Hisfirst steps were to increase his powers, so he couldforce people to make the changes he wanted. Heput the Russian Orthodox Church under his con-trol. He reduced the power of nobles. He built upthe army and made it better trained.

Peter also changed Russia through westerniza-tion. He took several steps to make Russia morewestern. He brought in potatoes as a new food,began Russia’s first newspaper, gave more socialstatus to women, and told the nobles to adoptWestern clothes. He promoted education.

Peter also knew Russia needed a seaport thatwould make it easier to travel to the west. Hefought a long war with Sweden to gain land alongthe shores of the Baltic Sea. There he built a grandnew capital city, St. Petersburg. By the time ofPeter’s death in 1725, Russia was an importantpower in Europe.

3. How did Peter the Great increase his power?

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CHAPTER 5 ABSOLUTE MONARCHS IN EUROPE 59

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 5 Section 5 (pages 180–183)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how power was becomingmore absolute in Russia.

In this section, you will see how the power of the monarchwas challenged and weakened in England.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on key changes inthe government of England.

TERMS AND NAMESCharles I King of England who wasexecutedEnglish Civil War War fought from1642 to 1649 between the Royalists, orCavaliers, and the Puritan supportersof ParliamentOliver Cromwell Leader of thePuritansRestoration Period after themonarchy was restored in Englandhabeas corpus Law giving prisonersthe right to obtain a document sayingthat the prisoner cannot go to jailwithout being brought before a judgeGlorious Revolution Bloodlessoverthrow of King James IIconstitutional monarchy Governmentin which laws limit the monarch’spowercabinet A group of governmentministers that was a link between themonarch and Parliament

Parliament Limits theEnglish Monarchy

Monarchs Defy Parliament (page 180)

Why was there tension betweenthe monarchy and Parliament?When Queen Elizabeth I died, her cousin James,king of Scotland, became king of England. Thereign of James I began a long series of strugglesbetween king and Parliament. They fought overmoney. James’s religious policies also angered thePuritans in Parliament. They wanted to reform theChurch of England to remove any Catholic prac-tices. James was not willing to make these changes.

During the reign of his son, Charles I, therewas continued conflict between king andParliament. Parliament forced Charles to sign thePetition of Right in 1628. By signing, Charlesagreed that the king had to answer to Parliament.But he then dissolved Parliament and tried to raisemoney without it. This went directly against thePetition of Right.

1. How did Charles I make Parliament angry?

1660 1689

1649 1688

1642English Civil War begins

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English Civil War (pages 181–182)

Who fought the English Civil War?When Charles tried to force Presbyterian Scots tofollow the Anglican Church, Scotland threatenedto invade England. Charles needed money to fight.When Charles called a new Parliament to getmoney, it quickly passed laws to limit his power.Charles responded by trying to arrest its leaders.

Soon England was fighting a civil war. Charlesand his Royalists were opposed by the supportersof Parliament. Many of Parliament’s supporterswere Puritans.

The English Civil War lasted from 1642 to1649. Under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell,the forces of the Puritans won. They tried and exe-cuted Charles for treason against Parliament. Thiswas the first time a king had faced a public trial andexecution. Cromwell became a military dictator,ruling until 1658. He crushed a rebellion in Irelandand tried to reform society at home.

2. What happened as a result of the English Civil War?

Restoration and Revolution (page 182)

What was the Restoration?Soon after Cromwell’s death, the government col-lapsed. A new Parliament asked Charles’s older sonto restore the monarchy. Charles II began to rule in1660. The period of his rule is called theRestoration.

Charles II’s reign was calm. Parliament passedan important guarantee of freedom called habeascorpus. It gave every prisoner the right to get anorder to be brought before a judge. The judgewould then decide whether the prisoner should betried or set free. This kept monarchs from puttingpeople in jail just for opposing them. It also meantthat people would not stay in jail forever without atrial.

After Charles II’s death in 1685, his brotherbecame King James II. His pro-Catholic policiesangered and worried the English. They feared thathe would restore Catholicism. Finally, in 1688,seven members of Parliament contacted James’solder daughter, Mary, and her husband, William ofOrange, prince of the Netherlands. Both wereProtestants. The members of Parliament wantedWilliam and Mary to replace James II on thethrone. James was forced to flee to France. Whenthat took place, the bloodless revolution was calledthe Glorious Revolution.

3. Why did the Glorious Revolution take place?

Limits on Monarch’s Power (page 183)

How was the power of the monarchy decreased in England?William and Mary agreed to rule according to thelaws made by Parliament. That is, Parliamentbecame their partner in governing. England wasnow a constitutional monarchy, where laws lim-ited the ruler’s power.

William and Mary also agreed to accept the Billof Rights. It guaranteed the English people andParliament certain rights.

By the 1700’s, it was clear that the governmentof England would come to a standstill if themonarch disagreed with Parliament or vice versa.This led to the development of the cabinet. Thisgroup of government ministers became the firstlink between the monarch and the majority inParliament.

4. What three changes gave Parliament more powerin England?

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CHAPTER 6 ENLIGHTENMENT AND REVOLUTION 63

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 6 Section 1 (pages 189–194)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last chapter, you learned about wars and politicalchanges in Europe.

In this section, you will read how the Enlightenment transformed Europe and helped lead to the AmericanRevolution.

AS YOU READUse the web diagram below to record important eventsthat occurred during the Scientific Revolution.

TERMS AND NAMES

Scientific Revolution New way ofthinking about the natural worldbased on careful observation and awillingness to questionheliocentric theory Theory that thesun is at the center of the universegeocentric theory View which heldthat the earth was the center of theuniverseGalileo Galilei Scientist who wasforced by the Catholic Church to takeback scientific ideas that disagreedwith the church’s viewscientific method Logical procedurefor gathering and testing ideasIsaac Newton Scientist whodiscovered laws of motion andgravity

The ScientificRevolution

The Roots of Modern Science(pages 189–190)

How did modern science begin?During the Middle Ages, few scholars questionedbeliefs that had been long held. Europeans basedtheir ideas on what ancient Greeks and Romansbelieved or on the Bible. People still thought thatthe earth was the center of the universe. Theybelieved that the sun, moon, other planets, andstars moved around it.

In the mid-1500s, attitudes began to change.Scholars started what is called the ScientificRevolution. It was a new way of thinking about

the natural world. It was based on careful observa-tion and the willingness to question old beliefs.European voyages of exploration helped to bringabout the Scientific Revolution. When Europeansexplored new lands, they saw plants and animalsthat ancient writers had never seen. These discov-eries led to new courses of study in the universitiesof Europe.

1. What was the Scientific Revolution?

Discoveries andDevelopments

Copernicus —heliocentric theory

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A Revolutionary Model of the Universe (pages 190–191)

How did new ideas changeaccepted thinking in astronomy?The first challenge to accepted thinking in sciencecame in astronomy. In the early 1500s, NicolausCopernicus, a Polish astronomer, studied the starsand planets. He developed a heliocentric theory.Heliocentric meant sun-centered. It said that earth,like all the other planets, revolved around the sun.Copernicus did not publish his findings until justbefore his death. He had been afraid that his ideaswould be attacked. They went against the long-accepted geocentric theory. This theory held thatthe earth was at the center of the universe. In theearly 1600s, Johannes Kepler used mathematics toprove that Copernicus’s basic idea was correct.

An Italian scientist—Galileo Galilei—madeseveral discoveries that also undercut ancient ideas.He made one of the first telescopes and used it tostudy the planets. He found that Jupiter had moons,the sun had spots, and Earth’s moon was rough.Some of his ideas about the earth, the sun, and theplanets went against the teaching of the CatholicChurch. Church authorities forced Galileo to takeback his statements. Still, his ideas spread.

2. What old belief about the universe did the new discoveries destroy?

The Scientific Method (pages 191–192)

Why was the scientific method an important development?Interest in science led to a new approach, the sci-entific method. With this method, scientists ask aquestion based on something they have seen in thephysical world. They form a hypothesis, or anattempt to answer the question. Then they test thehypothesis by making experiments or checkingother facts. Finally, they change the hypothesis ifneeded.

The English writer Francis Bacon helped cre-ate this new approach to knowledge. He said sci-entists should base their thinking on what they canobserve and test. The French mathematician RenéDescartes also influenced the use of the scientificmethod. His thinking was based on logic and math-ematics.

3. What thinkers helped advance the useof the scientific method?

Newton Explains the Law of Gravity; The ScientificRevolution Spreads (pages 192–194)

What scientific discoveries were made?In the mid-1600s, the English scientist IsaacNewton described the law of gravity. Using math-ematics, Newton showed that the same force ruledboth the motion of planets and the action of bodieson the earth.

Other scientists made new tools to study theworld around them. One invented a microscope.Others invented tools for understanding weather.

Doctors also made advances. One made draw-ings that showed the different parts of the humanbody. Another learned how the heart pumpedblood through the body. In the late 1700s, EdwardJenner first used the process called vaccination toprevent disease. By giving a person the germs froma cattle disease called cowpox, he helped that per-son avoid getting the more serious human diseaseof smallpox.

Scientists made progress in chemistry as well.One questioned the old idea that things were madeof only four elements—earth, air, fire, and water.He and other scientists were able to separate oxy-gen from air.

4. How did the science of medicine change?

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CHAPTER 6 ENLIGHTENMENT AND REVOLUTION 65

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 6 Section 2 (pages 195–201)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how the Scientific Revolutionbegan in Europe.

In this section, you will learn how the Enlightenmentbegan in Europe.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on importantEnlightenment ideas.

The Enlightenment in Europe

Two Views on Government (pages 195–196)

What were the views of Hobbes and Locke?The Enlightenment was an intellectual move-ment. Enlightenment thinkers tried to apply rea-son and the scientific method to laws that shapedhuman actions. They hoped to build a societyfounded on ideas of the Scientific Revolution. Two

English writers—Thomas Hobbes and JohnLocke—were important to this movement. Theycame to very different conclusions about govern-ment and human nature.

Hobbes wrote that there would be a war of“every man against every man” if there were nogovernment. To avoid this war, Hobbes said, peo-ple formed a social contract. It was an agreementbetween people and their government. Peoplegave up their rights to the government so they

TH INKER IDEA

Hobbes social contract between people

TERMS AND NAMESEnlightenment Age of Reasonsocial contract According to ThomasHobbes, an agreement people makewith governmentJohn Locke Philosopher who wroteabout governmentphilosophes Social critics in FranceVoltaire Writer who fought fortolerance, reason, freedom ofreligious belief, and freedom ofspeechMontesquieu French writerconcerned with government andpolitical libertyRousseau Enlightenment thinker whochampioned freedomMary Wollstonecraft Author whowrote about women’s rights

and government

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66 CHAPTER 6 SECTION 2

could live in a safe and orderly way. The best gov-ernment, he said, is that of a strong king who canforce all people to obey.

John Locke believed that people have threenatural rights. They are life, liberty, and property.The purpose of government is to protect theserights. When it fails to do so, he said, people havea right to overthrow the government.

1. How were Hobbes’s and Locke’s views different?

The Philosophes AdvocateReason (pages 196–198)

Who were the philosophes?French thinkers called philosophes had five mainbeliefs: (1) thinkers can find the truth by using rea-son; (2) what is natural is good and reasonable, andhuman actions are shaped by natural laws; (3) act-ing according to nature can bring happiness; (4) bytaking a scientific view, people and society canmake progress and advance to a better life; and (5)by using reason, people can gain freedom.

The most brilliant of the philosophes was thewriter Voltaire. He fought for tolerance, reason,freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech.Baron de Montesquieu wrote about separation ofpowers—dividing power among the separatebranches of government. The third greatphilosophe was Jean Jacques Rousseau. He wrotein favor of human freedom. He wanted a society in

which all people were equal. Cesare Beccaria wasan Italian philosphe. He spoke out against abusesof justice.

2. Name the types of freedoms that Enlightenmentthinkers championed.

Women and the Enlightenment;Legacy of the Enlightenment (pages 199–201)

What were Enlightenment viewsabout individuals?Many Enlightenment thinkers held traditionalviews about women’s place in society. They wantedequal rights for all men but paid no attention to thefact that women did not have such rights. Somewomen protested this unfair situation. “If all menare born free,” stated British writer MaryWollstonecraft, “how is it that all women are bornslaves?”

Enlightenment ideas strongly influenced theAmerican and French Revolutions. Enlightenmentthinkers also helped spread the idea of progress. Byusing reason, they said, it is possible to make soci-ety better. Enlightenment thinkers helped makethe world less religious and more worldly. Theyalso stressed the importance of the individual.

3. Explain the influence of Enlightenment ideas.

Major Ideas of the Enlightenment

Locke

Montesquieu

Voltaire

Beccaria

Voltaire

Wollstonecraft

Fundamental to U.S. Declaration of Independence

France, United States, Latin American nations useseparation of powers in new constitutions

Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen; Europeanmonarchs reduce or eliminate censorship

Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights; torture outlawed orreduced in nations of Europe and the Americas

Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declarationof the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchsreduce persecution

Women’s rights groups form in Europe and NorthAmerica

Natural rights—life,liberty, property

Separation of powers

Freedom of thoughtand expression

Abolishment of torture

Religious freedom

Women’s equality

Idea

SkillbuilderUse the chart to answer these questions.

1. Which Enlightenmentthinkers influenced theUnited States government?

2. Which Enlightenment ideasare in the United States Billof Rights?

Thinker Impact

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CHAPTER 6 ENLIGHTENMENT AND REVOLUTION 67

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 6 Section 3 (pages 202–205)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how Enlightenment ideas began.

In this section, you will learn about the spread of these ideas.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on how Enlightenment ideas were spread.

TERMS AND NAMES

salon Social gathering for discussingideas or enjoying artbaroque Grand, ornate styleneoclassical Simple style thatborrowed ideas from classicalGreece and Romeenlightened despot Ruler whosupported Enlightenment ideas butdid not give up powerCatherine the Great Russian rulerwho took steps to reform andmodernize Russia

The EnlightenmentSpreads

A World of Ideas (page 202)

How did ideas spread from individual to individual?In the 1700s, Paris was the cultural center ofEurope. People came there from other countriesto hear the new ideas of the Enlightenment.Writers and artists held social gatherings calledsalons. A woman named Marie-Thérèse Geoffrinbecame famous for hosting these discussions.

Geoffrin also supplied the money for one of themajor projects of the Enlightenment. With her

funds, Denis Diderot and other thinkers wrote andpublished a huge set of books called theEncyclopedia. Their aim was to gather all that wasknown about the world. The French governmentand officials in the Catholic Church did not likemany of the ideas that were published in theEncyclopedia. They banned the books at first.Later, however, they changed their minds.

The ideas of the Enlightenment were spreadthroughout Europe by works like the Encyclopediaand through meetings in homes. The ideas alsospread to the growing middle class. This group wasbecoming wealthy but had less social status than

Enlightenment Ideas Spread

generalknowledge

The Encyclopedia gathersall known knowledge.

art andarchitecture

literature music

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68 CHAPTER 6 SECTION 3

nobles. They also had very little political power.Ideas about equality sounded good to them.

1. Why were salons important?

New Artistic Styles (page 203)

How did art and literaturechange?The arts—painting, architecture, music, and litera-ture—moved in new directions in the late 1700s.They used Enlightenment ideas of order and reason.

Earlier European painting had been very grandand highly decorated. It was a style known asbaroque. Now styles began to change. A new sim-pler, yet elegant, style of painting and architecturedeveloped. This style borrowed ideas and themesfrom Classical Greece and Rome. That is the rea-son it was called neoclassical.

In music, the style of the period is called classi-cal. Three important composers of the time wereFranz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,and Ludwig von Beethoven. They composed musicthat was elegant and original. New musical formswere developed, including the sonata and the sym-phony.

In literature, the novel became popular. Thisnew form presented long stories with twistingplots. It explored the thoughts and feelings of char-acters. A number of European authors, includingwomen, began writing novels. These books werepopular with the middle-class. They liked enter-taining stories in everyday language.

2. What new styles and forms appeared in art, music, and literature?

Enlightenment and Monarchy (pages 204–205)

Who were the enlighteneddespots?Some Enlightenment thinkers believed that thebest form of government was a monarchy. In it, aruler respected people’s rights. These thinkerstried to influence rulers to rule fairly. Rulers whofollowed Enlightenment ideas in part but wereunwilling to give up much power were calledenlightened despots.

Frederick the Great of Prussia was an enlight-ened despot. He gave his people religious freedomand improved schooling. He also reformed the jus-tice system. However, he did nothing to end serf-dom, which made peasants slaves to the wealthylandowners. Joseph II of Austria did end serfdom.Once he died, though, the nobles who owned thelands were able to undo this reform.

Catherine the Great of Russia was another ofthe rulers influenced by Enlightenment ideas. Shetried to reform Russia’s laws but met resistance.She had hoped to end serfdom. But a bloody peas-ants’ revolt persuaded her to change her mind.Instead, she gave the nobles even more power overserfs. Catherine did manage to gain new land forRussia. Russia, Prussia, and Austria agreed todivide Poland among themselves. As a result,Poland disappeared as a separate nation for almost150 years.

3. In what way was Frederick the Great typical of anenlightened despot?

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CHAPTER 6 ENLIGHTENMENT AND REVOLUTION 69

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 6 Section 4 (pages 206–211)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the spread ofEnlightenment ideas in Europe.

In this section, you will learn how Enlightenment ideasinfluenced the American Revolution.

AS YOU READUse the web below to take notes on the influence of theEnlightenment on the early United States.

TERMS AND NAMESDeclaration of IndependenceDocument declaring Americanindependence from BritainThomas Jefferson Author of theDeclaration of Independencechecks and balances System inwhich each branch of governmentchecks, or limits, the power of theother two branchesfederal system System ofgovernment in which power isdivided between the national andstate governmentsBill of Rights First ten amendmentsto the U.S. Constitution; protections of basic rights for individuals

The AmericanRevolution

Britain and Its AmericanColonies (page 206)

How were the colonies governed?The British colonies in North America grew inpopulation and wealth during the 1700s.Population went from about 250,000 in 1700 to2,150,000 in 1770. Economically, they prosperedon trade with the nations of Europe. The 13

colonies also had a kind of self-government. Peoplein the colonies began to see themselves less andless as British subjects. Still, Parliament passedlaws that governed the colonies. One set of lawsbanned trade with any nation other than Britain.

1. How did the colonists’ image of themselves clashwith their status as colonists?

Documents/IdeasBased on

EnlightenmentThinking

Declaration ofIndependence

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70 CHAPTER 6 SECTION 4

Americans Win Independence (pages 207–209)

What caused Britain and Americato grow apart?The high cost of the French and Indian War ledParliament to pass laws that put taxes on thecolonists. The colonists became very angry. Theyhad never before paid taxes directly to the Britishgovernment. They said that the taxes violated theirrights. Since Parliament had no members from thecolonies, they said, Parliament had no right to taxthem.

The colonists met the first tax, passed in 1765,with a boycott of British goods. Their refusal to buyBritish products was very effective. It forcedParliament to repeal the law.

Over the next decade, the colonists and Britaingrew further apart. Some colonists wanted to pushthe colonies to independence. They took actionsthat caused Britain to act harshly. Eventually, theconflict led to war. Representatives of the coloniesmet in a congress and formed an army. In July1776, they announced that they were independentof Britain. They issued the Declaration ofIndependence. It was based on Enlightenmentideas. Thomas Jefferson wrote it.

From 1775 to 1781, the colonies and the Britishfought a war in North America. The colonists had apoorly equipped army, and Britain was one of themost powerful nations in the world. However, inthe end, the colonies won their independence.

The British people grew tired of the cost of thewar and pushed Parliament to agree to a peace.The Americans were also helped greatly by aidfrom France. In 1783, the two sides signed a treaty.In it, Britain recognized the independent UnitedStates of America.

2. Name some of the steps that led to the American Revolution.

Americans Create a Republic (pages 210–211)

What are some fundamental ideasin the U.S. Constitution?The 13 states formed a new government under theArticle of Confederation. This government was veryweak. States held all the power and the central gov-ernment had little. This proved unworkable. In1787, American leaders met again. They wrote anew framework of government.

The Constitution of the United States drew onmany Enlightenment ideas. It used Montesquieu’sidea of separation of powers into three branches ofgovernment. Through a system of checks and bal-ances, each branch was able to prevent otherbranches from abusing their power. TheConstitution also set up a federal system. Underthis system, power was divided between nationaland state governments.

The Constitution also used Locke’s idea ofputting power in the hands of the people. It usedVoltaire’s ideas to protect the right to free speechand freedom of religion. It used Beccaria’s ideasabout a fair system of justice.

Many of these rights were ensured in a set ofadditions to the Constitution called the Bill ofRights. The inclusion of a bill of rights helped winapproval for the Constitution.

3. Explain how the Constitution divides power.

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CHAPTER 7 FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON 73

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 7 Section 1 (pages 217–221)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last chapter, you read about the Enlightenment andthe American Revolution.

In this section, you will learn about the beginning of theFrench Revolution.

AS YOU READUse this chart to take notes on the causes and effects ofthe early stages of the French Revolution.

TERMS AND NAMESOld Regime System of feudalismestate Social class of peopleLouis XVI Weak king who came toFrench throne in 1774Marie Antoinette Unpopular queen;wife of Louis XVIEstates-General Assembly ofrepresentatives from all three estatesNational Assembly French congressestablished by representatives of theThird EstateTennis Court Oath Promise made byThird Estate representatives to drawup a new constitutionGreat Fear Wave of panic

The French Revolution Begins

The Old Order (pages 217–218)

How was French society unequal?In the 1700s, France was the leading country ofEurope. It was the center of the new ideas of theEnlightenment. However, beneath the surfacethere were major problems. Soon the nation wouldbe torn by a violent revolution.

One problem was that people were not treatedequally in French society. A political and social sys-tem called the Old Regime remained in place.The French were divided into three classes, orestates. The First Estate consisted of the Roman

Catholic clergy. The Second Estate was made up ofnobles. Only about 2 percent of the peoplebelonged to these two estates. Yet they owned 20percent of the land. They had easy lives.

Everybody else belonged to the Third Estate.This huge group included three types of people:

• the bourgeoisie—mostly well-off merchantsand skilled workers who lacked the status ofnobles

• city workers—cooks, servants, and others whowere poorly paid and often out of work

• peasants—farm workers, making up morethan 80 percent of the French people

Old regime—society unequal

Causes Effects

Dawn of theRevolution

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74 CHAPTER 7 SECTION 1

Members of the Third Estate were angry. Theyhad few rights. They paid up to half of their incomein taxes, while the rich paid almost none.

1. What were the three classes of French society?

The Forces of Change (pages 218–219)

Why were the French ready for the revolution?Three factors led to revolution. First, theEnlightenment spread the idea that everyoneshould be equal. The powerless people in theThird Estate liked that. Second, the French econ-omy was failing. High taxes kept profits low, andfood supplies were short. The government owedmoney. Third, King Louis XVI was a weak leader.His wife, Marie Antoinette, was unpopular. Shewas from Austria, France’s long-time enemy, andwas noted for her extravagant spending.

In the 1780s, France was deep in debt. Louistried to tax the nobles. Instead, they forced theking to call a meeting of the Estates-General, anassembly of delegates of the three estates.

2. What three factors led to revolution?

Dawn of the Revolution (pages 220–221)

How did the Revolution begin?The meeting of the Estates-General began in May1789 with arguments over how to count votes. Inthe past, each estate had cast one vote. The ThirdEstate now wanted each delegate to have a vote.The king and the other estates did not agree to theplan because the Third Estate was larger andwould have more votes.

The Third Estate then broke with the othersand met separately. In June 1789, its delegatesvoted to rename themselves the NationalAssembly. They claimed to represent all the peo-ple. This was the beginning of representative gov-ernment for France.

At one point, the members of the Third Estatefound themselves locked out of their meeting.They broke down a door leading to a tennis court.Then they promised to stay there until they made anew constitution. This promise was called theTennis Court Oath.

Louis tried to make peace. He ordered the cler-gy and nobles to join the National Assembly.However, trouble erupted. Rumors flew that for-eign soldiers were going to attack French citizens.On July 14, an angry crowd captured the Bastille, aParis prison. The mob wanted to get gunpowderfor their weapons in order to defend the city.

3. Why did the National Assembly form?

A Great Fear Sweeps France (page 221)

What was the Great Fear?A wave of violence called the Great Fear sweptthe country. Peasants broke into and burnednobles’ houses. They tore up documents that hadforced them to pay fees to the nobles. Late in 1789,a mob of women marched from Paris to the king’spalace at Versailles. They were angry about highbread prices and demanded that the king come toParis. They hoped he would end hunger in the city.The king and queen left Versailles, never to return.

4. What happened during the Great Fear?

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CHAPTER 7 FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON 75

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 7 Section 2 (pages 222–228)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how the French Revolution began.

In this section, you will learn what course it took and where it led.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on major events.

Revolution BringsReform and Terror

The Assembly Reforms France (pages 222–223)

What reforms resulted from the revolution?In August 1789, the National Assembly took stepsto change France. It made a revolutionary state-ment called the Declaration of the Rights of Man.One new law ended all the special rights that mem-bers of the First and Second Estates had enjoyed.Another law gave all French men equal rights.Though women did not get these rights, it was abold step. Other laws gave the state power over theCatholic Church.

The new laws about the church divided peoplewho had supported the Revolution. Catholic peas-

ants remained loyal to the church. They were angrythat the church would be part of the state.Thereafter, many of them opposed the Revolution’sreforms.

For months, the assembly worked on plans fora new government. During this time, Louis wasfearful for his safety. One night, he and his familytried to escape the country. They were caught,brought back to Paris, and placed under guard.This escape attempt made the king and queenmore unpopular. It also increased the power of hisenemies.

1. What new laws came into being?

1792

1791 1793-1794

1789National Assembly issues

Declaration of Rights of Man

TERMS AND NAMESLegislative Assembly Assembly thatreplaced the National Assembly in1791émigrés Nobles and others who leftFrance during the peasant uprisingsand who hoped to come back torestore the old systemsans-culottes Radical group ofParisian wage-earnersJacobin Member of the JacobinClub, a radical political organizationguillotine Machine for beheadingpeopleMaximilien RobespierreRevolutionary leader who tried towipe out every trace of France’s pastmonarchy and nobilityReign of Terror Period ofRobespierre’s rule

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76 CHAPTER 7 SECTION 2

Divisions Develop (pages 223–224)

What groups called for different kinds of changes?In the fall of 1791, the assembly drew up a newconstitution. It took away most of the king’s power.The assembly then turned over its power to a newassembly, the Legislative Assembly.

This new assembly soon divided into groups.Radicals wanted sweeping changes in the way gov-ernment was run. Moderates wanted some changesin government, but not as many as the radicals.Conservatives upheld the idea of a limited monar-chy and wanted few changes in government.

There were groups outside the LegislativeAssembly who wanted to influence the govern-ment, too. One group wanted an end to revolu-tionary changes. This group included the émigrés,nobles and others who had fled France during theuprisings. Another group wanted even greaterchanges. This group included the sans-culottes.These wage-earners and small shopkeepers wanteda greater voice in government.

2. In what ways did the émigrés and sans-culotteshave opposite goals?

War and Execution(pages 224–226)

What caused the French peopleto take extreme measures?At the same time, France faced serious trouble onits borders. Kings in other countries feared thatrevolution would spread to their lands. They want-ed to use force to restore control of France toLouis XVI. Soon foreign soldiers were marching

toward Paris. Many people thought that the kingand queen were ready to help the enemy. AngryFrench citizens imprisoned them. Many nobleswere killed in other mob actions.

The government took strong steps to meet thedanger from foreign troops. It took away all theking’s powers. In 1792, the National Convention—another new government—was formed. Jacobins,members of a radical political club, soon took con-trol of this new government. They declared Louis acommon citizen. He was then tried for treason andconvicted. Like many others, the king was behead-ed by a machine called the guillotine. TheNational Convention also ordered thousands ofFrench people into the army.

3. What happened to the king?

The Terror Grips France; End of the Terror (pages 226–228)

What was the Reign of Terror?Maximilien Robespierre became leader ofFrance. He headed the Committee of PublicSafety. It tried and put to death “enemies of theRevolution.” Thousands were killed. Robespierre’srule, which began in 1793, was called the Reign ofTerror. It ended in July 1794, when Robespierrehimself was put to death.

The French people were tired of the killing andthe unrest. They wanted a return to order.Moderate leaders drafted a new, less revolutionaryplan of government.

4. Where did the Reign of Terror lead?

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CHAPTER 7 FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON 77

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 7 Section 3 (pages 229–233)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the Revolution’sextremes, including the Reign of Terror.

In this section, you will learn how Napoleon grabbedpower and brought order to France.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on Napoleon’schanging power.

TERMS AND NAMES

Napoleon Bonaparte Military leaderwho seized power in Francecoup d’état A sudden takeover of agovernmentplebiscite Vote by the peoplelycée Government-run public schoolconcordat AgreementNapoleonic Code Complete set oflaws set up by Napoleon thateliminated many injusticesBattle of Trafalgar British defeat ofNapoleon’s forces at sea

Napoleon Forges an Empire

Napoleon Seizes Power (pages 229–230)

How did Napoleon rise to power?Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769 on theMediterranean island of Corsica. When he wasnine years old, his parents sent him to militaryschool. In 1785, he finished school and became anartillery officer. When the revolution broke out,Napoleon joined the army of the new government.

In 1795, Napoleon led soldiers against Frenchroyalists who were attacking the NationalConvention. For this, he was thought of as the sav-ior of the French republic.

By 1799, the unsettled French government hadlost the people’s support. In a bold move,Napoleon used troops to seize control of the gov-ernment. This was a coup d’état, or a suddentakeover of power. Napoleon then assumed dicta-torial powers.1. How did Napoleon get control of the government?

1804

1799 1805

1795Napoleon leads soldiers against

French royalists.

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78 CHAPTER 7 SECTION 3

Napoleon Rules France (pages 230–231)

How did Napoleon use theRevolution’s ideas in his government?Napoleon pretended to be the rightfully electedleader of France. In 1800, a plebiscite, or vote ofthe people, was held to approve a new constitution.The people voted for it overwhelmingly, andNapoleon took power as first consul.

Napoleon made several changes that weremeant to build on the Revolution’s good ideas:

1. He made tax collection more fair and orderly. As a result, the government couldcount on a steady supply of money.

2. He removed dishonest government workers.3. He started lycées—new public schools for

ordinary citizens.4. He gave the church back some of its power.

He signed a concordat, or agreement, withthe pope. This gave him the support of theorganized church.

5. He wrote a new set of laws, called theNapoleonic Code, which gave all Frenchcitizens the same rights. However, the newlaws took away many individual rights wonduring the Revolution. For example, theylimited free speech and restored slavery inFrench colonies.

2. What changes did Napoleon make?

Napoleon Creates an Empire (pages 231–233)

What goals did Napoleon havebeyond France’s borders?Napoleon had hoped to make his empire larger inboth Europe and the New World. In 1801, he hadsent soldiers to retake the island of present-dayHaiti. Slaves in that colony had seized power dur-ing a civil war. But his troops failed. Napoleon thengave up on his New World plans. In 1803, he soldthe largest part of France’s North American land—the huge Louisiana Territory—to the UnitedStates.

Napoleon had been stopped in the Americas.So he then moved to add to his power in Europe.In 1804, he made himself emperor of France. Hetook control of the Austrian Netherlands, parts ofItaly, and Switzerland. Napoleon’s only loss duringthis time was to the British navy in the Battle ofTrafalgar. This loss kept him from conqueringBritain.

3. Where did Napoleon succeed in adding lands, and where did he fail?

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CHAPTER 7 FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON 79

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 7 Section 4 (pages 234–237)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how Napoleon built his power.

In this section, you learn why he lost it.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on mistakes Napoleon made.

Napoleon’s EmpireCollapses

Napoleon’s Costly Mistakes (pages 234–236)

What mistakes did Napoleonmake abroad?Napoleon’s own personality posed a threat to hisempire. His love of power pushed him to expandhis empire. His efforts to extend French rule led tohis empire’s collapse.

Napoleon made three costly mistakes. His firstmistake was caused by his desire to crush Britain.He wanted to hurt the British economy. So in 1806he ordered a blockade. This was an effort to stop

all trade between Britain and the other Europeannations. Napoleon called this policy theContinental System. It was supposed to makecontinental Europe more self-sufficient.

The effort failed because some Europeanssecretly brought in British goods. At the same time,the British put their own blockade around Europe.Because the British navy was so strong, it workedwell. Soon the French economy, along with otherson the European continent, weakened.

Napoleon’s second mistake was to make hisbrother king of Spain in 1808. The Spanish peoplewere loyal to their own king. With help from

Napoleon’s Empire Collapses

Blockade of Britain fails.

TERMS AND NAMESblockade Forced closing of portsContinental System Napoleon’spolicy of preventing trade andcommunication between GreatBritain and other European nationsguerrilla Spanish peasant fighterPeninsular War War that Napoleonfought in Spainscorched-earth policy Policy ofburning fields and slaughteringlivestock so that enemy troops would find nothing to eatWaterloo Battle in Belgium that was Napoleon’s final defeatHundred Days Napoleon’s last bid for power, which ended at Waterloo

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80 CHAPTER 7 SECTION 4

Britain, bands of peasant fighters called guerrillasfought Napoleon for five years. Napoleon lost300,000 troops during this Peninsular War. (Thewar gets its name from the Iberian Peninsula onwhich Spain is located.)

Napoleon’s third mistake was perhaps his worst.In 1812, he tried to conquer Russia, far to the east.He entered Russia with more than 400,000 sol-diers. As the Russians retreated, however, they fol-lowed a scorched-earth policy. They burnedtheir fields and killed their livestock so Napoleon’sarmies could not eat what they left behind.

Although the French got as far as Moscow, win-ter was coming. Napoleon was forced to order hissoldiers to head back. On the way home, bittercold, hunger, and Russian attacks killed thousands.Thousands more deserted. By the time Napoleon’sarmy left Russian territory, only 10,000 of his soldiers were able to fight.

1. What happened to Napoleon in Russia?

Napoleon’s Downfall (pages 236–237)

What other defeats did Napoleon suffer?Other leaders saw that Napoleon was now weaker.Britain, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Austriajoined forces and attacked France. Napoleon wasdefeated at the Battle of Leipzig, in Germany, in1813. In 1814, Napoleon gave up his throne andwas exiled, or sent away, to the tiny island of Elbaoff the Italian coast.

Louis XVIII took the throne in Paris. But hequickly became unpopular. The peasants fearedthe new king would undo the land reforms of theRevolution.

News of Louis XVIII’s trouble was all Napoleonneeded to try to regain his empire. In March 1815,he escaped from Elba and boldly returned toFrance. He took power and raised another army.

The rest of the European powers raised armiesto fight against Napoleon. Led by the Duke ofWellington, they defeated Napoleon in his finalbattle near a Belgian town called Waterloo. Thisdefeat ended Napoleon’s last attempt at power,which was called the Hundred Days. He was thensent to the far-off island of St. Helena in the southern Atlantic Ocean. He died there in 1821.

2. What was Napoleon’s last attempt at power, andwhere did it end?

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CHAPTER 7 FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON 81

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 7 Section 5 (pages 238–241)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how Napoleon’s empire collapsed.

In this section, you will learn how the rest of Europe reacted to both the French Revolution and Napoleon’s rise and fall.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the ways that lead-ers and people of other nations were affected by the ideasand results of the French Revolution.

TERMS AND NAMESCongress of Vienna Meetings inVienna for the purpose of restoringorder to EuropeKlemens von Metternich Key leaderat the Congress of Viennabalance of power Condition in whichno one country becomes a threat tothe otherlegitimacy Bringing back to powerthe kings that Napoleon had drivenoutHoly Alliance League formed byRussia, Austria, and PrussiaConcert of Europe Series of alliancesto help prevent revolution

The Congress ofVienna

Metternich’s Plans for Europe (pages 238–239)

What was the Congress of Vienna?In 1814, leaders of many nations met to draw up apeace plan for Europe. This series of meetings wascalled the Congress of Vienna. The most impor-tant person at the Congress of Vienna was the for-eign minister of Austria, Klemens vonMetternich. He shaped the peace conditions thatwere finally accepted.

Metternich had three goals at the congress.First, he wanted to make sure that the Frenchwould not attack another country again. Second, hewanted a balance of power in which no onenation was strong enough to threaten othernations. Third, he wanted legitimacy. This meantrestoring monarchs to the thrones they had beforeNapoleon’s conquests. The other leaders agreedwith Metternich’s ideas.

Metternich achieved his first goal when thecongress strengthened the small nations that

Effects of the French Revolution and Napoleon’s Rule on Europe

Congress of Vienna held

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82 CHAPTER 7 SECTION 5

surrounded France. Meanwhile, France was notpunished too severely. It remained independentand kept some overseas possessions. This helpedachieve Metternich’s second goal to create a balance of power.

The congress also worked to fulfill Metternich’sthird goal. Many rulers were returned to power instates throughout Europe, including France.

The Congress of Vienna created very successfulpeace agreements. None of the great powersfought against one another 40 years. Some did notfight in a war for the rest of the century.

1. What three goals did Metternich have?

Political Changes BeyondVienna (pages 239–241)

How did European leadersrespond to the effects of theFrench Revolution?Many European rulers were nervous about theeffects of the French Revolution. In 1815, CzarAlexander, Emperor Francis I of Austria, and KingFrederick William III of Prussia formed the HolyAlliance. Other alliances created by Metternich

were called the Concert of Europe. The idea ofthese alliances was for nations to help one anotherif revolution came.

Across Europe, conservatives held control ofEuropean governments. Conservatives were people who opposed the ideals of the FrenchRevolution. They also usually supported the rightsand powers of royalty. They did not encourage indi-vidual liberties. They did not want any calls forequal rights.

But many other people still believed in theideals of the French Revolution. They thought thatall people should be equal and share in power.Later they would again fight for these rights.

People in the Americas also felt the desire forfreedom. Spanish colonies in the Americas revolt-ed against the restored Spanish king. Manycolonies won independence from Spain. Nationalfeeling grew in Europe, too. Soon people in areassuch as Italy, Germany, and Greece would rebeland form new nations. The French Revolution hadchanged the politics of Europe and beyond.

2. What happened to ideas about freedom and independence?

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CHAPTER 8 NATIONALIST REVOLUTIONS SWEEP THE WEST 85

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 8 Section 1 (pages 247–252)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about revolution and theCongress of Vienna.

In this section, you will learn how Latin American countriesgot their independence.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on when each country got its independence.

Latin American PeoplesWin Independence

Colonial Society Divided (pages 247–248)

What classes existed in LatinAmerican society?In Latin America, society was divided into six class-es of people. Peninsulares—those born in Spain—were at the top. Next were creoles, or Spaniardswho had been born in Latin America. Below themwere mestizos. Mestizos had mixed European andIndian ancestry. Next were mulattos, with mixedEuropean and African ancestry, and then Africans.At the bottom were Indians.

1. Which groups of society were of European ancestry?

Revolutions in the Americas(page 248)

Where in Latin America was independence first declared?In the early 1800s, colonial peoples in LatinAmerica fought for independence. The Frenchcolony of Saint Domingue was the first LatinAmerican colony to fight for independence.

Almost all of the people who lived in theFrench colony were slaves of African origin. In1791, about 100,000 of them rose in revolt.Toussaint L’Ouverture, a former slave, becametheir leader. In 1802 Napoleon sent troops to theisland to end the rebellion. They failed. In 1804,the colony declared its independence as Haiti.

2. How did Haiti become independent?

1818 1822

1816 1821

1804Haiti declares its independence

TERMS AND NAMESpeninsulares Latin Americans bornin Spaincreoles Spaniards born in LatinAmericamulattos Africans or people of mixedEuropean and African ancestrySimón Bolívar Leader of Venezuelanindependence movementJosé de San Martín Leader whohelped win independence for Chileand ArgentinaMiguel Hidalgo Priest who beganthe revolt against Spanish rule inMexicoJosé Morelos Leader of the Mexicanrevolt after Hidalgo was defeated

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Creoles Lead Independence (pages 248–250)

Why did Creoles want independence?Creoles felt that they were not treated fairly. Thisbad feeling boiled over when Napoleon overthrewthe king of Spain and named his own brother asking. Creoles in Latin America had no loyalty to thenew king. They revolted. Even after the old kingwas restored, they did not give up their fight forfreedom.

Two leaders pushed much of South America toindependence. Simón Bolívar was a writer, fight-er, and political thinker. He survived defeats andexile to help win independence for Venezuela in1821. José de San Martín helped win independ-ence for Argentina in 1816 and Chile in 1818.Bolívar led their combined armies to a great victo-ry in 1824. This victory gained independence for allthe Spanish colonies.

3. Which two great leaders led the fights forindependence in Venezuela, Chile, and Argentina?

Mexico Ends Spanish Rule;Brazil’s Royal Liberator (pages 251–252)

How did Mexico and Brazilachieve independence?In Mexico, mestizos and Indians led the fight forindependence. In 1810, Miguel Hidalgo, a villagepriest, called for a revolt against Spanish rule.Creoles united with the Spanish government to putdown this revolt by the lower classes.

Hidalgo lost, but Padre José María Morelostook over leadership of the rebels. Fighting contin-ued until 1815, when the creoles won.

After a revolution in Spain put a new govern-ment to power, the creoles joined with the othergroups fighting for independence. In 1821, Mexicowon its independence. In 1823, the region ofCentral America separated itself from Mexico.

In Brazil, 8,000 creoles signed a paper askingthe son of Portugal’s king to rule an independentBrazil. He agreed. Brazil became free that yearthrough a bloodless revolt.

4. How were the drives for independence in Mexico and Brazil different?

SkillbuilderUse the chart above to answer these questions.

1. Comparing What were the largest and smallest groups in society?

2. Comparing How many more Indians were in Spanish society than Africans?

The Divisions in Spanish Colonial Society, 1789

Mulattos (7.6%) 1,072,000

Indians (55.8%) 7,860,000

Mestizos (7.3%) 1,034,000

Africans (6.4%) 902,000

Peninsulares and Creoles (22.9%)3,223,000

EUROPEANS {

Source: Colonial Spanish America, by Leslie Bethell

Total 14,091,000

86 CHAPTER 8 SECTION 1

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CHAPTER 8 NATIONALIST REVOLUTIONS SWEEP THE WEST 87

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 8 Section 2 (pages 253–257)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about Latin Americanindependence movements.

In this section, you will learn about revolutions in Europe.

AS YOU READUse the web below to show changes that occurred inEurope at this time.

TERMS AND NAMESconservative People who supportedthe monarchyliberal People who wanted to givemore power to elected legislaturesradical People who wanted to endthe rule by kings and give full votingrights to all peoplenationalism Belief that a person’sloyalty belongs to the nation itselfinstead of to the nation’s rulernation-state Country with its ownindependent governmentthe Balkans Region including all orpart of present-day Greece, Albania,Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, andformer YugoslaviaLouis-Napoleon Winner of thepresidential election in France in1848; later emperorAlexander II Ruler of Russia whofreed the serfs

Europe FacesRevolutions

Clash of Philosophies;Nationalism Develops (pages 253–255)

What forces and peoples struggled for power?There was a power struggle in Europe in the firsthalf of the 1800s. Three forces were involved.Conservatives wanted to continue to support thekings who had ruled these lands for many cen-turies. These were nobles and other people whoowned large amounts of property. Liberals want-ed to give more power to elected legislatures. Theywere typically middle-class merchants and businesspeople. They wanted to limit voting rights to peo-ple who were educated and owned property.Radicals wanted the end of rule by kings and fullvoting rights for all people.

At the same time, another movement arose inEurope—nationalism. This was the belief that aperson’s loyalty should go not to the country’s rulerbut to the nation itself. When the nation also had itsown independent government, it became a nation-state. Nationalists thought that people with a com-mon language and culture were a nation. And theyhad the right to their own government. These ideasgrew out of the French Revolution.

1. What different goals did conservatives, liberals, and radicals have?

GreeceWins self -rule

from the Ottomans

Russia

Changes inEurope

France

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88 CHAPTER 8 SECTION 2

Nationalists ChallengeConservative Power (pages 255–256)

What changes were occurring inWestern Europe?The first people to win self-rule during this periodwere the Greeks. Greece had been part of theOttoman Empire for centuries. The Ottomans con-trolled most of the Balkans. That region includesmost of modern Greece, Albania, Bulgaria,Romania, Turkey, and the former Yugoslavia. In1821, the Greeks revolted against Turkish rule. TheGreeks won their independence by 1830.

Other revolts broke out in other parts ofEurope. In 1830, the Belgians declared their inde-pendence from rule by the Dutch. Nationalistsbegan a long struggle to unify all of Italy. The Polesrevolted against Russian rule. Conservatives man-aged to put down these rebellions. However, newones broke out again in 1848 among Hungariansand Czechs. Once again, they were put downforcibly.

2. What groups challenged conservative rule?

Radicals Change France (page 256)

Why did French radicals lose?Events differed in France. Riots in 1830 forced theking to flee, and a new king was put in his place.Another revolt broke out in 1848. The king wasoverthrown and a republic established. However,the radicals who had won this victory began argu-ing. They differed over how much France shouldbe changed. Some wanted only political changes.Others wanted social and economic changes thatwould help the poor.

When these forces began to fight in the streets,the French gave up on the radical program. Theyintroduced a new government. It had a legislature

and a strong president. The new president wasLouis-Napoleon, Napoleon Bonaparte’s nephew.He later named himself emperor of France. Hebuilt railroads and helped industry. The economygot better and more people had jobs.

3. What did Louis-Napoleon accomplish for France?

Reform in Russia (pages 256–257)

How did Alexander II changeRussia?In the early 1800s, Russia still did not have anindustrial economy. The biggest problem was thatserfdom still existed there. Peasants were bound tothe nobles whose land they worked. Russia’s rulerswere reluctant to free the serfs, though. Theyfeared they would lose the support of the nobles.

A new ruler of Russia, Alexander II, decidedto free the serfs. Though it seemed bold,Alexander’s move went only part way. Nobles kepthalf their land and were paid for the other half thatwent to the peasants. The former serfs were notgiven the land. They had to pay for it. This debtkept them still tied to the land. The czar’s efforts tomake changes ended when he was assassinated in1881. Alexander III, the new czar, brought backtight control over the country. He also moved tomake the economy more industrial.

4. What major reform was made in Russia at this time?

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CHAPTER 8 NATIONALIST REVOLUTIONS SWEEP THE WEST 89

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 8 Section 3 (pages 258–263)TERMS AND NAMESRussification A policy of forcingRussian culture on ethnic groups inthe Russian EmpireCamillo di Cavour Prime ministerwho unified northern ItalyGiuseppe Garibaldi Leader of theRed Shirts who won control overparts of southern ItalyOtto von Bismarck Leader whoworked to expand PrussiaJunker Wealthy Germanlandholdersrealpolitik Tough, practical politicskaiser Emperor

NationalismCase Study: Italy and Germany

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about revolutions and reform inwestern Europe.

In this section, you will learn about nationalism.

AS YOU READUse a chart like the one below to take notes on the effectsof nationalism.

Nationalism: A Force for Unityor Disunity (pages 258–259)

What is nationalism?Nationalists thought that many factors linked peopleto one another. First was nationality, or a commonethnic ancestry. Shared language, culture, history,and religion were also seen as ties that connectedpeople. People sharing these traits were thought tohave the right to a land they could call their own.Groups with their own government were callednation-states.

Leaders began to see that this feeling could be apowerful force for uniting a people. The FrenchRevolution was a prime example of this. However,

nationalism could also be a force to rip apartempires. This happened in three empires in Europe.

1. What shared characteristics can unite people andcreate a strong national feeling?

Nationalism Shakes AgingEmpires (page 259)

Why did nationalism divide empires?Feelings of nationalism threatened to break apartthree aging empires. The Austrian Empire was

Austrian Empire

Divided Empires Unified Nations

Effects ofNationalism

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90 CHAPTER 8 SECTION 3

3. Who helped unify Italy?

Bismarck Unites Germany; A Shift in Power (page 263)

How was Germany united?Germany had also been divided into many differentstates for many centuries. Since 1815, 39 states hadjoined in a league called the German Confederation.Prussia and Austria-Hungary controlled this group.Over time, Prussia rose to become more powerful.Leading this move was prime minister Otto vonBismarck. He was supported by wealthy landown-ers called Junkers. Bismarck was a master ofrealpolitik—tough power politics.

Bismarck worked to create a new confedera-tion of German states. Prussia controlled it. To winthe loyalty of German areas in the south, he pur-posefully angered a weak France so that it woulddeclare war on Prussia. Prussia won the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. The war with France gave thesouthern German states a nationalistic feeling. Theyjoined the other states in naming the king of Prussiaas emperor, or kaiser, of a strong united Germany.

These events changed the balance of power inEurope. Germany and Britain were the strongestpowers, followed by France. Austria, Russia, andItaly were all even weaker.

4. What was the result of the defeat of France and theuniting of Germany?

SkillbuilderUse the chart to answer the questions.

1. CategorizingWhich type of nationalismmovement occurred in theUnited States?

2. Drawing ConclusionsWhich type of nationalist movement is a force for dis-unity?

Types of Nationalist Movements

Type Characteristics Examples

Unification

Separation

State-building

• Mergers of politically divided but culturally similar lands

• Culturally distinct group resists being added to a state or tries to break away

• Culturally distinct groups form into a new state by accepting a single culture

• 19th century Germany • 19th century Italy

• Greeks in the Ottoman Empire

• French-speaking Canadians

• The United States• Turkey

forced to split in two parts—Austria and Hungary.In Russia, harsh rule and a policy calledRussification that forced other peoples to adoptRussian ways helped produce a revolution in 1917.This revolution overthrew the czar. Like the othertwo, the Ottoman Empire broke apart around thetime of World War I.

2. What three empires were torn apart by nationalism?

Cavour Unites Italy (page 260)

How did nationalism unite Italy?Italians used national feeling to build a nation, notdestroy an empire. Large parts of Italy were ruledby the kings of Austria and Spain. Nationalists triedto unite the nation in 1848. But the revolt was beat-en down. Hopes rested with the Italian king of thestate of Piedmont-Sardinia. His chief minister wasCount Camillo di Cavour. Cavour worked to expandthe king’s control over other areas of the north.

Meanwhile, Giuseppe Garibaldi led an armyof patriots that won control of southern areas.Garibaldi put the areas he conquered under con-trol of the Italian king. In 1866, the area aroundVenice was added to the king’s control. By 1870, theking completed the uniting of Italy.

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CHAPTER 8 NATIONALIST REVOLUTIONS SWEEP THE WEST 91

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 8 Section 4 (pages 264–267)

In the last section, you read how political borders changed in Europe.

In this section, you will learn about changes in the arts in Europe.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to show new movements in the arts.

TERMS AND NAMESromanticism Movement in art andideas that focused on nature and thethoughts and feelings of individualsrealism Movement in art that tried toshow life as it really wasimpressionism Style of art using lightand light-filled colors to produce an“impression”

Revolutions in the ArtsBEFORE YOU READ

The Romantic Movement (pages 264–265)

What is romanticism?In the early 1800s, the Enlightenment gradually gaveway to another movement, called romanticism.This movement in art and ideas focused on natureand on the thoughts and feelings of individuals. Gonewas the idea that reason and order were good things.Romantic thinkers valued feeling, not reason, andnature, not society. Romantic thinkers held idealizedviews of the past as simpler, better times. They val-

ued the common people. As a result, they enjoyedfolk stories, songs, and traditions. They also support-ed calls for democracy. However, not all romanticartists and thinkers supported all of these ideas.

Romantic writers had different themes. Duringthe first half of the 19th century, the Grimm broth-ers collected German folk tales. They also createda German dictionary and worked on German gram-mar. These works celebrated being German longbefore there was a united German nation. Otherwriters wrote about strong individuals. Some wroteabout beauty and nature.

MOVEMENT DEF IN IT ION AUTHORS /COMPOSERS

romanticism Focus on nature; focus on William Wordsworth, Beethoven

thoughts and feelings

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92 CHAPTER 8 SECTION 4

Germany produced one of the greatest earlyRomantic writers. Johann Wolfgang von Goethewrote The Sorrows of Young Werther. It was a storyabout a young man who kills himself after he fallsin love with a married woman.

British Romantic poets William Wordsworthand Samuel Taylor Coleridge honored nature asthe source of truth and beauty. A type of horrorstory called a Gothic novel became popular. Novelssuch as Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein were talesabout good and evil.

Romanticism was important in music as well.Composers wrote music to appeal to the hearts andsouls of listeners. Ludwig van Beethoven, aGerman, was the foremost of these composers.Romanticism made music a popular art form.

1. What did Romantic thinkers and artists value?

The Shift to Realism in the Arts(pages 266–267)

What is realism?In the middle 1800s, the grim realities of industri-al life made the dreams of romanticism seem silly.A new movement arose—realism. Artists andwriters tried to show life as it really was. They usedtheir art to protest unfair social conditions. Frenchwriter Emile Zola’s books revealed harsh working

conditions for the poor. They led to new lawsaimed at helping those people. In England,Charles Dickens wrote many novels that showedhow poor people suffered in the new industrialeconomy.

A new device, the camera, was developed inthis period. Photographers used cameras to cap-ture realistic images on film.

2. For what purposes did writers use realism?

Impressionists React AgainstRealism (page 267)

What is impressionism?In the 1860s, Parisian painters reacted against therealistic style. This new art style—impression-ism—used light and light-filled colors to producean impression of a subject or moment in time.Impressionist artists like Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir glorified the delights of the life ofthe rising middle class in their paintings.Composers created music that set a mood by usingdifferent music structures, instruments, or patterns.

3. What was the focus of Impressionist art and music?

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CHAPTER 9 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 95

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 9 Section 1 (pages 253–257)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about romanticism and realism in the arts.

In this section, you will read about the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.

AS YOU READUse this chart to take notes on important developmentsand conditions that led to industrialization.

TERMS AND NAMESIndustrial Revolution Great increasein machine production that began inEngland in the 18th centuryenclosure Large closed-in field forfarmingcrop rotation Planting a differentcrop in a different field each yearindustrialization Process ofdeveloping machine production ofgoodsfactors of production Conditionsneeded to produce goods andservices factory Building where goods aremadeentrepreneur Person who organizes,manages, and takes on the financialrisk of a business enterprise

The Beginnings ofIndustrialization

The Industrial RevolutionBegins (pages 253–254)

How did the Industrial Revolution begin?The Industrial Revolution was the great increasein production that began in England during the18th century. Before the Industrial Revolution,people made most goods by hand. By the middle ofthe 1700s, more and more goods were made bymachines.

The Industrial Revolution began with an agri-cultural revolution. In the early 1700s, largelandowners in Britain bought much of the land thathad been owned by poorer farmers. The landown-

ers collected these lands into large fields closed-inby fences or hedges. These fields were calledenclosures. Many of the poor farmers who losttheir lands became tenant farmers. Others gave upfarming and moved to the cities.

New farm methods made farmers more pro-ductive. For example, Jethro Tull invented a seeddrill that made planting more efficient. Farmersalso practiced crop rotation. Crop rotation is thepractice of planting a different crop in a differentfield each year.

The increase in farm output made more foodavailable. People enjoyed better diets. The popula-tion of Britain grew. Fewer farmers were needed togrow food. More people began to make goods

Industrialization

AgricultualRevolution

Increased population

Factors ofProduction

Inventions

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other than food. The growth in the number of peo-ple in cities to work in factories helped create theIndustrial Revolution.

For several reasons, Britain was the first coun-try to industrialize. Industrialization is theprocess of developing machine production ofgoods.

Great Britain had all the resources needed forindustrialization. These resources included coal,water, iron ore, rivers, harbors, and banks. Britainalso had all the factors of production that theIndustrial Revolution required. These factors ofproduction included land, labor (workers), andcapital (wealth).

1. Why was Britain the first country to industrialize?

Inventions Spur TechnologicalAdvances (pages 255–257)

What inventions helped change business?The Industrial Revolution began in the textileindustry. Several new inventions helped businessesmake cloth and clothing more quickly. RichardArkwright invented the water frame in 1769. Itused water power to run spinning machines thatmade yarn. In 1779, Samuel Compton invented thespinning mule that made better thread. In 1787,Edmund Cartwright developed the power loom.The power loom was a machine that sped up thecloth-making process.

These new inventions were large and expensivemachines. Business owners built large, water-pow-ered factories to house and run these machines.These factories were built near rivers becausethese machines needed water-power to run them.

The invention of the steam engine in 1705brought in a new source of power. The steamengine used fire to heat water and produce steam.The power of the steram drove the engine.Eventually steam-driven engines were used to runfactories.

At the same time, improvements were beingmade in transportation. Robert Fulton, anAmerican, invented the first steam-driven boat.This invention allowed people to send goods morequickly over rivers and canals.

Starting in the 1820s, steam brought a newburst of industrial growth. George Stephenson, aBritish engineer, set up the world’s first railroadline. It used a steam-driven locomotive. Soon, rail-roads were being built all over Britain.

The railroad boom helped business ownersmove their goods to market more quickly. It creat-ed thousands of new jobs in several different indus-tries. The railroad had a deep effect on British soci-ety. For instance, people could now travel through-out the country more quickly.

2. What effects did the invention of the steam engine have?

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CHAPTER 9 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 97

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 9 Section 2 (pages 289–294)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how the Industrial Revolution began.

In this section, you will read about some of its effects.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to record the effects of industrialization.

TERMS AND NAMESurbanization City building and themovement of people to citiesmiddle class A social class of skilledworkers, professionals, businesspeople, and wealthy farmers

IndustrializationCase Study: Manchester

Industrialization Changes Life(pages 289–291)

How did industrialization changepeople’s ways of life?Industrialization brought many changes to the Britishpeople. More people could use coal to heat theirhomes, eat better food, and wear better clothing.

Another change was urbanization—city build-ing and the movement of people to cities. For cen-turies, most people in Europe had lived in thecountry. By the 1800s, more and more people livedin cities, where they had come to find jobs.

Living conditions were bad in crowded cities.Many people could not find good housing, schools,

or police protection. Filth, garbage, and sicknesswere part of life in the slums. A person in a citycould expect to live 17 years. In the countryside, aperson could expect to live 38 years.

Working conditions were also bad. The averageworker spent 14 hours a day on the job, 6 days aweek. Many workers were killed or seriouslyinjured in accidents.

1. What were major changes in living conditions andworking conditions?

Negative effects Positive effects

Industrialization

Crowded cities

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98 CHAPTER 9 SECTION 2

Class Tensions Grow; Positive Effects of the Industrial Revolution (pages 291–292)

Who were the members of themiddle class?Some people’s lives were improved in the new econ-omy. The Industrial Revolution created new wealthfor the middle class, which included skilled work-ers, professionals, business people, and wealthyfarmers. People in the middle class enjoyed comfort-able lives in pleasant homes. This class began to growin size. Some people grew wealthier than the nobleswho had been in control for many centuries.

The Industrial Revolution had many goodeffects. It created wealth. It created jobs for work-ers and over time helped many of them live betterlives. It produced better diets, better housing, andbetter clothing at lower prices.

2. What were three positive effects of industrialization?

The Mills of Manchester (pages 292–294)

What changes occurred in Manchester?The English city of Manchester is a good exampleof how industrialization changed society. Rapidgrowth made the city crowded and filthy. The fac-tory owners risked their money and worked longhours to make their businesses grow. In return,they enjoyed huge profits and built huge houses.The workers also worked long hours, but had fewbenefits. Many of these workers were children,some only six years old. The British governmentdid not limit the use of children as workers until 1819.

The large amount of industry in Manchestercaused environmental problems. Coal smoke andcloth dyes from the factories polluted the air and water. Yet, Manchester also created many jobs,a variety of consumer goods, and great wealth.

3. Why is Manchester a good example of how industrialization changed cities?

SkillbuilderUse the graph to answer these questions.

1. How many years does this data cover?

2. What was the rate of growth inBirmingham from 1700 to 1900?

The Growth of Cities, 1700–1900

1

2

3

Popu

lati

on(i

n m

illio

ns)

Birmingham Berlin Paris

City Population in 1700 City Population in 1900

Vienna

1.9

mill

ion

2.7

mill

ion

1.7

mill

ion

Sources: European Historical Statistics, 1750–1975; Eric Hopkins, The Rise of the Manufacturing Town

15,0

00

110,

000

60,0

00

500,

000

500,

000

0

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CHAPTER 9 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 99

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 9 Section 3 (pages 295–299)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about some of the effects of industrialization.

In this section, you will see how industrialization spread to other nations.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on how, where, and why industrialization began in other countries.

TERMS AND NAMESstock Right of ownership in acompany called a corporationcorporation Business owned bystockholders who share in its profitsbut are not responsible for its debts

IndustrializationSpreads

Industrial Development in theUnited States (pages 295–297)

How did industrialization begin in the United States?

Other countries began to industrialize afterGreat Britain. The United States was one of thefirst. Like Britain, the United States had a greatdeal of coal and water to create power. There wasalso plenty of iron. In addition, the immigrants thatcame to the United States created a large supply of workers.

The United States also benefited from conflictwith Britain. During the War of 1812, Britainstopped shipping goods to the United States. As aresult, American industries began to make many ofthe goods that Americans wanted.

In the United States, industrialization began inthe textile industry. In 1789, Samuel Slater, aBritish worker, brought the secret of Britain’s tex-tile machines to North America. Slater built amachine to spin thread.

In 1813, a group of Massachusetts investorsbuilt textile factories in Waltham, Massachusetts.Just a few years later they built even more factories

Spread ofIndustrialization

BelgiumUnited States

Begins in Northeast

in textile industry

Germany France

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100 CHAPTER 9 SECTION 3

in the Massachusetts town of Lowell. Thousands ofworkers, mostly young girls, came to these towns towork in the factories.

American industry first grew in the Northeast.In the last decades of the 1800s, industrial growthspread to other areas of the nation. This boom wasfueled by large supplies of coal, oil, and iron. Newinventions, including the electric light, also helped.As in Britain, railroad building was also a big partof American industrial growth.

Businesses needed huge sums of money to dobig projects. To raise money, companies sold stock.Stocks are shares of ownership in a company. Allthose who held stock were part owners of the com-pany. This form of business organization is called acorporation.

1. How did industrialization begin in the United States?

Continental EuropeIndustrializes (pages 297–298)

Where did industrialization beginin Continental Europe?Industrial growth also spread from England to theEuropean continent. Belgium was the first toindustrialize. It was rich in iron and coal and hadgood waterways.

Germany was divided politically until the late1800s. As a result, it did not develop much indus-try at first. However, the Ruhr Valley in WesternGermany was rich in coal. The Ruhr Valley eventu-ally became a leading industrial region.

Across Europe, small areas began to change tothe new industries. Industrial growth did not occurin France until after 1830. It was helped by the

government’s construction of a large network ofrailroads. Some countries, such as Austria-Hungaryand Spain, faced transportation problems that heldthem back from industrializing.

2. Which nations industrialized first, and why?

The Impact of Industrialization(page 299)

How did industrialization changethe world?The Industrial Revolution changed the world.Countries that industrialized gained more wealthand power than those that did not. The countries ofEurope soon began to take advantage of lands inAfrica and Asia.

The Europeans wanted to use these lands assources of raw materials for their factories.European merchants saw the people on other con-tinents as little more than markets for Europeangoods. The European nations took control of thelands in many areas of the world outside of Europe.This practice is called imperialism.

The Industrial Revolution that took place in the1700s and 1800s changed life forever in the coun-tries that industrialized. Problems caused by indus-trialization led to movements for social reform.

3. How did industrialization lead to imperialism?

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CHAPTER 9 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 101

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 9 Section 4 (pages 300–307)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how industrialization spread todifferent nations.

In this section, you will learn about new ideas and reforms.

AS YOU READFill in the web below with the major ideas and changesyou read about.

TERMS AND NAMESlaissez faire Economic theory thatargues that governments should notinterfere with business affairsAdam Smith Philosopher whodefended laissez faire economicscapitalism Economic system inwhich people invest money to make aprofitutilitarianism Belief that an idea isonly as good as it is usefulsocialism Belief that businessesshould be owned by society as awholeKarl Marx Economic thinker whowrote about a radical form ofsocialismcommunism Form of socialism inwhich all production is owned by thepeopleunion Organized groups of workersthat bargain with business owners toget better pay and working conditionsstrike Organized refusal to work

Reforming theIndustrial World

The Philosophers ofIndustrialization (pages 300–301)

What is capitalism?Industrialization led to new ways of thinking aboutsociety. Some economists thought that the govern-ment should leave business owners alone. Theirview is called laissez faire.

Adam Smith argued that governments shouldnot put limits on business. He believed this free-dom would help a nation’s economy grow. He and others, including British economists Thomas

Malthus and David Ricardo, supported a systemcalled capitalism. In a capitalist economy, peopleinvest their money in businesses to make a profit.Smith and the others believed that society wouldbenefit over time from this system. Supporters oflaissez faire opposed laws to protect workers.

1. How does capitalism work?

New Ideas and Reforms

Laissezfaire

economics

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102 CHAPTER 9 SECTION 4

Rise of Socialism; Marxism;Radical Socialism (pages 301–304)

What is socialism?Other thinkers challenged capitalist ideas. Onegroup was called the utilitarians. According to util-itarianism, an idea or practice is good only if it isuseful. The utilitarians thought it was unfair thatworkers should work so hard for such little pay andlive in such poor conditions. They thought the gov-ernment should work to end great differences inwealth among people.

Some thinkers wanted society as a whole to ownbusinesses. This way a few people would not growwealthy at the expense of everyone else. Instead,all people would enjoy the benefits of increasedproduction. This view—called socialism—grewout of a belief in progress and a concern for justiceand fairness.

A German thinker named Karl Marx proposeda form of socialism that became known as Marxism.He said that factory owners and workers wouldstruggle for power. Over time, he said, the capital-ist system would destroy itself. The great mass ofworkers would rebel against the wealthy few.

Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto. Itdescribed communism, a form of socialism inwhich production is controlled by the people. Inthe early 1900s, these ideas would bring revolution.

2. How are capitalism and socialism different?

Labor Unions and Reform Laws(pages 304–305)

How did workers take action to improve their lives?While thinkers discussed these different ideas,workers fought to improve their lives. Many work-ers joined unions. A union is a group of workersthat tries to bargain with employers for better payand better working conditions.

When employers resisted these efforts, theworkers went on strike, or refused to work. Britishand American workers struggled for a long time towin the right to form unions. By the late 1800s,workers in both countries had made someprogress.

The British Parliament and reformers in theUnited States also tried to fix other social prob-lems. Britain passed laws to limit how much workwomen and children could do. Groups in theUnited States pushed for similar laws.

3. How did both the government and workers themselves try to improve workers’ lives?

The Reform Movement Spreads(pages 305–307)

What other reforms were takingplace at this time?Another major reform movement of the 1800s wasthe effort to abolish slavery. The British Parliamentended the slave trade in 1807. It then abolishedslavery throughout British territories in 1833.

Slavery was finally abolished in the UnitedStates in 1865, after the Civil War. Spain endedslavery in Puerto Rico in 1873 and in Cuba in 1886.In 1888 Brazil became the last country to banslavery.

Women were active in many reform move-ments. As they fought for the end of slavery, manywomen began to fight for equal rights for women.The movement for equality began in the UnitedStates in 1848. In 1888, women from around theworld formed a group dedicated to this cause.

Reformers took on other projects as well. Somepushed for—and won—improved education.Others tried to improve conditions in prisons.

4. Name two major reform movements of the 1800s.

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CHAPTER 10 AN AGE OF DEMOCRACY AND PROGRESS 105

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 10 Section 1 (pages 313–316)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the IndustrialRevolution.

In this section, you will read about democratic reforms inGreat Britain and France.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on key events inBritain and France.

Democratic Reformand Activism

Britain Enacts Reforms (pages 313–314)

How did Britain become more democratic?Since the 1600s, Britain’s government had been aconstitutional monarchy. A king or queen ruled thecountry, but the elected legislature—Parliament—held the real power.

Still, very few people could vote for members ofParliament. Only men who owned property—about five percent of the population—had the rightto vote. That situation changed in the 1800s. TheReform Bill of 1832 was the first step. Middle-class

people across England protested the fact that theycould not vote. Worried by revolutions sweepingEurope, Parliament passed the Reform Bill. Thislaw gave suffrage, the right to vote, to many in themiddle class.

Those who still could not vote began theChartist Movement. They wanted the vote andother rights. They presented their demands toParliament in The People’s Charter of 1838.Although they did not get what they wanted at first,over time their demands became law.

The leader of England during all these changeswas Queen Victoria. She was queen for 64 years.

TERMS AND NAMESsuffrage Right to voteChartist movement Movement inEngland to give the right to vote tomore people and to obtain otherrightsQueen Victoria Leader of Britainwhen democratic changes wereoccurringThird Republic Government formedin France after Napoleon III wasexiledDreyfus affair Events surroundingthe framing of a Jewish officer in theFrench armyanti-Semitism Prejudice againstJewsZionism Movement to establish aseparate homeland in Palestine forthe Jews

1890

1875 1903

1832

Britain: Reform Bill of 1832 givesmore people the right to vote.

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106 CHAPTER 10 SECTION 1

She performed her duties wisely and capably, butduring her reign Parliament gained more power.The era that she was queen is known as theVictorian Age.

1. How did power shift in Britain in the 1800s?

Women Get the Vote (page 315)

How did women campaign for theright to vote?By 1890, a few countries had given the right to voteto all men. But none gave the right to vote to allwomen. In the 1800s, women in the United Statesand Britain campaigned peacefully for the vote.

In 1903, a group called the Women’s Social andPolitical Union began a stronger campaign forwomen’s suffrage in Britain. This campaign includ-ed rallies, parades, and demonstrations duringspeeches of government officials. But women inBritain and the United States did not win the rightto vote until after World War I.

2. When did women get the right to vote in Britain and the United States?

France and Democracy (pages 315–316)

What was the Dreyfus affair?The road to democracy in France was rocky. Francelost a war with Prussia. The National Assembly metto decide on a new government. Finally, in 1875, anew government—the Third Republic—wasformed. It lasted over 60 years. They were yearsmarked by fighting between many political parties.

In the 1860s, French society was divided overthe case of an army officer named Alfred Dreyfus.Dreyfus was accused of being a traitor. The chargewas made mainly because Dreyfus was a Jew. Manypeople believed the charge was true. Dreyfus wasfound guilty. The issue became known as theDreyfus affair. A few years later, evidenceshowed that Dreyfus had been framed. He waslater declared innocent.

The Dreyfus affair revealed anti-Semitism, orprejudice against Jews, in Europe. In EasternEurope, anti-Semitism was bad. The Russian gov-ernment even allowed organized attacks on Jewishvillages. From the 1880s on, many Jews fled to theUnited States. In the 1890s, a movement calledZionism began. Its goal was a separate homelandfor the Jews in Palestine.

3. Where in Europe was anti-Semitism found?

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CHAPTER 10 AN AGE OF DEMOCRACY AND PROGRESS 107

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 10 Section 2 (pages 317–321)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about democracy and prejudice in Britain, France, and other parts of Europe.

In this section, you will read about the fight for self-rule in British colonies.

AS YOU READUse the web below to show struggles for self-rule andtheir results.

TERMS AND NAMESdominion Nation in the BritishEmpire allowed to govern its owndomestic affairsMaori Polynesian people who settledin New ZealandAborigine Native people of Australiapenal colony Place where convictsare sent to serve their sentences asan alternative to prisonhome rule Local control overdomestic affairsIrish Republican Army Unofficialmilitary force seeking independence

Self-Rule for BritishColonies

Canada Struggles for Self-Rule (pages 317–318)

How was the dominion of Canada formed?Britain had colonies all over the world. Three ofthem—Canada, Australia, and New Zealand—were settled by colonists from Europe. Over time,the people in these colonies wanted to control theirown governments.

The white settlers of Canada were split into twogroups. One group included French-speakingCatholics that lived in the colony. Britain had wonCanada from France in 1763. The other group wasEnglish-speaking and mostly Protestant. The twogroups did not get along. In 1791, Britain split thecolony into two provinces. Each colony had its owngovernment.

But the French-speaking people were nothappy with British rule. After several rebellions,the British Parliament put the two provinces backtogether under one government. Other smallercolonies were added to create the Dominion ofCanada. As a dominion, Canada had the right tomake all laws concerning its own affairs. ButParliament kept the right to control Canadian rela-tions with other countries. By 1871, Canadastretched all the way from the Atlantic Ocean tothe Pacific Ocean.

1. Why does Canada today contain both French-speaking and English-speaking people?

Canada

Became a dominion after several rebellions

Australia

New Zealand

Ireland

The Struggle for Self-Rule

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108 CHAPTER 10 SECTION 2

SkillbuilderUse the pie graphs to answer these questions.

1. What percentage of the Irish emigrated at this time?

2. To what two countries did most Irish go?

Australia and New Zealand (pages 318–319)

How were Australia and NewZealand settled?New Zealand became part of the British Empire in1769. Britain claimed Australia in 1770. Australiawas a penal colony. The first settlers there wereconvicted criminals. The Aborigines, asEuropeans later called the native people ofAustralia, were nomadic. They fished and hunted.

The settlement of New Zealand went slowlybecause the British government recognized thatthe native people—the Maori—had rights to theland. By the 1840s, though, the number of Britishsettlers in New Zealand was growing.

During the 1850s, Australia and New Zealandbecame self-governing. But they stayed in the BritishEmpire. In the early 1900s they became dominions.Australia was the first country to use the secret ballotin elections. New Zealand—in 1893—was the firstcountry to give women the right to vote.

2. How were the native people of Australia and New Zealand treated differently?

The Irish Win Home Rule(pages 320–321)

Why did the British hesitate to give Ireland independence?Irish self-rule took a long time to achieve. The Irishopposed English rule from its start in the 1100s.

Religious conflict also divided the Catholic Irishand the small group of English Protestants wholived in the north.

In the 1840s, the Irish suffered a terriblefamine. Many died of starvation and disease.Others lost their land. Millions of Irish people emi-grated, or left Ireland. Most went to the UnitedStates or Britain.

In the late 1800s, some Irish pushed for com-plete independence. Most argued for homerule—the right to govern internal affairs. TheBritish government opposed this move. They wereafraid that the Catholic majority would treat harsh-ly the Protestants in the north. In 1914, Parliamentenacted a home rule bill for the southern part ofIreland. When World War I delayed its enactment,Irish nationalists rebelled. The Irish RepublicanArmy, a military force seeking independence,attacked British officials in Ireland.

Finally, Britain split Ireland in two. NorthernIreland remained part of Britain. The southernpart became independent. Violence continued inIreland off and on for decades. In 1998, the peopleof Ireland and Britain signed an agreement to solvetheir problems peacefully.

3. Why was Ireland split into two parts?

The Great Famine, 1845–1851

70% remained in Ireland, thoughmillions more Irish emigratedafter 1851

Fate of the Irish during the famine

Australia, 2.5%

Canada, 11.5%

Britain, 36%

United States, 50%

Where they emigrated to (1851)

12% died

18% emigrated

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CHAPTER 10 AN AGE OF DEMOCRACY AND PROGRESS 109

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 10 Section 3 (pages 324–327)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the struggle for self-rulein British colonies.

In this section, you will read about changes in the UnitedStates during the same time period.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on changes thatcaused the United States to change or to grow in area andnumbers.

TERMS AND NAMESmanifest destiny Belief that theUnited States would rule the landfrom the Atlantic Ocean to the PacificOceanAbraham Lincoln 16th president ofthe United Statessecede To leave the nationU.S. Civil War War fought betweenthe North and South from 1861–1865Emancipation Proclamation 1863proclamation to free the slaves in theConfederate statessegregation Separation by race

War and Expansion in the United States

Americans Move West (pages 324–325)

What was manifest destiny?The United States expanded across North Americaand fought a bloody civil war. In the early 1800s thenation grew in size. It bought a huge piece of landfrom France in the Louisiana Purchase. It won awar with Mexico in the 1840s, and gained evenmore land.

Many believed in manifest destiny—thebelief that the United States would control landfrom the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. As whitesettlers moved farther west, Native Americans suf-fered. In the 1830s, thousands of Native Americanswere forced to move from their homes in the Eastto the present state of Oklahoma.

The growth of the nation raised serious ques-tions. The Southern states used slave labor to growcrops such as cotton. People in the South hoped to

1861

1840s 1941

1830s

Thousands of Native Americansrelocated to Oklahoma.

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110 CHAPTER 10 SECTION 3

extend slavery to the Western lands. But manyNortherners believed that slavery was wrong andshould be ended.

1. What problems did the movement westward bring?

Civil War Tests Democracy (pages 325–327)

Why was the Civil War fought?The struggle over slavery led to the U.S. CivilWar. The Southern states seceded, or pulled outof, the Union. The Southerners formed their ownnation known as the Confederate States ofAmerica. War broke out after Confederate forcesfired on a Union fort in 1861. The fighting lastedfour years.

The North won the war. During the war,President Abraham Lincoln issued theEmancipation Proclamation. This proclamationdeclared that the people enslaved in theConfederate states were free. After the war, theConstitution was amended, or changed, to outlawslavery. Another change to the Constitution madeAfrican Americans citizens.

In the first few years after the war, newly freedAfrican Americans enjoyed equal rights. But whitessoon regained control of the governments of theSouthern states. They passed laws that took awaythe rights of blacks. The white governments alsoset up segregation, or separation, of blacks and

whites. African Americans have continued to fightfor equality since then.

2. What changes came about as a result of the Civil War?

The Postwar Economy(page 327)

What happened after the war?After the Civil War, the nation experienced quickindustrial growth. A sharp rise in immigration fromEurope and Asia helped cause this growth. By1914, more than 20 million people had come to theUnited States.

Many of these new citizens moved to the West.The government offered free land to people whomoved there.

In addition, Congress set aside money to builda railroad across the continent. The railroad linkedthe different regions of the nation. By 1900, nearly200,000 miles of track crossed the country. Thegrowth of the railroads helped American industrygrow.

3. What helped cause the rise in industrial growth?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 10 Section 4 (pages 328–333)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about political change in theUnited States.

In this section, you will learn about progress in science andother fields.

AS YOU READUse the web below to take notes on the changes thatoccurred during the nineteenth century.

TERMS AND NAMESassembly line Arrangement bywhich a product in a factory is movedfrom worker to worker, with eachworker completing a single step inthe taskCharles Darwin Scientist whodeveloped the theory of evolutiontheory of evolution Theory that alllife on earth developed from simplerforms of liferadioactivity Form of energyreleased as atoms decaypsychology Study of the mindmass culture Art and entertainmentappealing to a large audience

Nineteenth-CenturyProgress

Inventions Make Life Easier(pages 328–330)

How did inventions change ways of life?In the late 1800s, new inventions changed howpeople lived. Inventors around the world workedto make new machines. Thomas Edison receivedpatents on more than 1,000 inventions. Amongthem were the electric light bulb and phonograph.Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone.Guglielmo Marconi created the first radio.

There were changes in transportation, too.Henry Ford made the car affordable to ordinarypeople. He had a factory with an assembly line. Itallowed him to build cheap cars. These cars wereaffordable for ordinary people. In 1903, the Wrightbrothers flew the first motor-powered airplaneflight. Soon there was an aircraft industry.

1. What were three important inventions during this period?

CHAPTER 10 AN AGE OF DEMOCRACY AND PROGRESS 111

Nineteenth–CenturyProgress

Discovery ofradioactivity

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New Ideas in Medicine (page 330)

What new ideas appeared in medicine?Until the mid-1800s, no one knew about germs.French scientist Louis Pasteur discovered thatmicroscopic animals could live in food. Pasteurcalled these tiny creatures bacteria. Scientists suchas Joseph Lister soon realized that bacteria couldcause disease.

2. What relevance did Pasteur’s ideas have to thetreatment of disease?

New Ideas in Science (pages 331–332)

What new ideas appeared in science?English scientist Charles Darwin developed thetheory of evolution. This theory said that all lifeon earth had developed from simpler life formsover millions of years. This theory was hotly debat-ed. Many people did not accept this idea. They saidit went against the bible.

In the mid-1880s, an Austrian monk namedGregor Mendel showed that parents passed ontheir personal traits to their offspring. The scienceof genetics began.

Other scientists made new discoveries in chem-istry and physics. They found that all matter is madeof tiny particles called atoms. Marie and PierreCurie discovered radioactivity. Radioactivity is theenergy that is released when atoms decay.

3. Tell what each of the following discovered ordeveloped: Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel, Marieand Pierre Curie.

Social Sciences ExploreBehavior (page 332)

What is psychology?In the late 1800s, some thinkers began to study thehuman mind. This new social science was calledpsychology. The Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov con-ducted a series of experiments. These experimentsconvinced him that people responded to certain sit-uations because of how they were trained.

Sigmund Freud, an Austrian doctor, arguedthat a person’s actions are shaped by forces in thesubconscious mind. These views shocked many.They seemed to overturn the idea that peoplecould use their reason to build better lives.

4. What did Freud reveal about the mind?

The Rise of Mass Culture (pages 332–333)

What is mass culture?In earlier times, most art, music, and the theaterhad been of interest to only the wealthy. With therise of the middle class, a new mass culture developed.

This new mass culture appealed to a wideaudience. People went to music halls to enjoysinging and dancing. In the early 1900s, theywatched the first silent movies. People also enjoyedsporting events, both as participants and as spectators.

5. What new forms of entertainment became popular?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 11 Section 1 (pages 339–344)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about movements for democracy and self-rule.

In this section, you will learn about imperialism in Africa.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the reasons whyEuropeans created overseas empires.

The Scramble for Africa

Africa Before EuropeanDomination; Forces DrivingImperialism (pages 339–341)

Why did imperialism begin in the 1800s?In the early 1800s, Europeans controlled a fewareas along the coast of Africa. By the mid-1800s,Europeans were expanding their control to newlands. This policy is called imperialism.

There were four basic reasons for imperialism.The first reason for imperialism had to do withmoney. Europeans wanted colonies to provide rawmaterials for their factories. The Europeans alsowanted to sell their goods in their new colonies.

National pride was a second reason for imperi-alism. Some nations wanted to gain colonies toshow their national strength.

Racism was a third reason for imperialism.Racism is the belief that one race is better thanothers. Many Europeans believed that whites werebetter than other races.

Imperialism

TERMS AND NAMESimperialism Control by a strongnation over a weaker nationracism Belief that one race issuperior to othersSocial Darwinism Use of CharlesDarwin’s ideas about evolution toexplain human societiesBerlin Conference Meeting at whichEuropeans agreed on rules forcolonizing AfricaShaka Zulu chief who created alarge centralized stateBoer Dutch colonist in South AfricaBoer War War between the Britishand the Boers

EconomicSell goods to new markets

CulturalPolitical

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Racism is related to Social Darwinism. SocialDarwinism is the use of Charles Darwin’s ideasabout evolution to explain human societies. One ofDarwin’s ideas was “survival of the fittest.” Thisidea was that the fittest, or strongest, species wouldsurvive. Weak species would not survive.

People who believed in Social Darwinismargued that fit people and nations survived. Theyalso believed that weak people and nations wouldnot survive.

Christian missionaries also supported imperial-ism. They thought that European rule would endthe slave trade. The missionaries also wanted to con-vert the people of other continents to Christianity.

Europeans began to take lands in Africa forthese reasons. Technology helped the Europeanssucceed. The African peoples were divided. It washard for them to resist European advances.

1. What are four reasons for imperialism?

The Division of Africa (pages 331–342)

How did European nations claimAfrican lands?The “scramble for Africa” began in the 1880s.Diamonds were discovered in South Africa in 1867.Gold was discovered there in 1886. Europeansbecame more interested in the continent.

The European nations did not want to fightover the land. They met at the BerlinConference in 1884–85. They agreed that anynation could claim any part of Africa by telling theothers and by showing that it had control of thearea. Europeans quickly grabbed land. By 1914,only Liberia and Ethiopia were free fromEuropean control.

2. What was the purpose of the Berlin Conference?

Three Groups Clash over South Africa (pages 342–344)

What groups fought overSouth Africa?In South Africa, three groups struggled over theland. In the early 1800s, the Zulu chief Shakafought to win more land. Shaka’s successors werenot able to keep his kingdom intact. The Zulu landwas taken over by the British in 1887.

Meanwhile, the British took control of theDutch colony on the southern coast. Thousands ofDutch settlers, called Boers, moved north toescape the British. This movement is known as theGreat Trek. The Boers fought the Zulus whose landthey were entering.

At the end of the century, Boers fought a viciouswar against the British called the Boer War. TheBoers lost this war. The Boers then joined theBritish-run Union of South Africa.

3. Who were the Boers, and whom did they fight?

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CHAPTER 11 Section 2 (pages 345–351)TERMS AND NAMESpaternalism Governing in a“parental” way by providing forneeds but not giving rightsassimilation Absorbing colonizedpeople into the culture of theimperialist nationMenelik II Leader of Ethiopianresistance

ImperialismCase Study: Nigeria

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learned about the reasons for imperialism.

In this section, you will read about how the colonies werecontrolled.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to contrast direct and indirect rule.

A New Period of Imperialism; A British Colony (pages 345–348)

What forms and methods didimperialist nations use to controltheir colonies?Each imperial power had goals for its colonies.Imperialist nations had four forms of control:colony, protectorate, sphere of influence, and eco-nomic imperialism.

A colony is an area ruled by a foreign govern-ment. A protectorate runs its own daily affairs, butis controlled by an imperialist nation. A sphere ofinfluence is an area where an imperialist nation hasexclusive economic rights. Economic imperialism

refers to a situation where an independent nation iscontrolled by foreign businesses rather than for-eign governments.

Imperialist nations also developed two basicmethods to manage their colonies. France andother European nations used direct control. Theyfelt native peoples could not handle the tough jobof running a country. Instead, the imperialistpower governed. This policy was called paternal-ism. The French also had a policy of assimilation.All colonial institutions were patterned afterFrench institutions. The French hoped that thenative peoples would learn French ways.

Britain used indirect control. In this system,local rulers had power over daily matters. Therewere also councils of native people and government

DIRECT RULE INDIRECT RULE

Colonizers controlled colonial affairs Local powers controlled daily matters

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officials. These councils were supposed to helpnative people learn to govern themselves in theBritish method. When the United States began tocolonize, it also used the indirect method of control.

Britain tried to rule Nigeria through indirectcontrol. The British let local chiefs manage theirareas. The system did not always work. The localchiefs in some regions of Nigeria resented havingtheir power limited by the British.

1. What forms and methods did imperialists use tocontrol and manage colonies?

African Resistance (pages 348–350)

How did Africans resist imperialism?Some Africans resisted imperialism. People inAlgeria fought against the French for almost 50years. In German East Africa, thousands ofAfricans died when they tried to use magic to fightGerman machine guns.

Only Ethiopia resisted the Europeans success-fully. There, Emperor Menelik II played oneEuropean country against another. In 1896, heused European weapons to defeat an Italian army.

2. Who resisted imperialism in Africa, and what werethe results?

The Legacy of Colonial Rule (page 351)

How did colonial ruleaffect Africa?Africans enjoyed some benefits from colonial rule.European governments reduced local conflicts.The Europeans also brought Africa deeper into theworld economy. Railroads, dams, and telephoneand telegraph lines were built.

But imperialism mostly caused damage.Africans lost control over much of their land. ManyAfrican traditions were destroyed. People wereforced out of their homes. Many were made towork in bad conditions. The boundaries thatEuropeans drew had no relation to ethnic divisionsin Africa. These boundaries caused problems whenthe colonies became independent nations.

3. What were three benefits and three problems ofcolonial rule?

SkillbuilderUse the chart to answer these questions.

1. Under which type of imperialism is the local government most independent?

2. What is the difference between asphere of influence and economicimperialism?

DefinitionsForms of Imperialism

Colony

Protectorate A country or territory with its own internalgovernment but under the control of an outside power

Sphere of Influence An area in which an outside power claimsexclusive investment or trading privileges

Economic Imperialism An independent but less-developed nationcontrolled by private business interests ratherthan other governments

A country or a territory governed internally bya foreign power

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 11 Section 3 (pages 352–356)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about imperialism in Africa.

In this section, you will learn about imperialism in Muslim lands.

AS YOU READUse the web below to take notes on how other countriestook control of Muslim holdings in these lands.

TERMS AND NAMESgeopolitics Interest in or taking ofland for its location or productsCrimean War Conflict in which theOttoman Empire halted Russianexpansion near the Black SeaSuez Canal Human-made waterwayconnecting the Red andMediterranean Seas

Europeans ClaimMuslim Lands

Ottoman Empire Loses Power (page 352)

When did the Ottoman Empirebecome weak?The Ottoman Empire was based in modernTurkey. But it controlled lands in Eastern Europe,North Africa, and Southwest Asia.

This empire lasted for hundreds of years, but bythe 1800s, it was weak. The ruling party broke upinto quarreling factions. Corruption and theftcaused financial chaos. The Ottomans had onceembraced modern technologies but now werefalling behind the Europeans.

Nationalism began to stir among people in theempire. In 1830, Greece won its independence and

Egypt

Persia

EuropeOttomans lost almost all of their land

MuslimLands

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Serbia won the right to govern itself. Europeannations eyed what remained of the empire hungrily.

1. What happened when the Ottoman Empire weakened?

Europeans Grab Territory (pages 352–354)

Where did Europeans grab territory?Geopolitics is the interest in or taking of land for itslocation or products. It played an important role inthe fall of the Ottoman Empire. Russia hoped to wincontrol of the Black Sea so it could ship grain intothe Mediterranean Sea. Russia fought a war with theOttomans in the 1850s called the Crimean War.

Russia lost the war when Britain and Francejoined on the side of the Ottomans. Still, theOttomans later lost almost all of their land inEurope and parts of Africa. Muslim leaders, seeingthis decline, decided to modernize their countries.

Russia also fought Great Britain in a war knownas the “Great Game.” Russia sought to extend itsempire and gain access to India, one of Britain’smost valuable colonies. The British defended Indiaand also attempted to spread its empire beyondIndia’s borders. Much of the war was fought in theindependent Muslim kingdom of Afghanistan.After decades of fighting, both countries withdrewand agreed to respect Afghanistan’s independence.

2. Why did Russia engage in the Crimean War and theGreat Game?

Egypt Initiates Reforms; PersiaPressured to Change (pages 354–356)

What measures did Muslim countries take to avoid imperialistdomination?Some Muslim leaders tried to adopt reforms toblock European control of their lands. In Egypt,Muhammad Ali broke away from Ottoman control.He reformed the army and the economy. Ali’sgrandson continued to modernize the empire. Hejoined with the French in building the SuezCanal. It connected the Mediterranean to the RedSea.

The canal was extremely expensive to build.Egypt quickly found that it could not afford torepay the money it owed. The British took controlof the canal. Later the British took over the rest ofthe country as well.

In Persia, the Russians and the British compet-ed for control. Russia wanted to use Persia to gainaccess to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. TwiceRussia forced Persia to give up territories throughmilitary victories.

Britain wanted to use Afghanistan as a bufferbetween India and Russia. In 1857, Britain forcedPersia to give up all claims to Afghanistan.

In the early 1900s, oil was discovered in Persia.A British company signed an agreement withPersia’s ruler to develop these oil fields. Persiansrebelled against their ruler, who was corrupt, andthe growing influence of Europeans. Then Russiaand Britain stepped in and took control of the land.

In Muslim lands, the Europeans gained controlby using economic imperialism and creatingspheres of influence. Some Muslim countries triedto modernize. But these efforts came too late toprevent Europeans from taking over.

3. What happened in Egypt and in Persia?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 11 Section 4 (pages 357–361)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how Europeans grabbedMuslim lands.

In this section, you will read about British control of India.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the causes of thenationalist movement in India.

TERMS AND NAMESsepoy Indian soldier under Britishcommand“jewel in the crown” Term referringto India as the most valuable of allBritish coloniesSepoy Mutiny Uprising of Indiansoldiers against the BritishRaj British rule over India from 1757to 1947.

British Imperialismin India

British Expand Control over India(pages 357–361)

How did British rule affect India?The Mughal Empire of India fell into decline in theearly 1700s. By the mid-1700s, the British East IndiaCompany was the most important power in India.The company held huge amounts of land. The com-pany even had its own army. This army was led byBritish officers. It was staffed by sepoys, Indian soldiers.

India was the main supplier of raw materials forBritain. The British called India the “jewel in thecrown” because it was Britain’s most valuablecolony.

India enjoyed some benefits from British rule.India’s rail system was the third largest in theworld. The railroad helped make India’s economymore modern. The British made other improve-ments, too. They built telephone and telegraphlines, dams, bridges, and canals. They also improvedsanitation and public health and built schools.

Racistattitudes of British

Causes ofNationalistMovement

in India

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But British rule also caused problems. A greatdeal of wealth flowed from India to Britain. Indianindustry died out because of British trade laws.Many farmers and villages could no longer feedthemselves because they were forced to grow cashcrops. India suffered famines in the late 1800s. Inaddition, most British officials had racist attitudesthat threatened Indian culture.

1. What problems did British rule bring?

The Sepoy Mutiny (pages 359–360)

Why did Indians rebel?By the mid-1800s, many Indians resented Britishrule. In 1857, some Indian soldiers heard rumorsabout British weapons. The rumors offended theIndians’ religious feelings. The British handled thesituation badly. The Indian soldiers rebelled. Thisrebellion has been called the Sepoy Mutiny. Ittook the East India Company and British troops ayear to put it down.

The Sepoy Mutiny failed because the Indianswere divided. Muslims and Hindus did not trusteach other. After the revolt, the British govern-ment took direct control of British India. The termRaj refers to British rule over India from 1757 to1947.

2. What was the Sepoy Mutiny?

Nationalism Surfaces in India (page 361)

What were the goals of the Indiannationalist movement?Indians also resisted British control in other ways.Leaders such as Ram Mohun Roy urged changes intraditional Indian practices. He wanted to makeIndian society more modern and to free India offoreign control.

Nationalist feelings also started to grow inIndia. Indians resented the British discriminationagainst them. Indians were barred from the bestjobs in the Indian Civil Service. British workerswere paid more than Indian workers doing thesame job.

Indians formed two groups—the IndianNational Congress and the Muslim League. Bothgroups pushed the British to make changes. In theearly 1900s, they called for self-government.

3. What groups called for change?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 11 Section 5 (pages 362–365)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how the Indians reacted to imperialism.

In this section, you will read about imperialism inSoutheast Asia.

AS YOU READUse the web below to show the various lands controlledby each Western nation.

TERMS AND NAMESPacific Rim Southeast Asianmainland and islands along the rim ofthe Pacific OceanKing Mongkut King who helped SiammodernizeEmilio Aguinaldo Leader of Filipinonationalistsannexation Adding of territoryQueen Liliuokalani Last Hawaiianruler of Hawaii

Imperialism inSoutheast Asia

European Powers Invade thePacific Rim (pages 362–365)

Which Western powers grabbedland in Southeast Asia?European nations also grabbed land in the PacificRim, Southeast Asia and the islands on the edge ofthe Pacific Ocean. The lands of Southeast Asiawere perfect for plantation agriculture. Sugar, cof-fee, cocoa, rubber, coconuts, bananas, and pineap-ples were important products.

The Dutch controlled Indonesia. Many of theDutch who moved to Indonesia thought ofIndonesia as their home. They set up a class systemthat kept the Dutch at the top. Wealthy and edu-

cated Indonesians came next. Plantation workerswere at the bottom. The Dutch forced farmers touse one-fifth of their land for export crops.

The British took the port of Singapore plusMalaysia and Burma (modern Myanmar). Theyused Singapore as a base for trade. It became oneof the world’s busiest ports. The British encour-aged the Chinese to move to Malaysia. TheMalaysians have become a minority in their owncountry. Tension between the Malays and theChinese remains to this day.

France grabbed Indochina (modern Laos,Cambodia, and Vietnam). The French ruledIndochina directly and tried to push French cul-ture on the Indochinese. The French did not

DutchIndonesia

Americans

FrenchBritish

SoutheastAsia

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encourage industry. Rice became a major crop.Although the Vietnamese grew more rice thanbefore, they ate less of it because so much rice wassent out of the region. This problem set the stagefor Vietnamese resistance to French rule.

Colonialism brought some features of modernlife to these regions. But economic change benefit-ed Europeans more than the local people. Even so,schooling, health, and sanitation were improved.Millions of people migrated to new regions ofSoutheast Asia. The mix of cultures did not alwaysgo smoothly. Even today, some conflict betweengroups results from this period.

1. What major problems did colonialism bring?

Siam Remains Independent(page 364)

How did imperialism affect Siam?One land—Siam (modern Thailand)—stayed inde-pendent. Siam was surrounded by lands taken bythe French and British. The French and British didnot want the other to control Siam. The Siamesekings played the French and British against oneanother to remain free of both nations.

King Mongkut and his son modernized Siam.They started schools and reformed the government.They also built railroads and telegraph lines andended slavery. These changes happened with littlesocial turmoil.

2. How did Siam confront imperialism?

U.S. Imperialism in the PacificIslands (pages 364–365)

What lands did the United States acquire?In the late 1800s, the United States also began toseek colonies. After the Spanish-American War in1898, the United States took control of PuertoRico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands.

Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldofought against the Americans for their freedom.The United States defeated the rebels butpromised to give the Philippines self-rule later. Inthe meantime, American businesses took advantageof Filipino workers.

American businessmen grew wealthy fromsugar plantations in Hawaii. But they wanted tomake more money. They also asked for the annex-ation, or addition, of Hawaii to the United States.That way they would get more money when theysold sugar in the United States. The American busi-nessmen had a great deal of power in Hawaii.

In the 1890s, Queen Liliuokalani tried toregain control of her country for the Hawaiian peo-ple. The American businessmen overthrew her.They declared a republic. In 1898, it became a ter-ritory of the United States.

3. What happened in the Philippines?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 12 Section 1 (pages 371–375)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about imperialism in Asia.

In this section, you will see how China dealt with foreign influence.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on events that occurredin China.

TERMS AND NAMESOpium War War between Britain andChina over the opium tradeextraterritorial rights Rights offoreign residents to follow the lawsof their own government rather thanthose of the host countryTaiping Rebellion Rebellion againstthe Qing Dynastysphere of influence Area in whicha foreign nation controls trade andinvestmentOpen Door Policy Policy proposed bythe United States giving all nationsequal opportunities to trade in ChinaBoxer Rebellion Rebellion aimed atending foreign influence in China

China Resists Outside Influence

China and the West (pages 371–372)

Was China able to resist foreign influence?In the late 1700s, China had a strong farming econ-omy based on growing rice. Other crops, such aspeanuts, helped to feed its large population. TheChinese made silk, cotton, and ceramics. Minesproduced salt, tin, silver, and iron. China needednothing from the outside world.

China limited its trade with European powers.All goods shipped to China had to come throughone port. Britain bought so much Chinese tea thatit was eager to find something that the Chinese

would want in large quantities. In the early 1800s,the British began shipping opium, a dangerousdrug, to China. The opium came mostly fromIndia. The Chinese tried to make the British stop.

As a result of the Opium War that followed,the British took possession of Hong Kong. Later,the United States and European nations wonextraterritorial rights and the right to trade infive ports. The Chinese resented these treaties butcould not stop them.

1. What happened as a result of the Opium War?

CAUSE EFFECT ON CH INA

British bring opium to China

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Growing Internal Problems (pages 372–373)

What problems did China face?China had internal problems as well. The popula-tion had grown quickly. When rains were too lightor too heavy, millions starved. The Chinese gov-ernment was weak and too corrupt to solve itsproblems.

A leader arose who hoped to save China. Hisname was Hong Xiuquan, and he led the TaipingRebellion. More than one million peasants joinedhis army. The rebels won control of large parts ofthe south. The government needed 14 years to putdown this rebellion. The fighting destroyed muchfarmland. At least 20 million people died.

2. What was the Taiping Rebellion?

Foreign Influence Grows(pages 373–374)

What was the official attitudetoward reform?In the late 1800s, one person ruled China—theDowager Empress Cixi. She supported a fewreforms in education, civil service, and the military.Despite her efforts to bring change, China contin-ued to face problems.

Other countries were well aware of China’sweakness, and they took advantage of the situation.Throughout the late 1800s, many foreign nationswon a sphere of influence in China. A sphere ofinfluence is a region in which a foreign nation con-trols trade and investment.

The United States opposed these spheres ofinfluence. Americans urged an Open DoorPolicy, in which all powers had equal access toChinese markets. The Europeans agreed. This pol-icy did not help China, however. Although it was

not a colony or group of colonies, China was domi-nated by foreign powers.

3. How did foreigners begin to gain controlover China?

An Upsurge in ChineseNationalism(pages 374–375)

What actions resulted fromgrowing nationalism?Humiliated by their loss of power, many Chinesewanted strong reforms. In 1898, the youngEmperor Guangxu, Cixi’s nephew, tried to put inplace broader reforms.

Conservatives didn’t like this. The retiredEmpress Cixi had him arrested and she took backcontrol of the government. China had lost a chancefor reform.

Some Chinese peasants and workers formedthe Society of Harmonious Fists, known as theBoxers. They wanted to get rid of all Western influ-ence. That included any Chinese who had accept-ed Western culture or the Christian religion. At thestart of the Boxer Rebellion in early 1900, Boxerssurrounded Beijing’s European section. Aftermany weeks, they were driven out by a multina-tional army.

Cixi finally began to allow major reforms. Butchange came slowly. In 1908, Chinese officials saidthat China would become a constitutional monar-chy by 1917. However, unrest soon returned.

4. What was the Boxer Rebellion?

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CHAPTER 12 Section 2 (pages 376–381)TERMS AND NAMESTreaty of Kanagawa Treaty betweenthe United States and Japan openingtrade between the two nationsMeiji era Period of rule by EmperorMutsuhito from 1867 to 1912Russo–Japanese War War betweenRussia and Japan fought in 1904annexation Adding of territory

Modernization in JapanBEFORE YOU READ

In the last section, you read about foreign influence in China.

In this section, you will learn about the steps taken by Japan to modernize.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on how Japan’s powerincreased at home and abroad.

Japan Ends Its Isolation (paged 376–377)

How did isolation end in Japan?From the early 1600s to the mid-1800s, Japan trad-ed with China and the Dutch and had diplomaticcontact with Korea. But beyond that, Japan waslargely isolated. British, French, Russian, andAmerican officials tried to convince the Japanese toopen up. But the Japanese repeatedly refused.

That situation changed in 1853 when Americansteamships with cannons entered Japanese waters.The next year, Japan and the United States signedthe Treaty of Kanagawa. It agreed to open Japan

to trade with America. Soon afterwards, Japanmade similar deals with European nations.

Many Japanese were upset with the shogun, themilitary dictator, who had agreed to these newtreaties. The Emperor Mutsuhito got their supportand managed to overthrow the shogun. For thefirst time in centuries, the emperor ruled Japandirectly. He reigned for 45 years, from 1867 to1912. This period is called the Meiji era. Thename Meiji means “enlightened rule.”

The emperor wanted to modernize Japan. Hesent government officials to Europe and theUnited States. From what they saw, they shaped anew Japan. They modeled the government after

Asks foreigners togive up specialrights in Japan

Growing Japanese Power

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the strong central government of Germany. Theypatterned the army after Germany’s and the navyafter Britain’s. They adapted the American systemof schooling for all children.

The emperor also supported changes to Japan’seconomy. The country mined coal and built rail-roads and factories. In just a few years, Japan’seconomy was as modern as any in the world.

1. What steps did Emperor Mutsuhito take to modernize Japan?

Imperial Japan(pages 377–381)

How did Japan increase its influence in Asia?By 1890, Japan had the strongest military in Asia. Itasked foreigners to give up their special rights inJapan. The European nations agreed. Japan feltequal to the Western nations.

Japan became more imperialistic as its powergrew. When China broke an agreement not to sendarmies into Korea, Japan went to war. It drove

China out of Korea and gained Taiwan and someother islands as new colonies. In 1904, Japan andRussia fought the Russo–Japanese War overChina’s Manchurian territory. Japan surprised theworld by defeating a larger power that was sup-posed to be stronger.

The next year, Japan attacked Korea. Japanmade Korea a protectorate. Japanese officials tookmore and more power away from the Korean gov-ernment. The Korean king was unable to get helpfor his government from other countries. By 1910,Japan achieved annexation of Korea.

The Japanese were harsh rulers. They shutdown Korean newspapers. They allowed onlyJapanese history and language to be taught. Theytook land from Korean farmers and gave it toJapanese settlers. They built factories run byJapanese only. Koreans were not allowed to startnew businesses. Koreans resented these actions.They began a nationalist movement and protestedagainst Japanese rule.

2. How did Japan expand its empire to Korea?

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CHAPTER 12 TRANSFORMATIONS AROUND THE GLOBE 131

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CHAPTER 12 Section 3 (pages 382–387)

U.S. EconomicImperialismBEFORE YOU READ

In the last section, you saw how Japan increased its power and became an imperialist nation.

In this section, you will read about U.S. economic imperialism in Latin America.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the causes and effects of U.S. imperialism.

Latin America AfterIndependence (pages 382–383)

What conditions existed amongthe new nations of Latin America?In the early 1800s, the new nations of LatinAmerica had serious problems. Most people werepoor laborers. They worked on farms for largelandowners who took advantage of them.

Another problem was political unrest. Localmilitary leaders who wanted power ruled LatinAmerican nations as caudillos, or military dicta-

tors. Landowners kept the caudillos in power. Thelandowners refused to give power to the mass ofpoor people. Only people with property could vote.

Sometimes reformers did take office. But theynever lasted long. When their reforms threatenedthe power of the wealthy too much, a dictatorwould rise and remove them from office.

1. What problems did the people in the new nations of Latin America face?

Poverty and political unrest

Causes Effects

TERMS AND NAMEScaudillo Military dictatorMonroe Doctrine U.S. statement ofopposition to European influence inthe AmericasJosé Martí Cuban writer who foughtfor Cuban independenceSpanish–American War War foughtbetween the United States and Spainin 1898, in which the Americanssupported the Cuban fight forindependencePanama Canal Man-made waterwayconnecting the Atlantic and PacificOceansRoosevelt Corollary Statement thatthe United States had the right toexercise “police power” in theWestern Hemisphere

U.S. EconomicImperialism

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Economies Grow Under Foreign Influence (pages 383–384)

What nations controlled LatinAmerican economies?Spain’s trade laws in Latin America ended whenSpain lost control of those lands. The new coun-tries could now trade with any nation. Britain andthe United States became the chief trading part-ners. Businesses in these nations soon dominatedLatin American economies.

The Latin American economies depended onexports. Other countries benefited from trade withLatin America more than the Latin Americans did.

Latin America did not develop its own manu-facturing industries. It had to import manufacturedgoods. These goods cost more than what wasearned from exports.

In addition, Latin American countries oftenborrowed money from foreign banks. When theycould not repay the loans, lenders took control ofthe businesses. In this way, much of Latin Americafell into foreign hands.

2. Why was Latin America’s need to import goods a problem?

A Latin American Empire(pages 384–385, 387)

How did the United States gainLatin American territories?In 1823, President James Monroe issued theMonroe Doctrine. It warned European nationsagainst interfering in the American continents. TheUnited States did not really enforce this policyuntil the end of the century.

In the 1890s, the people of Cuba were fightingfor their independence from Spain. The writerJosé Martí was one of them. American businesseshad economic interests on the island. Also, Spainhad placed Cuban civilians in concentration camps.This upset many Americans. For these reasons, theUnited States fought against Spain in theSpanish–American War.

The United States won the war and gained sev-eral new territories. The United States put a mili-tary government in place in Cuba. This step mademany Cubans angry at the United States.

Into the early part of the 20th century, shipstraveling from the east to the west coast had to goaround the southern tip of South America. Thistook many weeks. Americans wanted to find aquicker route. They hoped to build a canal acrossPanama.

President Roosevelt offered $10 million toColombia—to which Panama belonged—for theright to build this canal. When Colombia asked formore money, the United States helped the peopleof Panama revolt for independence. In return, theUnited States won a ten-mile-wide zone in Panamain which to build the Panama Canal. The canalopened in 1914.

In 1904, Roosevelt extended the MonroeDoctrine. He said that the United States had theright to act as “an international police power” in thewestern hemisphere. This statement is known asthe Roosevelt Corollary. Over the next fewdecades, the United States acted on the RooseveltCorollary many times. When trouble arose in vari-ous countries, the United States sent its troops.Sometimes they stayed for many years.

3. How did the United States win a zone in Panamafor a canal?

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CHAPTER 12 TRANSFORMATIONS AROUND THE GLOBE 133

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CHAPTER 12 Section 4 (pages 388–393)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about U.S. economic imperialism in Latin America.

In this section, you will read about revolution and reformin Mexico.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on the reforms andkey events of the Mexican Revolution.

TERMS AND NAMESAntonio López de Santa Anna Leaderin Mexico’s fight for independenceBenito Juárez Leader of La ReformaLa Reforma Movement in Mexicoaimed at achieving land reform,better education, and other goalsPorfirio Díaz Dictator who came topower after JuárezFrancisco Madero Enemy of Díazwho believed in democracy“Pancho” Villa Popular leader of theMexican revolutionEmiliano Zapata Leader of apowerful revolutionary army

Turmoil and Change in Mexico

Santa Anna and the Mexican War (pages 388–389)

Who was Santa Anna?Antonio López de Santa Anna was a leading fig-ure in the early history of independent Mexico. Hefought for Mexican independence from Spain in1821. He fought against Spain again in 1829 whenSpain tried to recapture Mexico. He served asMexico’s president four times.

But in the 1830s, Santa Anna was unable to stopTexas from winning independence from Mexico. Inthe 1840s, the United States annexed Texas. Thisangered many Mexicans.

When a border dispute between Mexico andTexas turned into armed conflict, the United States

1872

1862 1917

1858Benito Juarez and his supporters

win control of the government.

invaded Mexico. Santa Anna led his nation’s armyand was defeated. Mexico surrendered hugeamounts of land to the United States.

1. What losses did Mexicans suffer under Santa Anna?

Juárez and La Reforma (pages 389–391)

What was La Reforma?Another important leader of the middle 1800s wasBenito Juárez. Juárez wanted to improve conditions

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134 CHAPTER 12 SECTION 4

for the poor in Mexico. He led a movement calledLa Reforma—“the reform.” La Reforma aimed tobreak the power of the large landowners and givemore schooling to the poor. Juárez and his support-ers won control of the government in 1858.

But conservatives who opposed La Reforma didnot give up. They plotted with France to retakeMexico. In 1862, Napoleon III of France sent anarmy that captured the country in 18 months.Napoleon III named a European noble as emperor.But Juárez and his followers kept fighting. Fiveyears later, they drove the French from Mexicansoil and executed the emperor.

2. How did conservatives oppose La Reforma?

Porfirio Díaz and “Order andProgress” (pages 391–392)

Who was Porfirio Díaz?Juárez again pressed for his reforms. He madesome progress but died in office in 1872. Soon afterhe died, a new leader emerged. Porfirio Díaz wasa leader in Mexican politics for more than 30 years.Díaz brought order to the country. He ended raidsby bandits and brought some economic growth, but

he limited political freedom. A leader namedFrancisco Madero called for the overthrow ofDíaz.

3. What were the benefits and drawbacks of Díaz’s rule?

Revolution and Civil War (pages 392–393)

Who were Villa and Zapata?In the early 1900s, calls for reform got louder.Francisco “Pancho” Villa and Emiliano Zapatacalled for better lives for the poor. They raisedarmies and forced Díaz to step down. But politicalunrest continued. For many years, leaders strug-gled for power. In 1917, Mexico adopted a newconstitution that survived all of the turmoil.

Conflict continued until a new political partygained control of Mexico in 1929. The InstitutionalRevolutionary Party (PRI) brought peace andpolitical stability to a troubled land.

4. What was the main goal of Villa and Zapata?

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CHAPTER 13 THE GREAT WAR 137

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CHAPTER 13 Section 1 (pages 407–410)TERMS AND NAMESmilitarism Glorifying war andpreparing for itTriple Alliance Military agreementbetween Germany, Austria-Hungary,and ItalyKaiser Wilhelm II Emperor ofGermanyTriple Entente Military agreementamong Britain, France, and Russia

Marching Toward WarBEFORE YOU READ

In the last chapter, you read about political changesaround the globe.

In this section, you will learn about the First World War.

AS YOU READUse this chart to take notes on the causes of World War I.

Rising Tensions in Europe(pages 407–408)

Why didn’t peace last in Europe?Many people in Europe had joined groups to workfor peace. However, developments would soonlead Europe into war.

One of those developments was nationalism—adeep feeling of attachment to one’s own nation.This force helped unify the people of a country. Italso created competition between countries.

By 1900, six nations were rivals for power inEurope. These nations, called the Great Powers,were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain,Russia, Italy, and France. They competed econom-ically, and they competed for neighboring land.

Imperialism was another force that helped leadto war. France and Germany were each seeking tocontrol of parts of Africa. They almost came to wartwice in the early 1900s. Mistrust was a hugeproblem.

The third factor leading to war was a growingarms race. Each country in Europe—except GreatBritain—built a large army. Glorifying war andpreparing for it is called militarism.

1. What were three factors leading to war?

World War I

Nationalism

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138 CHAPTER 13 SECTION 1

Tangled Alliances (pages 408–409)

What caused countries to fear one another?Growing rivalries led the nations to make militaryalliances. Prussia’s chancellor, Otto von Bismarck,feared that France would want revenge for itsdefeat in the Franco-Prussian War. He set out toisolate France. In 1879, he formed a TripleAlliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy. He alsosigned a treaty with Russia.

Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany did not want toshare power with Bismarck. He forced Bismarck toresign and followed his own foreign policy. He letthe agreement with Russia end. Russia soon allieditself with France. This alliance meant thatGermany would have to fight enemies on its east-ern and western borders if there were a war witheither country. Wilhelm II then moved to make theGerman navy larger.

Britain grew alarmed. It began to build moreships. It also entered into the Triple Ententealliance with France and Russia. The six GreatPowers had now formed two camps—Germany,Austria-Hungary, and Italy against Britain, France,and Russia.

2. What two groups of nations developed?

Crisis in the Balkans (pages 409–410)

What part did the Balkans play in the increasing tensions?Meanwhile, trouble was brewing in the Balkans, insoutheastern Europe. The Ottoman Empire con-trolled this area. But it was breaking apart. BothAustria-Hungary and Russia wanted some of thisland.

The kingdom of Serbia was also in this region.It wanted to bring other Slavic peoples who lived inthe Balkans under its control. In 1908, Austria-Hungary seized Bosnia and Herzegovina. Theselands had Slavic peoples. This action angered theSerbs. However, their Russian allies were unwillingto support them, and they backed down.

By 1914, the situation was different. Serbia hadgained land in other parts of the region and feltstrong. Austria worried that Serbia might interferewith its control of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In June 1914, a Serbian killed Archduke FranzFerdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.Russia came to Serbia’s defense. Soon most ofEurope was at war.

3. How were the Serbians involved in the start ofWorld War I?

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CHAPTER 13 THE GREAT WAR 139

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CHAPTER 13 Section 2 (pages 411–416)TERMS AND NAMESSchlieffen Plan Germany’s plan forwinning the war on two frontsAllies Great Britain, France, Russia,and other nations who fought on theirsideCentral Powers Germany, Austria-Hungary, and other nations whofought on their sidetrench warfare Fighting fromtrenches dug in the battlefieldWestern Front Region of northernFrance where much fighting tookplaceEastern Front Region along German-Russian border where much fightingtook place

Europe Plunges into WarBEFORE YOU READ

In the last section, you read how World War I began.

In this section, you will learn the details of this costly andtragic war.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to compare and contrast the WesternFront and the Eastern Front. Include who fought, wherethey fought, and how they fought.

The Great War Begins (page 411)

How did so many nations become involved?The system of alliances turned the war betweenAustria-Hungary and Serbia into a wider war.Russia moved against Austria-Hungary. It figuredthat Germany would support Austria-Hungary. Soit moved troops against Germany as well. Germanydeclared war on Russia. Soon after, it also declaredwar on Russia’s ally, France.

Germany had a plan for winning the war on twofronts. This was the Schlieffen Plan. It called fora rapid push through France, a quick defeat of thatnation, and a turn to face Russia in the east. To cap-ture France quickly, Germany moved throughBelgium. Belgium was a neutral country. Britainwas outraged by Germany’s action. It declared waron Germany. France, Britain, and Russia werecalled the Allies. They were later joined by Italy,which broke with Germany and Austria-Hungary.Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined Germanyand Austria-Hungary. They were called theCentral Powers.

WESTERN FRONT EASTERN FRONT

Area in France

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140 CHAPTER 13 SECTION 2

1. Who were the Allies and Central Powers?

A Bloody Stalemate (pages 412–414)

What kind of warfare was used?After the German army moved almost to Paris,French defenses strengthened and stopped themin September 1914. Both sides became boggeddown in a bloody conflict. Soldiers dug deeptrenches into the ground. Trench warfare began.

When soldiers left the trenches to storm enemylines, they faced powerful weapons. Machine guns,tanks, poison gas, and larger pieces of artillerykilled hundreds of thousands of soldiers. This washow the war was fought in France, which wascalled the Western Front.

2. What was the war like on the Western Front?

The Battle on the Eastern Front (pages 414–416)

What happened on the Eastern Front?The war on the Eastern Front showed moremovement at first—but it was equally destructive.Russian armies attacked both Germany andAustria-Hungary. They had some early success butwere driven back in both places. One reason wasthat Russia did not have a fully industrial economy.It could not keep troops supplied.

Still, Russia had a huge population and couldsend millions to war. The large Russian army pro-vided a constant threat to Germany. This threatprevented Germany from putting its full resourcesagainst the Allies in the west.

3. What weaknesses and strengths did Russia have?

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CHAPTER 13 THE GREAT WAR 141

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 29 Section 3 (pages 417–422)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how the war was fought in Europe.

In this section, you will learn how the war affected the world.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the effects of WorldWar I around the world and on the home fronts.

A Global Conflict

War Affects the World (pages 417–419)

What other areas of the worldwere involved?The Allies hoped to take a part of the OttomanEmpire called the Dardanelles. The attack failedwith great loss of life. A more successful operationwas headed by a British officer named T. E.Lawrence. He helped lead an Arab revolt againstOttoman rule. As a result, the Allies were able tocapture several important cities in Southwest Asia.

Japan took German colonies in China and thePacific Ocean. The Allies also captured three of thefour German colonies in Africa.

The British had used their strong navy to blockall supplies from reaching Germany. The Germans

responded by increasing their submarine attackson ships bringing food and supplies to the Allies.They used unrestricted submarine warfare.This meant sinking any ship without warning in thewaters around Great Britain.

When American ships were sunk and lives werelost, the American people grew angry. Then theBritish intercepted a secret message fromGermany to Mexico. This message asked Mexico toally itself with Germany. In return, Germanyoffered to help Mexico regain land lost to theUnited States in the 1840s. In April 1917, Congressdeclared war on Germany.

1. What areas outside of Europe were affected by the war?

Allies capture several citiesin Southwest Asia.

causes effects

World War I

TERMS AND NAMESunrestricted submarine warfareUsing submarines to sink any shipwithout warningtotal war War in which countries useall their resources for the warrationing Control of the amounts andkinds of goods people can havepropaganda One-sided informationdesigned to persuadearmistice Agreement to stop fighting

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142 CHAPTER 13 SECTION 3

War Affects the Home Front (pages 419–420)

What happened on the home fronts?By 1917, the war had already killed millions. It haddrastically changed the lives of millions more—people at home as well as soldiers. This “GreatWar,” as it was called, was a total war. It demand-ed all the resources of the countries that fought it.

Governments took control of factories. It toldthem what to produce and how much of it to make.Governments also used rationing. This limitedhow much food and other goods people could buyand hold. That way armies in the field would havethe supplies they needed. Governments used prop-aganda to get support for the war. They also tooksteps to stop dissent, or opposition to the war.

With so many men in the military, womenplayed a growing role in the economies of thecountries at war. They worked in factories, offices,and shops. They built planes and tanks, grew food,and made clothing. These changes had an impacton people’s attitudes toward what kind of workwomen could do.

2. What were three ways that the war affected people’s day-to-day lives?

The Allies Win the War (pages 420–421)

Why did the Allies win?In 1917, the United States entered the war. AndRussia left it. Suffering during the war chipped awayat the Russian people’s support for the czar. InMarch, he stepped down. The new governmenthoped to continue fighting the war, but the Russianarmies refused. Just months later, a new revolutionbroke out. Communists seized Russia’s government.They quickly made a treaty with Germany and gaveup huge amounts of land in return for peace.

In March 1918, Germany tried one final attack.Once again, the German army nearly reachedParis. But the soldiers were tired, and supplieswere short. The Allies—now with fresh Americantroops—drove the Germans back.

Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire surrendered.In October, a revolution overthrew the emperor ofAustria-Hungary. In November, Kaiser Wilhelm IIwas forced to step down in Germany. The new gov-ernment signed an armistice, an agreement tostop fighting. On November 11, 1918, Europe wasfinally at peace.

3. What were the final problems that Germany and Austria-Hungary faced?

The Legacy of the War (page 421–422)

What was the cost of the war?World War I had a devastating effect on the world.About 8.5 million soldiers had died. Another 21million had been wounded. Countless civilians hadsuffered as well. The economies of the warringnations had suffered serious damage, too. Farmswere destroyed, and factories ruined. One estimatesaid the war had caused $338 billion in damage.

The war also had an emotional cost. People feltall the suffering did not seem to have a purpose.The art and literature of the years after the warreflected a new sense of hopelessness.

4. Name one political, economic, and emotional costof the war.

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CHAPTER 13 THE GREAT WAR 143

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 29 Section 4 (pages 424–427)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how World War I spread and finally ended.

In this section, you will learn about the harsh peace that followed.

AS YOU READUse the web below to take notes on the Treaty of Versailles.

TERMS AND NAMESWoodrow Wilson President whoproposed the Fourteen Points andrepresented the United States atVersaillesGeorges Clemenceau France’spremier and delegate at VersaillesFourteen Points Plan for a just andlasting peaceself-determination Allowing peopleto decide for themselves about whatkind of government they wantTreaty of Versailles Agreement atthe end of World War I betweenGermany and the Allied PowersLeague of Nations Internationalgroup with the goal of keeping peaceamong nations

A Flawed Peace

The Allies Meet and Debate (pages 424–425)

What decisions were made at Versailles?Many nations sent delegates to the peace talks inParis. The main leaders were Woodrow Wilson ofthe United States, Georges Clemenceau of France,and David Lloyd George of Britain. Germany andits allies and Russia were not present.

Wilson pushed for his peace plan called theFourteen Points. He wanted to end secret treaties

and alliances and give people self-determination,the right to form their own nation. He also hoped toset up a world organization that would police theactions of nations and prevent future wars.

Britain and especially France had different views.They had suffered greatly in the war. They wanted topunish Germany. After long debates, the leadersfinally agreed on a peace settlement. It was called theTreaty of Versailles and was signed in June 1919.

The treaty called for a League of Nations—the world organization that Wilson wanted. Itwould include 32 nations. The United States,

Ottoman Empire

Colonial PeopleNo self-determination

German Land inEurope

League ofNations

Treaty ofVersailles

Germany’sColonies

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144 CHAPTER 13 SECTION 4

Britain, France, Japan, and Italy would make up theleadership. Germany and Russia were left out of theLeague. The treaty took away German land inEurope and took away its colonies in Africa and thePacific. Limits were placed on the size of Germany’sarmed forces. Finally, Germany was given completeblame for the war. That meant it would have tomake payments to the Allies for the damage caused.

1. How did the Treaty of Versailles affect Germany?

A Troubled Treaty (pages 425–427)

Who opposed the treaty?Germany’s former colonies were given to the Alliesto govern until they decided which were ready for

independence. Poland, Czechoslovakia, andYugoslavia were all declared independent. Finland,Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—once part ofRussia—were made independent nations as well.The treaty also broke up the Ottoman Empire. TheOttomans kept control only of Turkey.

The treaty did not make a lasting peace. TheUnited States Senate never approved the treaty orjoined the League of Nations. Germans bitterlyresented the treaty because placed all the blamefor the war on them. Colonial peoples in Africa andAsia were angry because the treaty did not makethem independent. Japan and Italy were also upsetby getting few territorial gains.

2. Which groups opposed the treaty and why?

SkillbuilderUse the graph to answer the questions.

1. Which country suffered the most battlefield deaths? Which country suffered the least?

2. Based on the graph, why did the Allies appear to have an advantage in the war?

World War I Statistics

Battlefield Deaths of Major CombatantsTotal Number ofTroops Mobilized USA

116,000

Germany1.8 million

Russia1.7 million

France1.3 million

Ottoman Empire325,000

Italy650,000

Austria-Hungary1.2 million

British Empire908,000

*

Source:Encyclopaedia Britannica

* Includes troops from Britain, Canada, Australia,New Zealand, India, and South Africa

Allied Powers:42 million

Central Powers:23 million

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CHAPTER 14 REVOLUTION AND NATIONALISM 147

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 14 Section 1 (pages 433–439)

In the last chapter, you read about World War I.

In this section, you will learn about the revolutions in Russia that occurred at the same time.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on key events in Russia’s history just before, during, and after the revolutions.

TERMS AND NAMESproletariat The workersBolsheviks Group of revolutionariesled by LeninLenin Leader of the Bolsheviks andfirst ruler of the Soviet UnionRasputin Eccentric monkassassinated because of his corruptinfluence on the Russian royal familyprovisional government Temporarygovernment led by AlexanderKerenskysoviet Local governing councilCommunist Party A political partypracticing the ideas of Karl Marx andLeninJoseph Stalin Revolutionary leaderwho took control of the CommunistParty after Lenin

Revolutions in RussiaBEFORE YOU READ

Czars Resist Change (page 433)

How did Alexander III rule?In 1881 Czar Alexander II was killed by radicalstudents. When a new czar, Alexander III, tookcontrol of the Russian government, reformsstopped. He cracked down on anyone who seemedto threaten his government. He also mistreated allnon-Russian peoples who lived within the Russianempire, especially Jews. Nicholas II, the son ofAlexander III, continued his father’s firm rule.

1. How did Alexander and Nicholas rule?

Russia Industrializes (page 434)

What changes did industrializationcause?Russia started a buildup of industry. It quicklybecame a leading producer of steel. Russia alsobuilt the Trans-Siberian Railway—the longest con-tinuous rail line in the world.

Although there was progress, working condi-tions were poor, wages were low, and children wereforced to work. Workers grew angry. Revolutionarygroups wanted to overthrow the government.Some followed the teachings of Karl Marx. Onegroup—the Bolsheviks—was led by Lenin. Hefled Russia a few years later to await a better timeto put forth his ideas.

November 1917

March 1917 1921

1881Alexander III stops reforms in Russia

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2. Who were the Bolsheviks?

Crises at Home and Abroad (pages 434–435)

What crises did Russia face?In early 1905, the Russian army killed hundreds ofhungry workers who had peacefully gathered to askfor relief. Strikes spread in protest. Nicholas wasforced to allow some reforms to take place. Heapproved the creation of the Duma, Russia’s firstparliament.

The suffering caused by World War I was thefinal blow against the czar’s rule. As the war wors-ened, the czar lost control of Russia. Soldiersrefused to fight, prices shot sky high, and peoplestarved. Meanwhile, his wife fell under the influ-ence of an odd monk named Rasputin. He spreadcorruption throughout the government.

3. What developments helped lead up to the revolution?

The March Revolution (pages 435–436)

What was the provisional government?In March 1917, the czar was forced to step down.A year later, he and his family were executed. Aprovisional government led by AlexanderKerensky was formed.

Kerensky hoped to keep Russia in the war. Thedecision cost him the support of soldiers who nolonger wanted to fight. He also lost the support ofworkers and peasants who wanted an end to foodshortages. Across the country, these forces formedlocal councils called soviets. In some cities, the sovi-ets had more real power than the government. In themiddle of all this change, Lenin returned to Russia.

4. How did Kerensky lose support?

The Bolshevik Revolution (pages 436–438)

Who led the Bolshevik Revolution?Lenin’s slogan “Peace, Land, and Bread” was soontaken up by many people. In November 1917,armed workers took control of government offices.Kerensky’s power came to an end.

To win the peasants’ support, Lenin ordered allfarmland be given to them. Workers were givencontrol of the factories. Soon, Lenin agreed to apeace treaty with Germany. It gave away largeamounts of Russian land, but it ended the war.Then, forces opposed to Lenin’s revolution tried todefeat the Bolshevik army. The civil war lasted twoyears. The fighting and the famine that followedkilled 15 million Russians. In the end, Lenin’s RedArmy won.

5. Who fought the civil war?

Lenin Restores Order; StalinBecomes Dictator (pages 438–439)

How did Lenin bring back order?In 1921, Lenin started a new plan to rebuild theRussian economy. It allowed for some private own-ership of property. He also changed the govern-ment to form a new nation—the Soviet Union. Itwould be run by the leaders of the CommunistParty. By the late 1920s, the Soviet economy hadrecovered. Farms and factories were producing asmuch as they had before World War I. AfterLenin’s death Joseph Stalin took power.

6. What changes did Lenin make?

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CHAPTER 14 REVOLUTION AND NATIONALISM 149

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 14 Section 2 (pages 440–445)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learned about the factors leading to revolution in Russia.

In this section, you will read about the totalitarian government that resulted.

AS YOU READUse the web below to show what Stalin’s totalitarian state was like.

TERMS AND NAMEStotalitarianism Government that hastotal control over people’s livesGreat Purge Arrest, exile, or killing ofthousands of suspected enemies ofthe Communist Partycommand economy Economy inwhich the government makes all theeconomic decisionsFive-Year Plans Plans to develop theSoviet Union’s economycollective farm Large, government-owned farm

Case Study: Stalinist Russia

A Government of Total Control(page 433)

What is totalitarianism?The term totalitarianism describes a governmentthat takes control of almost all parts of people’slives. A very powerful leader leads this type of gov-ernment. Usually the leader brings security to thenation. The government stays in power by usingdifferent ways to keep control.

The weapons of totalitarianism include usingpolice terror. Police may spy on people, use brutalforce, or even murder them. The governmentmight also control schools and use them to moldstudents’ minds. Another weapon is propaganda.

This is false information that is spread by the gov-ernment to make people believe the government isworking for their best interests. At other times thegovernment will censor, that is block, certain infor-mation from becoming public.

Totalitarian rulers might also choose some peo-ple to persecute. The group may be blamed forthings that go wrong in the country. Often theseare people from a certain ethnic group or religion.They may be forced to live in certain areas or haverules that apply only to them.

1. What are two weapons of totalitarianism?

TotalitarianismUnder Stalin

Great Purge

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Stalin Builds a Totalitarian State(pages 443–444)

How did Stalin control the country?Stalin kept tight control on the Soviet Union. Hedid this by creating a powerful secret police. In themid-1930s, he turned against enemies—both realand imagined—within the Communist Party.Thousands were arrested. Many were sent to exileor killed. This was known as the Great Purge.

Stalin also used propaganda to keep control. Hecontrolled newspapers, radio, and other sources ofinformation. He also used the arts to promote hisideas. Stalin’s government also moved against reli-gion. Churches were destroyed. Church leaderswere killed or sent into exile.

2. Who died in the Great Purge?

Stalin Seizes Control of theEconomy (pages 443–444)

How did Stalin change the economy?Stalin built a command economy. This is an econ-omy in which the government makes all the deci-sions about economic life. He tried to make theeconomy fully industrial. All resources went to thiseffort. As a result, there were shortages of food,housing, and clothing for many years.

Stalin also began a farming revolution. The gov-ernment took control of people’s farms. It put themtogether into large, government-owned farmscalled collective farms. Wealthy peasants calledkulaks resisted. Millions were killed, and millionsmore were exiled to Siberia. Stalin got farm outputto rise by using these brutal methods.

3. How did Stalin’s economic changes result in suffering?

Daily Life under Stalin; TotalControl Achieved (pages 444–445)

How did Stalin change Soviet society?Stalin completely changed Soviet society. Womenenjoyed equal rights. They filled all kinds of jobs onfarms and in factories, They studied for careersthat before had been closed to them. People ingeneral were more educated.

By the mid-1930s Stalin was in complete controlof all economic and political affairs in the SovietUnion. The Soviet Union had been transformed intoa major political and economic world power.

4. What benefits did Stalin’s rule bring to women?

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CHAPTER 14 REVOLUTION AND NATIONALISM 151

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 14 Section 3 (pages 448–452)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about totalitarianism in theSoviet Union.

In this section, you will learn about the overthrow of theQing dynasty and the beginnings of the Communist partyin China.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on the changes thatoccurred in China in the early decades of the 20th century.

Imperial ChinaCollapses

Nationalists Overthrow Qing Dynasty (pages 448–449)

Who was Sun Yixian?The early 20th century was a time of change inChina. Many Chinese resented the great controlthat foreign nations had over their economy. Somewanted to modernize China. They hoped it couldregain power.

One of the leaders of this push was Sun Yixian.His group was called the Kuomintang, orNationalist Party. In 1912, he led a revolt that over-threw the Qing Dynasty. A republic was estab-lished, and he was made the president.

Sun wanted political and economic rights for allChinese people. He also wanted an end to the for-eign control of China. But Sun did not have the

support of the military. Six weeks later, he turnedover his presidency to Yuan Shikai, a powerful gen-eral. Yuan became a military dictator. After he diedin 1916, civil war broke out. The people sufferedterribly from famine and brutal attacks.

China’s leaders hoped to win the support of theAllies during World War I. They declared war onGermany. When the war ended, though, they weredisappointed. The Treaty of Versailles did not giveChina freedom from foreign influence. It onlychanged masters. The parts of China that had beencontrolled by Germany were handed over to Japan.

Angry Chinese protested during the MayFourth Movement. Protesters included MaoZedong. He later became the leader of China’sCommunist revolution.

1925 1931

1916 1928

1912The Kuomintang overthrows

the Qing Dynasty

TERMS AND NAMESSun Yixian One of the first leaders ofthe Kuomintang; “father of modernChina”Kuomintang Nationalist Party ofChina that overthrew the QingDynastyMay Fourth Movement Chinesenationalist protest against China’sfate as decided by the Treaty ofVersaillesMao Zedong Leader of theCommunist revolution in ChinaJiang Jieshi Leader of the ChineseNationalist PartyLong March Escape of Communiststo safety after being surrounded byNationalist forces

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1. What did China’s Nationalists want?

The Communist Party in China (pages 449–450)

What happened to theCommunist Party?In the 1920s, revolutionaries began to look toMarxism and the Russian Revolution for a solutionto China’s problems. Meanwhile, Sun Yixianbecame disappointed in the Western democracies.They refused to support his struggling government.He decided to become allies with the newlyformed Communist Party. Sun sought Soviet help,too. He died in 1925. Jiang Jieshi became leaderof the Kuomintang.

At first, Jiang Jieshi joined with theCommunists to try to defeat the warlords. Thesewarlords ruled as much of the Chinese countrysideas their armies could conquer. Together theNationalists and Communists successfully foughtthe warlords.

Many in the Kuomintang were business people.They now feared Communist ideas about govern-ment control of economic life. In 1927, Jiang beganfighting the Communists. The Communists wereforced into hiding. In 1928, Jiang became presi-dent of China. Soon China was torn by a civil warbetween the remaining Communists and Jiang’sforces.

2. What role did Jiang Jieshi play in creating the civil war?

Civil War Rages in China (pages 450–452)

Who fought the civil war?Jiang had promised democracy and political rightsto all Chinese. But his government had becomeless democratic and more corrupt. Nothing wasdone to improve the life of the rural peasants.Many of them gave their support to the ChineseCommunist Party.

Communist leader, Mao Zedong, built an armyof peasants. In 1933, Jiang’s army surroundedthem. But the Communists got away. They beganthe famous Long March of 6,000 miles to thenorth. Thousands died. The Communists settled incaves in Northwest China.

At the same time, China had other problems. In1931, Japan invaded the part of China calledManchuria. Japan took control there and six yearslater began invading other areas. With this newthreat, Jiang and the Communists agreed to unitetemporarily to fight the Japanese.

3. What finally united Communist and non-Communist forces?

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CHAPTER 15 YEARS OF CRISIS 157

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 15 Section 1 (pages 463–467)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last chapter, you read about nationalism and revolution.

In this section, you will learn how new ideas changed old ways of thinking.

AS YOU READUse the web diagram below to take notes on changes in the postwar period.

TERMS AND NAMESAlbert Einstein Scientist whodeveloped the theory of relativitytheory of relativity Idea that asmoving objects approach the speedof light, space and time becomerelativeSigmund Freud Physician whoexposed the workings of theunconscious mindexistentialism Philosophy that sayseach person must make meaning in aworld that has no universal meaningFriedrich Nietzsche Germanphilosopher who dismissed reason,democracy, and progress as emptyideassurrealism Art movement in which adreamlike world, outside of reality, isportrayed or evokedjazz Lively, loose form of popularmusic developed in the United StatesCharles Lindbergh First person to flyalone across the Atlantic

Postwar Uncertainty

A New Revolution in Science(page 463)

How did Einstein and Freud challenge old ideas?Two thinkers developed radical new ideas thatchallenged old ways of thinking. Albert Einsteincompletely changed physics with his ideas aboutspace, time, matter, and energy. He said that asmoving objects neared the speed of light, spaceand time became relative. That means they change.His idea is the theory of relativity.

Sigmund Freud changed the way peoplethought about the human mind. He said that muchof human behavior was irrational—due to urges

and desires buried in the unconscious mind of eachperson. At first, people did not want to acceptFreud’s ideas. Eventually, they gained wide influence.

1. What were Einstein’s and Freud’s new ideas?

Literature in the 1920s (pages 464–465)

How did writers and philosophersof the 1920s reflect society’s concerns?Many philosophers lost faith in reason and progressafter they looked at the destruction caused by

New Ideas

Existentialism

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158 CHAPTER 15 SECTION 1

World War I. One group developed the idea knownas existentialism. Existentialism argues that thereis no universal meaning to the world. Each personmust give life meaning through his or her ownactions.

These thinkers had been influenced byFriedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche was a Germanphilosopher of the late 1800s. He said that reason,democracy, and progress were empty ideas. Heurged people to adopt the values of pride andstrength.

Some authors, like Franz Kafka, wrote aboutthe horrors of modern life. His novels put people inthreatening situations that they could not under-stand or escape.

2. What is existentialism?

Revolution in the Arts (page 465)

How was painting of this time different from traditional painting?Artists rebelled against traditional painting. Theydid not recreate realistic objects. Paul Klee usedbold colors and distorted lines. Pablo Picassofounded a style called cubism that broke objectsinto geometric shapes. An art movement calledsurrealism showed a dreamlike existence outsidereality.

Composers created a new style of music. Some,like Igor Stravinsky, used unusual rhythms or harsh,rather than pleasing, sounds. African-Americanmusicians in the United States developed a lively,loose form of popular music called jazz.

3. What two new styles arose in the visual arts?

Society Challenges Convention (page 466)

How did society change?Society changed after World War I as well. Youngpeople experimented with modern values. Womenset aside earlier forms of dress, wearing new stylesthat were looser and shorter. Many women alsobegan to work in new careers.

4. In what ways was society more open?

Technological AdvancesImprove Life (pages 466–467)

What new technology arose?Technology brought about changes to society aswell. Improvements to the automobile helpedmake cars more desirable and affordable. Moreand more people bought cars. They began to moveto suburbs.

Another change was the growth in air travel.American pilot Charles Lindbergh flew aloneacross the Atlantic Ocean in 1927. In 1932, AmeliaEarhart became the first woman to make the flightalone.

The radio was developed and became popular.In the 1920s, large radio networks were built. Soonmillions of people were entertained by radios intheir homes. Millions more went to movie theatersto watch motion pictures.

5. What major changes came about in travel and entertainment?

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CHAPTER 15 YEARS OF CRISIS 159

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 15 Section 2 (pages 470–475)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about new ideas in the postwar world.

In this section, you will learn about economic crisis and worldwide depression.

AS YOU READUse the web below to record causes and effects of the Great Depression.

TERMS AND NAMEScoalition government Temporaryalliance of several political partiesWeimar Republic Government ofGermany after World War IGreat Depression Severe economicdownturn that followed the collapseof the U.S. stock market in 1929Franklin D. Roosevelt President ofthe United States during theDepressionNew Deal Roosevelt’s program forcreating jobs and improving theAmerican economy

A Worldwide Depression

Postwar Europe; The WeimarRepublic (pages 470–472)

What problems did Europe faceafter the war?After the war, European countries were in badpolitical and economic shape. Even nations thathad democratic governments for many years expe-rienced problems. They had so many political par-ties that no one party could rule alone. Sometimesa coalition government had to be formed. Thiswas an alliance of several political parties. In addi-

tion, governments lasted for such a short time thatit was hard to develop policies.

The situation was the worst in Germany. Thepeople felt little loyalty to the government.Germany’s government, the Weimar Republic,was very weak. Prices rose sharply, and money lostits value. Later, American bank loans helped theGerman economy recover.

World nations also took steps to try to makesure there would be lasting peace. France andGermany promised never to attack one another.Most countries of the world signed a treaty in

The GreatDepression

Boom hid economic problems

Causes Effects

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160 CHAPTER 15 SECTION 2

which they pledged not to go to war. There was noway to enforce the treaty, however.

1. Why was the postwar situation in Germany especially bad?

Financial Collapse; The GreatDepression (pages 472–474)

Where and how did the Great Depression begin?The economy of the United States enjoyed a boom inthe 1920s. But this growth hid problems. Consumerswere unable to buy all the goods produced. Whentheir purchases slowed, factories slowed production.Farmers faced falling food prices and slow sales.They were unable to repay loans and lost their farms.In 1929, stock prices in the United States plunged.The Great Depression had begun.

The depression affected other countries.Nations raised tariffs—taxes on goods importedfrom other countries—to keep import prices high.They hoped to increase sales by local companies.Unfortunately, trade between nations dropped,and unemployment shot up in many countries. Theworld suffered.

2. What caused the Great Depression?

The World Confronts the Crisis(pages 474–475)

How did various countries meet this crisis?Each country met the economic crisis in its ownway. In Britain, a new multiparty government tookover. It took steps that slowly improved the econo-my and cut unemployment.

In France, the political situation was worse.After several governments lost support, moderatesand socialists combined to form a government. Itpassed laws to help workers, but companies raisedprices to cover their labor costs. Unemploymentremained high.

In Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, the govern-ments played active roles in the economy. Theytaxed people with jobs to have money to pay bene-fits to people without jobs. The governments alsocreated jobs by hiring out-of-work people to buildroads and buildings.

In the United States, Franklin D. Rooseveltbegan a program called the New Deal. The gov-ernment spent large amounts of money on con-structing roads, dams, bridges, airports, and build-ings. This effort created jobs for millions.Businesses and farmers also got help from the gov-ernment. The American economy got better, butthe recovery was slow.

3. How did the United States meet the crisis?

SkillbuilderUse the graph to answer the questions.

1. How did the average price per stock share change between 1925 and 1929?

2. How did the average price per share change between 1929 and 1932?

Stock Prices, 1925–1933

5

10

15

20

25

30

1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933

Pric

e In

dex

(in d

olla

rs)

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CHAPTER 15 YEARS OF CRISIS 161

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 15 Section 3 (pages 476–480)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the Great Depression.

In this section, you will learn about the rise of fascism inEurope during troubled economic times.

AS YOU READUse the web diagram below to show characteristics andexamples of fascism.

TERMS AND NAMESfascism Political movement based onnationalism that gives power to adictator and takes away individualrightsBenito Mussolini Fascist leader ofItalyAdolf Hitler Fascist leader ofGermanyNazism German brand of fascismMein Kampf Book by Hitler outlininghis beliefs and goals for Germanylebensraum Living space

Fascism Rises inEurope

Fascism’s Rise in Italy (pages 476–477)

Why did fascism arise in Italy?The economic crisis of the Great Depression led tothe loss of democracy in some countries. In thesenations, millions of people turned to strong rulersto try to solve their economic problems. Such lead-ers followed a set of beliefs called fascism. Fascistleaders were very nationalistic. They believed inauthority and built powerful military forces. Fascistgovernments were controlled by one party, andthat party was ruled by one leader. The leader wasthe nation’s dictator. Fascist governments did notlet their people have individual rights.

Fascism arose in Italy. It started there becausepeople were angry that they did not get more terri-tory in the treaty that ended World War I. Also,inflation and unemployment were big problems.Benito Mussolini came to power by promising tohelp the economy and build the armed forces. Heused armed thugs to threaten political opponents.The king of Italy decided Mussolini was the besthope to save his dynasty and let him lead the gov-ernment.

Mussolini became Il Duce, or the leader, ofItaly. He outlawed all political parties except fas-cism. He tried to control the economy and out-lawed strikes.

Fascism

One party, one leader

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1. What did Mussolini promise the Italians?

Hitler Rises to Power inGermany (pages 477–478)

How did Hitler gain control of Germany?Another Fascist came to power in Germany. AdolfHitler was the leader of the Nazi party. TheGerman brand of fascism was called Nazism. Hetried to take control of the government of Germanyin 1923, but the attempt failed. He was sent toprison. In prison, Hitler wrote a book that summa-rized his ideas. It was called Mein Kampf. Hitlerbelieved that Germans were superior to all otherpeople. He said that the Treaty of Versailles treat-ed Germany unfairly. He also said that a crowdedGermany needed more lebensraum, or livingspace. To get that space, he promised to conquerthe lands of eastern Europe and Russia.

2. What were some of Hitler’s beliefs?

Hitler Becomes Chancellor (pages 478–480)

What did Hitler do when hebecame Germany’s leader?When the depression hit Germany, the country wasin terrible shape. Hitler was named leader of theGerman government. Soon, he took the powers ofa dictator. He became Germany’s führer, or leader.

Those who opposed him were arrested. His eco-nomic program gave work to millions but tookaway their rights to organize into unions or tostrike. He took control of all areas of life. Heburned books that went against Nazi ideas. Heforced children to join Nazi groups.

Hitler also attacked Germany’s Jews. Laws tookaway their rights. In November 1938, mobsattacked Jewish people and destroyed thousands ofJewish-owned buildings. This was the start of aprocess to eliminate the Jews from German life.

3. What changes did Hitler make?

Other Countries Fall toDictators (page 480)

What other countries were ruledby dictators?Fascist dictators took control in other countries aswell, including Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia,Albania, Bulgaria, and Romania. All had dictatorsor kings who ruled like dictators. OnlyCzechoslovakia remained as a democracy in east-ern Europe.

Elsewhere in Europe, only in nations withstrong democratic traditions—Britain, France andthe Scandinavian countries—did democracy survive.

4. Why did democracy survive in some countries?

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CHAPTER 15 YEARS OF CRISIS 163

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 15 Section 4 (pages 481–485)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the rise of fascism.

In this section, you will learn about military actions that led to a second world war.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to show when and where aggression took place.

TERMS AND NAMESappeasement Giving in to keep the peaceAxis Powers Germany, Italy, and JapanFrancisco Franco Spain’s Fascistdictatorisolationism Belief that political ties with other countries should beavoidedThird Reich German empireMunich Conference Meeting ofworld powers in 1938 that allowedHitler to take part of Czechoslovakia

AggressorsInvade Nations

Japan Seeks an Empire (pages 481–482)

Why did Japan wish to expand?Military leaders took control of Japan during theGreat Depression. They wanted to solve thecountry’s economic problems by foreign expansion.

In 1931, the Japanese army invaded Manchuria,a province of China. Manchuria was rich in coaland iron. These were valuable resources for theJapanese economy. Other countries spoke inprotest in the League of Nations but did nothingelse. Japan ignored the protests. In 1933, it pulledout of the League.

Four years later, Japan invaded China. Thepowerful Japanese army swept Chinese fightersaside. It killed tens of thousands of civilians andsoldiers in the city of Nanjing. In spite of theselosses, Chinese forces—both the nationalists of the

government and Communist rebels—continued toresist Japan.

1. What territories did Japan invade?

European Aggressors on theMarch (pages 482–483)

What European nations wereaggressors?Italy’s Mussolini also wanted to expand. Hedreamed of an Italian empire in Africa. In 1935 heordered the invasion of Ethiopia. His troops wonan easy victory. Haile Selassie, the emperor ofEthiopia, pleaded with the League of Nations to

1936 1939

1935 1938

1931Japan captures Manchuria

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164 CHAPTER 15 SECTION 4

help. The League did nothing. By giving in toMussolini in Africa, Britain and France hoped tokeep the peace in Europe.

Hitler made moves also. He broke theVersailles Treaty by rebuilding Germany’s army. In1936, he sent troops into an area along the RhineRiver between Germany and France that the treatyhad forbidden the Germans to enter. The Frenchand British again responded with appeasement—giving in to keep the peace.

The German movement into the Rhinelandmarked a turning point in the march toward war.Also in 1936, Hitler signed an alliance withMussolini and with Japan. These three nationscame to be called the Axis Powers.

In 1936, civil war broke out in Spain. The army,led by General Francisco Franco, revoltedagainst a government run by liberals and socialists.Hitler and Mussolini sent aid to the army, whichwas backed by Spanish Fascists. The Soviet Unionsent aid to the government. In early 1939, the gov-ernment’s resistance to the army collapsed.Francisco Franco became Spain’s Fascist dictator.

2. What places did Germany and Italy invade?

Democratic Nations Try toPreserve Peace (pages 484–485)

Why did the world’s democraciesfail to stop the aggression?At this time, many Americans resisted acceptingthe nation’s new role as a world leader. Theybelieved that the United States should follow a pol-

icy of isolationism. Isolationism was the beliefthat political ties with other countries should beavoided. This, it was thought, would keep thecountry out of another foreign war.

In March 1938, Hitler moved his troops intoAustria. He made it part of the Third Reich, orGerman Empire. This action broke the VersaillesTreaty again. France and Britain once more didnothing.

Later that year, Hitler demanded thatCzechoslovakia give up a part of its land toGermany. Czechoslovakia refused. The MunichConference was held in September 1938 to solvethe problem. At this meeting Germany, France,Britain, and Italy agreed to allow the Germans totake the land. In return, Hitler promised to respectthe new borders of Czechoslovakia. A few monthslater, however, he took the entire country.

In the summer of 1939, Hitler made a similardemand of Poland. That nation also refused to giveup land. Britain and France now said that theywould protect Poland. But Hitler believed thatthey would not risk going to war. At the same time,he signed an agreement with Soviet dictator JosephStalin. The two countries promised never to attackone another.

The Axis Powers were moving unchecked at theend of the decade. The whole world was waiting tosee what would happen next. It seemed that warwould break out.

3. What happened at the Munich Conference?

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CHAPTER 16 WORLD WAR II 167

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 16 Section 1 (pages 491–496)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last chapter, you read about actions that led up toWorld War II.

In this section, you will learn about the first years of thewar in Europe.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on key events in thefirst two years of the war.

Hitler’s Lightning War

Germany Sparks a New War in Europe (pages 491–492)

What caused Britain and France to declare war?In 1939, Adolf Hitler decided to move on Poland. Hehad already conquered Austria and Czechoslovakia.When Hitler signed a nonaggression pact withJoseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, they agreed not toattack each other. Secretly, they also agreed to splitPoland between them. This deal removed the threatof the Soviets attacking Germany from the east.

So, on September 1, the German army invadedPoland in a surprise attack. Using planes, tanks,and troops, it moved suddenly in a technique calledblitzkrieg, or “lightning war.” Britain and France

declared war, but Poland fell before they could help. On September 17, after secret agreement with

Hitler, Stalin invaded eastern Poland. Stalin thenbegan annexing the regions covered in a second partof the agreement. Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia fellwithout a struggle. However, Finland fought back.In March 1940, Finland was forced to surrender.

For seven months after Poland fell to theGermans, Europe was calm. France and Britaingot their armies ready. They waited for Hitler’s nextmove.

1. Why did Poland fall to the Germans so quickly?

April 1941 August 1941

April 1940 June 1941 fall of 1941

September 1, 1939Hitler invades Poland

TERMS AND NAMESnonaggression pact Agreement thatsays countries will not attack orinvade one another blitzkrieg Warfare in which surpriseair attacks are followed by massiveattacks on landCharles de Gaulle Leader of theFrench government-in-exileWinston Churchill Leader of BritainBattle of Britain Battle of British andGerman air forces fought over Britainduring 1940–1941Erwin Rommel German general wholed troops in North AfricaAtlantic Charter Declaration ofprinciples issued by WinstonChurchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt in August 1941

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168 CHAPTER 16 SECTION 1

The Fall of France; The Battle of Britain (pages 492–494)

What happened when France and Britain were attacked?Suddenly in April 1940, Hitler’s armies invadedDenmark and Norway. Within two months, theyalso captured Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxem-bourg, and France. Part of the French army, led byCharles de Gaulle, escaped to Britain to remainfree and continue the fight. By then, Italy’s BenitoMussolini had joined Hitler’s side.

Great Britain—now led by WinstonChurchill—stood alone. The German air forcebegan bombing Britain. It wanted to weaken thecountry. Germany was getting prepared to invadeBritain. But the British air force fought back. It washelped by the recently developed radar. This wasan electronic tracking system that warned of com-ing attacks. Also, the British had broken theGerman army’s secret code. The Battle of Britainlasted many months. Unable to break Britishdefenses, Hitler called off the attacks in May 1941.

2. Why did Germany fail to win the Battle of Britain?

The Mediterranean and theEastern Front (pages 494–496)

What countries did Hitler invade?Hitler then turned his attention to the east and to theMediterranean. Germany sent troops under GeneralErwin Rommel to North Africa to help Italy fightthe British. In April 1941, German armies quicklytook control of Yugoslavia and Greece. In June,Hitler began a surprise invasion of the Soviet Union.The Red Army was the largest in the world. But itwas not well-equipped or well-trained. The Germansquickly pushed deep into Soviet territory. The RedArmy was forced to retreat.

To keep supplies out of German hands, the RedArmy destroyed everything left behind. The

Germans were stopped from taking Leningrad inthe north. They then turned on Moscow, the Sovietcapital. A strong Soviet counterattack, combinedwith fierce Russian winter weather, forced theGermans back. Moscow had been saved, and thebattle had cost the Germans 500,000 lives.

3. What happened when Germany invaded the SovietUnion?

The United States Aids its Allies (page 496)

How did the United States take sides?The United States watched these events. ManyAmericans did not want to join in the war.President Roosevelt wanted to help the Allies,however. He asked Congress to allow Britain andFrance to buy American weapons. Soon, Americanships were escorting British ships carrying gunsbought from the United States. By the fall of 1941,U.S. ships had orders to fire on German sub-marines that threatened the ships. The UnitedStates and Germany were fighting an undeclarednaval war.

Roosevelt met secretly with Churchill in Augustof 1941. Although the United States was not offi-cially in the war, the two leaders issued a statementcalled the Atlantic Charter. It supported freetrade and the right of people to form their owngovernment.

4. Name two ways in which the United States supported the Allies.

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CHAPTER 16 WORLD WAR II 169

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 16 Section 2 (pages 497–501)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the war against Hitler in Europe.

In this section, you will learn about the war against Japanin the Pacific.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to record key events in the war in the Pacific.

Japan’s PacificCampaign

Surprise Attack on Pearl Harbor(pages 497–498)

How did the United States fightJapan before declaring war?The military leaders who ran the Japanese govern-ment also had plans to build an empire. Japan wasovercrowded and did not have enough raw materi-als or oil.

The Japanese captured part of China in 1931.In 1937, they invaded the center of China. Therethey met strong resistance. Needing resources forthis war, they decided to move into Southeast Asia.

The United States feared that Japanese controlof this area would threaten U.S. holdings in thePacific. Roosevelt gave military aid to China. Healso cut off oil shipments to Japan.

Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto decidedthat the U.S. fleet in Hawaii had to be destroyed.On December 7, 1941, the Japanese navy began asurprise attack on the U.S. naval base at PearlHarbor in Hawaii. In just two hours, Japaneseplanes sank or damaged a major part of the U.S.Pacific fleet—19 ships, including 8 battleships. Thenext day, Congress, at the request of PresidentRoosevelt, declared war on Japan and its allies.

ACT ION RESULT

Pearl Harbor Japanese bomb American fleet.

Battle of the Coral Sea

Battle of Midway

Battle of Guadalcanal

TERMS AND NAMESIsoroku Yamamoto Japanese admiralwho decided that the U.S. fleet inHawaii had to be destroyedPearl Harbor Navy base in Hawaiiattacked by the JapaneseBattle of Midway Sea and air battlein which American forces defeatedJapanese forces near Midway Islandin the PacificDouglas MacArthur U.S. generalwho commanded Allied forces in thePacificBattle of Guadalcanal Six-monthbattle on the island of Guadalcanal inwhich American and Australiantroops defeated Japanese defenders

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170 CHAPTER 16 SECTION 2

1. How did the United States respond to the Japaneseattack on Pearl Harbor?

Japanese Victories (page 498)

What areas of Asia did theJapanese conquer betweenDecember 1941 and mid-1942?The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was just oneof many sudden strikes. Japan also captured Guam,Wake Island, and the Philippines from the UnitedStates. It took Indonesia from the Dutch and HongKong, Malaya, and Singapore from the British.

Japan then invaded Burma, located betweenIndia and China. Japan wanted to stop China fromreceiving supplies through Burma. Burma fell inMay 1942. By that time, Japan had conqueredmore than 1 million square miles of land withabout 150 million people.

Before these conquests, the Japanese had triedto win the support of Asians. They used the anti-colonial slogan “Asia for the Asians.” After theirvictory, the Japanese made it clear that they hadcome as conquerers.

2. What countries lost territory to Japan early in the war?

The Allies Strike Back; An AlliedOffensive (pages 500–501)

How did the Allies strike back?The Japanese seemed unbeatable after a string ofvictories. But the Allies wanted to strike back in thePacific. In April 1942, the United States sentplanes to drop bombs on Tokyo. The attack raisedthe morale of Americans. In May 1942, the Alliessuffered heavy losses at the Battle of the Coral Sea.Still, they were able to stop the Japanese advanceand save Australia.

The next month, the U.S. Navy scored animportant victory near Midway Island in the cen-tral Pacific. In the Battle of Midway, Japan lostfour aircraft carriers, the most important navalweapon in the war. The victory turned the tide ofwar against Japan.

The United States now went on the attack.General Douglas MacArthur did not want toinvade the Japanese-held islands that were moststrongly defended. He wanted to attack weakerones. The first attack came on Guadalcanal, in theSolomon Islands in August. The Japanese werebuilding an air base there. It took six months offighting for U.S. and Australian troops to drive theJapanese off the island in the Battle ofGuadalcanal. The Japanese abandoned the islandin February 1943.

3. Name three Allied victories against Japan.

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CHAPTER 16 WORLD WAR II 171

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 16 Section 3 (pages 502–505)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the battles in thePacific.

In this section, you will read about Hitler’s “final solution”in Europe.

AS YOU READUse the web below to record important information aboutthe Holocaust.

TERMS AND NAMESAryans Germanic peoplesHolocaust Systematic mass killing ofJews and other groups consideredinferior by NazisKristallnacht “Night of BrokenGlass,” when Nazis attacked Jewsthroughout Germanyghettos Neighborhoods in whichEuropean Jews were forced to live”Final Solution“ Hitler’s plan to killas many Jews as possiblegenocide Systematic killing of anentire people

The Holocaust

The Holocaust Begins (pages 502–503)

What was the Holocaust?Part of Hitler’s new order for Europe included get-ting rid of “inferior” people. Hitler believed thatthe Aryans, or German peoples, were a “masterrace.” He had a deep-seated hatred of people whowere not German. He particularly hated Jews. Thisled to the Holocaust, the killing of millions of Jewsand other civilians.

During the 1930s, Hitler passed laws that tookaway the rights of German Jews. One night inNovember 1938, Nazi mobs attacked Jewsthroughout Germany. They destroyed homes and

businesses and killed or beat many people. Thisnight became known as Kristallnacht, or “Nightof Broken Glass.”

Kristallnacht was a major step-up in the Nazipolicy of persecuting the Jews. The future for theJews in Germany looked grim. Thousands of Jewstried to leave Germany. Other countries accepted alarge number but were unwilling to take all thosewho wished to leave.

Hitler ordered all Jews in Germany and his con-quered lands to live in certain parts of cities calledghettos. The Nazis then sealed off the ghettoswith barbed wire and stone walls. They wanted theJews inside to starve or die of disease. Even underthese horrible conditions, the Jews hung on.

TheHolocaust

Caused by ideasof a “master race”

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172 CHAPTER 16 SECTION 3

1. How did the Holocaust begin?

The “Final Solution” (pages 503–505)

What was the “Final Solution”?Hitler soon got tired of waiting for the Jews tostarve or die of disease in the ghettos. He decidedto take more direct action. He was going to kill asmany Jews as possible.

Hitler’s plan was the “Final Solution” to whatthe Nazis called the “Jewish problem.” It wasgenocide, the systematic killing of an entire peo-ple. The Nazis also wanted to wipe out many otherpeople to protect the “purity” of the Aryan race.These people included Roma (gypsies), Poles,

Russians, and those who were mentally or physi-cally disabled. The Germans paid the most atten-tion on Jews, however.

Thousands of Jews were shot to death by“killing squads.” Millions were gathered andplaced in concentration camps. These prisons usedthe inmates as slave workers. Many in the campsdied of starvation or disease.

Starting in 1942, the Nazis built “death camps.”At these camps, thousands of Jews were gassed todeath in huge gas chambers. In the end, six millionJews were killed by the Nazis. Fewer than fourmillion European Jews survived.

2. How was the “Final Solution” carried out?

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CHAPTER 16 WORLD WAR II 173

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 16 Section 4 (pages 506–513)

The Allied VictoryBEFORE YOU READ

In the last section, you read about the Holocaust inEurope.

In this section, you will learn how the war was fought and brought to an end around the world.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on key events in the last three years of the war.

The Tide Turns on Two Fronts (pages 506–507)

Where did the tide of war turn infavor of the Allies?In 1942, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin plannedthe Allies’ strategy. Stalin wanted Britain and theUnited States to open a second front againstGermany to relieve the pressure on his armies.Stalin wanted the attack in France. Roosevelt andChurchill agreed to a second front but chose toattack German General Erwin Rommel in NorthAfrica.

In late 1942, the British army led by GeneralBernard Montgomery drove the Germans out of

Egypt and back to the west. Meanwhile, Americantroops under the command of General Dwight D.Eisenhower landed behind the Germans andbegan moving east. The Germans were finallyforced out of Africa in May 1943.

At the same time, the Soviets gained a majorvictory as well. German troops had invaded theSoviet city of Stalingrad in 1942. The Red Armyforced the Germans to surrender in February1943, ending the Battle of Stalingrad.

American and British soldiers next invaded Italyand captured Sicily in August 1943. Mussolini wasdriven from power and the new Italian governmentsurrendered. But Hitler did not want to give upItaly. His army fought there until 1945.

June 1944 August 1945

May 1943 March 1945

February 1943Battle of Stalingrad ends

TERMS AND NAMESDwight D. Eisenhower Americangeneral who helped drive theGermans out of AfricaBattle of Stalingrad Battle duringwhich the Red Army forced theGermans out of StalingradD-Day Huge Allied invasion mountedto retake France from the GermansBattle of the Bulge Final large-scaleattack by German troops that wasforced back by the Allieskamikaze Japanese suicide pilots

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174 CHAPTER 16 SECTION 5

1. What major victories did the Allies win?

The Allied Home Fronts (pages 507–509)

What problems did people face at home?While the Allies continued to fight, people at homesuffered. Some British and Soviet citizens died. Inthe United States, citizens faced shortages. Goodssuch as food, tires, gasoline, and clothing were inshort supply. The government rationed theseitems. It limited how much a person could have sothere would be enough for the military.

Some Americans were even imprisoned. Bitterfeelings against the Japanese became widespread.As a result, mistrust of Japanese Americans grew.The U.S. government took thousands of JapaneseAmericans who lived on the west coast and movedthem to relocation camps in the western UnitedStates. Two-thirds of these people were Americancitizens.

2. What happened to Japanese Americans?

Victory in Europe (pages 509–511)

What were the final battles in Europe?In early 1944, the Allies built a massive force toretake France. In June, an invasion of thousands ofships, planes, and soldiers was launched. It wascalled D-Day. The invasion force suffered heavylosses but gained a foothold in northern France. Amonth later, Allied forces began to pour throughGerman lines. In August, they marched in triumphinto Paris. By September, they had driven theGermans out of France, Belgium, Luxembourg,and much of the Netherlands.

At the same time, the Soviets were pushing theGermans back in eastern Europe. In late 1944,Hitler ordered his army to make one final, large-scale attack in the west. In the Battle of the Bulge,

it punched through Allied lines until an Allied coun-terattack forced it back to Germany. By late April1945, Soviet troops surrounded Berlin, Hitler’sheadquarters. Five days later, he killed himself. Aweek later, the Germans surrendered. Roosevelt didnot live to see this victory, however. He had died inearly April. Harry Truman was now president.

3. Name three events that led directly to Germany’ssurrender.

Victory in the Pacific (pages 511–513)

What led to victory in the Pacific?In the Pacific, the Allies began to move towardJapan in 1943. They landed troops in thePhilippines in the fall of 1944. In the Battle ofLeyte Gulf, in October 1944, the Japanese navywas crushed.

As American troops moved closer to Japan, theyfaced attacks by kamikaze. These Japanese sui-cide pilots sank Allied ships by crashing theirbomb-filled planes into them. In March 1945, U.S.Marines captured the island of Iwo Jima, a strategicJapanese stronghold. By June, they had won con-trol of Okinawa, an island just 350 miles fromJapan.

Japan was the next stop. But the U.S. militaryfeared that an invasion of Japan would cost half amillion Allied lives. In August, President Trumanordered that an atomic bomb be dropped on thecity of Hiroshima to try to end the war quickly. Asecond bomb was dropped on Nagasaki three dayslater. Tens of thousands of Japanese died. Japansurrendered in September.

4. Name two events that led directly to Japan’s surrender.

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CHAPTER 16 WORLD WAR II 175

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 16 Section 5 (pages 514–517)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about how the war ended.

In this section, you will learn about the war’s effects onEurope and Japan.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the effects of thewar on Europe and Japan.

TERMS AND NAMESNuremberg Trials Trials of Nazileaders charged with crimes againsthumanity, held in Nuremberg,Germanydemilitarization Breaking downarmed forcesdemocratization Process of creatinga government elected by the people

Europe and Japan in Ruins

Devastation in Europe(pages 514–515)

How did the war change Europe?The war had left Europe in ruins. Almost 40 mil-lion people were dead. Hundreds of cities werereduced to rubble by constant bombing andshelling. The ground war had destroyed much ofthe countryside. Displaced persons from manynations were trying to get back home. Often therewas no water, no electricity, and little food. Hungerwas constant.

Agriculture had been disrupted. Most able-bodied men had served in the military, and thewomen had worked in war production. Few hadremained to plant the fields. With factoriesdestroyed or damaged, most people had no earn-ings to buy the food that was available. Also the

small harvests did not reach the cities because thetransportation system had been destroyed.Suffering continued for many years in Europe.

1. What conditions existed in Europe after World War II?

Postwar Governments andPolitics (pages 515–516)

Who did the Europeans blame forthe war?Europeans often blamed their leaders for the warand its aftermath. Once Germany was defeated,some prewar governments—like those in Belgium,

EconomicHundreds of cities destroyed

Political Social

Effects of World War II

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176 CHAPTER 16 SECTION 5

Holland, Denmark, and Norway—returned quick-ly. In Germany, Italy, and France, the old fascistgovernments had disappeared. At first, theCommunist parties grew strong in France andItaly. People who opposed Communism grewalarmed. They voted leaders from other partiesinto power. Communism lost its appeal when theeconomies of these lands improved.

During efforts to rebuild Europe, the Alliesheld the Nuremberg Trials in the German city ofNuremberg. There, captured Nazi leaders werecharged with crimes against humanity. They werefound guilty, and some were executed.

2. What were the Nuremberg Trials?

Postwar Japan; OccupationBrings Deep Changes (pages 516–517)

What changes were made inJapan?The defeat suffered by Japan in World War II haddevastated that country. Two million lives had beenlost. The country’s major cities were in ruins.

The U.S. Army occupied Japan under the com-mand of General MacArthur. He began a processof demilitarization, breaking down the Japanesearmed forces. MacArthur also paid attention todemocratization, or creating a government elect-ed by the people. His first step was to write a newconstitution. It gave all power to the Japanese peo-ple, who voted for members of a parliament thatwould rule the land. All Japanese over age 20—including women—were given the right to vote. In1951, other nations finally signed a formal peacewith Japan. A few months later, U.S. military occu-pation ended.

3. How did the government of Japan change?

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CHAPTER 17 RESTRUCTURING THE POSTWAR WORLD 179

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 17 Section 1 (pages 531–537)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learned about the end of theSecond World War.

In this section, you will learn about the international tensions that followed the war.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on causes and effects of the Cold War.

Cold War: Superpowers Face Off

Allies Become Enemies (pages 531–532)

What caused the Cold War?The United States and the Soviet Union were alliesduring World War II. In February 1945, theyagreed to divide Germany into separate zones.Each zone was occupied by the soldiers of one ofthe Allies. The Allies also helped form the UnitedNations (UN) in 1945. The UN pledged to prevent war.

The United States and the Soviet Union hadimportant differences after the war. The UnitedStates suffered few casualties and was the richestnation in the world. The Soviet Union sufferedenormous loss of life and damage to its cities.

There were also striking political differences.The United States wanted to create new marketsfor its goods. It also wanted to encourage democ-racy. The Soviet Union wanted to set upCommunist governments and make sure it did notget attacked again from the west. These differ-ences caused tensions between the two countries.

1. How did U.S. goals and Soviet goals differ afterWorld War II?

Different political systems

causes effects

TERMS AND NAMESUnited Nations World organizationformed to prevent wariron curtain Division betweenEastern and Western Europeduring the Cold Warcontainment Policy aimed atpreventing the spread ofcommunismTruman Doctrine Policy of giving aid to countries threatened bycommunismMarshall Plan Plan to give aid toEuropean countries to help themrecover from the warCold War State of tension andmistrust between the United Statesand the Soviet Union after World War IINATO Military alliance includingthe United States, Canada, andseveral countries in WesternEuropeWarsaw Pact Military alliancebetween the Soviet Union and thecountries of Eastern Europebrinkmanship Willingness on thepart of the superpower to go to thebrink, or edge, of war

TheCold War

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180 CHAPTER 17 SECTION 1

Eastern Europe’s Iron Curtain(page 533)

How did the Soviet Union gaincontrol of Eastern Europe?At the end of World War II, Soviet forces occupiedlands along its western border. After the war, Stalinmade sure Communist governments were in placein these lands: Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary,Czechoslovakia, Romania, Poland, and Yugoslavia.This divided Europe between East and West.Winston Churchill called this division the “ironcurtain.”

2. What countries were separated from the West by the iron curtain?

United States Tries to Contain Soviets (pages 533–535)

How did the United Statesrespond to communism?Truman began a policy of containment—blockingthe Soviets from spreading communism. Under theTruman Doctrine, the United States helpednations that were threatened by communism. TheUnited States also adopted the Marshall Plan in1947. This plan gave food and other aid toEuropean countries to help them recover from thewar.

In 1948, the Soviets and Americans clashedover Germany. France, Britain, and the UnitedStates agreed to pull their troops out of Germany.They let the three zones that they occupied unite.But the Soviets refused to leave their zone. Thenthey cut off all highway and train traffic into Berlin,which was deep within the Soviet zone. The UnitedStates and Britain responded with the Berlinairlift. They flew food and supplies into the city for11 months. Finally, the Soviets lifted the blockade.

3. What was the Berlin airlift?

Cold War Divides the World (pages 535–537)

Why did tensions between thesuperpowers increase?The struggle between the United States and theSoviet Union was called the Cold War. Manycountries supported one superpower or the other.

The United States, Canada, and several coun-tries in Western Europe formed the North AtlanticTreaty Organization (NATO). NATO was a militaryalliance. Each nation promised to defend any othermember that was attacked. The Soviets and thecountries of Eastern Europe made a similar agree-ment. It was called the Warsaw Pact.

In 1949, the Soviet Union announced that ithad developed an atomic bomb. Three years later,both superpowers had an even more deadlyweapon—the hydrogen bomb. Soon both nationswere involved in an arms race. They producedmore and more nuclear weapons and developednew ways to deliver them. Both sides were willingto go to the brink, or edge, of war. This becameknown as brinkmanship.

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik,the world’s first human-made satellite. Many peo-ple were shocked. Americans felt that the Sovietswere far ahead in science and technology. TheUnited States then began spending huge amountsof money to improve science education.

The U-2 incident brought more tension. TheUnited States sent planes, called U-2 planes, to spyover Soviet territory. One was shot down in 1960.

4. What are three developments or events thatincreased tensions during the Cold War?

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CHAPTER 17 Section 2 (pages 538–541)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about tensions between the superpowers.

In this section, you will read about civil war and the rise of communism in China.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on changes in China.

TERMS AND NAMESMao Zedong Communist leader whodefeated the Nationalists and led thePeople’s Republic of ChinaJiang Jieshi Nationalist leader whoset up a new government in Taiwancommune Large farm setup in Chinain which many families work the landand live togetherRed Guards Young Chinese studentswho carried out the CulturalRevolutionCultural Revolution Uprising in Chinabetween 1966 and 1976 that aimed toestablish a society of peasants andworkers in which all were equal

Communists TakePower in China

Communists vs. Nationalists (pages 538–539)

Who fought the civil war?Nationalists and Communists fought for control ofChina in the 1930s. During World War II, theyjoined forces to fight against the Japanese. TheCommunists, led by Mao Zedong, organized anarmy of peasants in northwestern China. Fromthere they fought the Japanese in the northeast.

The Nationalists, led by Jiang Jieshi, con-trolled southwestern China. The Nationalists

were protected from the Japanese by mountains.The United States sent the Nationalists largeamounts of money and supplies, but corrupt offi-cers took much of it. The Nationalists built a largearmy, but they only fought a few battles againstthe Japanese.

After the Japanese surrendered, theCommunists and Nationalists resumed their civilwar. The war lasted from 1946 to 1949. TheCommunists won because their troops were well-trained in guerrilla war. They also enjoyed thebacking of the peasants to whom they had

Mao BringsChanges

DefeatsNationalists

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promised land. In 1949, Jiang Jieshi and otherNationalist leaders fled to the island of Taiwan.

1. What two groups fought the civil war, and who led them?

The Two Chinas Affect the ColdWar (pages 539–540)

How did the two Chinas participate in the Cold War?The United States helped the Nationalists set up anew government. The Nationalists called their landthe Republic of China. Meanwhile, the Sovietshelped Mao Zedong and his government, thePeople’s Republic of China.

The Chinese and the Soviets promised to helpdefend each other if either country were attacked.The United States responded by trying to haltSoviet expansion in Asia. Communist China alsotried to expand its power. The Chinese invadedMongolia, Tibet, and India.

2. How did the superpowers take sides with the two Chinas?

The Communists TransformChina (pages 540–541)

How did Mao change China?Mao set out to rebuild China. He seized land andgave it to the peasants. But he also forced the peas-ants—in groups of 200 to 300 households—to joincollective farms, or communes. On these farms,the land belonged to the group. Mao also took con-trol of China’s industries. Under Mao’s plan, pro-duction of industrial products went up.

With this success, Mao launched the “GreatLeap Forward.“ He wanted to make the com-munes larger and more productive. The planfailed. People did not like strong government con-trol. The government did not plan effectively.Between 1958 and 1961, famine killed millions.

In 1966, Mao tried to revive the revolution. Heencouraged young people to revive the revolution.Students formed groups called Red Guards. Thiswas the beginning of the Cultural Revolution.The Red Guards struck at teachers, scientists, andartists. They shut down schools and sent intellectu-als to the country to work on farms. They killedthousands of people who resisted. China was inchaos. Factories shut down and farm productiondropped. Eventually, Mao put an end to theCultural Revolution.

3. What are three changes Mao made?

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CHAPTER 17 Section 3 (pages 542–547)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the civil war in China.

In this section, you will read about wars in Korea and Vietnam.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on important eventsin Korea, Vietnam, and Cambodia.

Wars in Korea and Vietnam

War in Korea (pages 542–544)

How was Korea divided?When World War II ended, Korea became a divid-ed nation. North of the 38th parallel, a line thatcrosses Korea at 38 degrees north latitude, theJapanese surrendered to the Soviets. South of thatline, the Japanese surrendered to the Allies.

As in Germany, two nations developed. TheSoviet Union supported a Communist governmentin North Korea. The United States supported a

non-Communist government in South Korea. OnJune 25, 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea.President Truman fought this move with help fromthe UN. The United States and other countries senttroops to assist South Korea. At first, the NorthKorean army captured almost all of South Korea.

Then the UN army made a bold counterattack.The attack was led by General DouglasMacArthur. In 1953, the two Koreas agreed to acease-fire. The earlier boundary splitting Northand South Korea remained the same.

1973 1987

1953 19891978

1950North Korea invades the South

TERMS AND NAMES38th parallel Line that separatedNorth Korea and South KoreaDouglas MacArthur Leader of UnitedNations forces during the KoreanWarHo Chi Minh Vietnamese nationalistwho drove the French out of Vietnamand who led North Vietnamdomino theory Theory that nationswere like a row of dominoes: if onefell to communism, the others wouldfall, tooVietcong Communist rebels in SouthVietnam who were supported byNorth VietnamNgo Dinh Diem Leader of theanticommunist government of SouthVietnamVietnamization Nixon’s plan forgradually withdrawing U.S. troopsfrom Vietnam and replacing themwith South Vietnamese troopsKhmer Rouge Communist rebels whoset up a brutal government inCambodia

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184 CHAPTER 17 SECTION 3

North Korea had a Communist government. Ithad a strong army and tight government control,but it also had many economic problems. For morethan 30 years, dictators ruled South Korea. But itseconomy grew, in part because it received U.S. aid.Free elections were held in South Korea after anew constitution was adopted in 1987.

1. How did the Korean War change the way Koreawas divided?

War Breaks Out in Vietnam; TheUnited States Get Involved;Postwar Southeast Asia (pages 544–547)

How did the United States getinvolved in Vietnam?A nationalist named Ho Chi Minh drove theFrench out of Vietnam. This worried the UnitedStates because Ho had turned to the Communistsfor help. Many Americans thought if one countrybecame Communist, others would also, like a rowof dominoes. This idea is known as the dominotheory. A peace conference split Vietnam in two,with Ho taking charge of North Vietnam. The coun-try had a Communist government. Communistrebels—the Vietcong—stayed active in the South.

The non-Communist government of the Southhad been set up by the United States and France.Its leader was Ngo Dinh Diem. When his gov-ernment was threatened by Communists, theUnited States began to send troops. When theycould not win the war on the ground, they triedbombing. Many people in the United States cameto oppose the war.

In the late 1960s, President Richard Nixonbegan a plan called Vietnamization. This plancalled for a gradual pullout of U.S. troops. At thesame time, the South Vietnamese increased theircombat role. The last American troops left in 1973.Two years later, North Vietnam overran the Southand made Vietnam one country again. Today,Vietnam remains Communist but is looking forother nations to invest in its economy.

Fighting in Vietnam spilled over into Vietnam’sneighbor, Cambodia. Rebels there were known asthe Khmer Rouge. They set up a brutal Communistgovernment. The Khmer Rouge killed 2 million peo-ple. In 1978, the Vietnamese invaded the country.They overthrew the Khmer Rouge. Vietnam with-drew in 1989. In 1993, Cambodia held free electionsfor the first time.

2. What happened in Vietnam after the United Stateswithdrew?

SkillbuilderUse the graph to answer these questions.

1. In which year was the number of U.S. troops inVietnam the highest?

2. What is the greatest number of troops the SouthVietnamese army had at one time?

Combat Troops Involved

■ S. Vietnam ■ N. Vietnam ■ U.S.

197519731971196919671965196319610

200400600800

1,000

Troo

ps(in

thou

sand

s)

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CHAPTER 17 RESTRUCTURING THE POSTWAR WORLD 185

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 17 Section 4 (pages 548–553)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about wars in Korea and Vietnam.

In this section, you will learn about Cold War struggles inother parts of the world.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on Cold War conflicts.

TERMS AND NAMESThird World Developing nations inAfrica, Asia, and Latin Americanonaligned nations Countries thatdid not take sides with either theUnited States or the Soviet UnionFidel Castro Communist leader ofCubaAnastasio Somoza NicaraguandictatorDaniel Ortega Leader of Communistrebels in NicaraguaAyatollah Ruholla Khomeini Muslimleader who overthrew the Shah ofIran

The Cold War Divides the World

Fighting for the Third World (pages 548–549)

How were developing nationsaffected by the Cold War?After World War II, the world’s nations weregrouped into three “worlds.” The First Worldincluded the United States and its allies. TheSecond World consisted of Communist nations ledby the Soviet Union. The Third World was com-posed of developing nations in Africa, Asia, andLatin America.

Many Third World nations had serious prob-lems. These problems were often due to a long his-tory of colonialism. Some Third World nationsfaced political unrest that threatened the peace.Other problems included poverty and a lack ofeducation and technology. Some of these countriestried to stay neutral in the Cold War. They met toform what they called a “third force.“ It consistedof nonaligned nations, or countries that did nottake sides between the Soviets and Americans.Others actively sought American or Soviet aid.

COUNTRY CONFL ICT OR CHANGE

Cuba Castro takes power

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1. What problems did Third World nations face?

Confrontations in Latin America(pages 550–551)

What happened in Latin America?In Cuba, the United States supported a dictator inthe 1950s. In 1959, a young lawyer, Fidel Castro,led a successful revolt. Castro received aid fromthe Soviet Union. In 1962, the Soviets andAmericans almost went to war over nuclear mis-siles that the Soviets placed in Cuba. The Sovietsfinally pulled the missiles out. Over time, theCuban economy became more dependent onSoviet aid. When the Soviet Union collapsed in1991, this aid stopped. It was a serious blow toCuba’s economy.

The United States had also backed a dictator,Anastasio Somoza, in Nicaragua. Somoza’s gov-ernment fell to Communist rebels in 1979. Therebels were led by Daniel Ortega. When the newgovernment began helping leftist rebels in nearbyEl Salvador, the United States struck back. Itbegan to support Nicaraguan rebels that wanted tooverthrow the Communists. The civil war inNicaragua lasted more than a decade. Finally, thedifferent sides agreed to hold free elections.

2. Where did Communists gain power in Latin America?

Confrontations in the MiddleEast (pages 552–553)

What happened in Iran and Afghanistan?The Middle East often saw conflict between thosewho wanted a more modern, Western-style societyand those who wanted to follow traditional Islam.Such a struggle took place in Iran. In the 1950s, agroup tried to take control of the government fromIran’s ruler, Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi.The United States helped the Shah defeat them.

Over time, the Shah tried to weaken the influ-ence of Islam in Iran. A Muslim leader, theAyatollah Ruholla Khomeini, led a successfulrevolt. In 1979, the Shah was forced to leave thecountry. Khomeini made Islamic law the law of theland. He followed a foreign policy that was strong-ly against the United States. He also led his coun-try in a long war against its neighbor Iraq.

The Soviets gained influence in Afghanistanafter 1950. In the 1970s, Islamic rebels threatenedthe country’s Communist government. The Sovietssent in troops to support the government. TheUnited States felt its Middle East oil supplies werein danger and supported the rebels. In 1989, aftera costly occupation, Soviet troops left Afghanistan.

3. How did Khomeini change Iran?

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CHAPTER 17 RESTRUCTURING THE POSTWAR WORLD 187

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CHAPTER 17 Section 5 (pages 554–557)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about Cold War struggles around the world.

In this section, you will read about the major events of the Cold War from the 1950s to the 1980s.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to show key events that decreasedor increased tensions between the superpowers.

The Cold War Thaws

Soviet Policy in Eastern Europeand China (page 554)

How did the Soviets keep controlover Eastern Europe?Nikita Khrushchev became the Soviet leaderafter Stalin died in 1953. Krushchev began aprocess of “destalinization.” This meant getting ridof Stalin’s memory. Krushchev also believed thatthe Soviet Union should have “peaceful competi-tion” with the capitalist nations.

In Eastern Europe, many people still resentedSoviet rule. Eastern Europeans took part in protest

movements against Soviet control. In 1956, pro-testers and the army overthrew the Communistgovernment of Hungary. Khrushchev sent Soviettanks to put the Communists back in power. In1964, Leonid Brezhnev replaced Krushchev.When Czechoslovakians began to reform theirCommunist government in 1968, Brezhnev sent intanks to stop them.

The Soviets did not have the same control overtheir larger neighbor, China. Although the SovietUnion and China enjoyed friendly relations at first,they gradually grew apart. The split became sowide that the Soviet Union and China sometimes

TERMS AND NAMESNikita Khrushchev Leader of theSoviet Union after StalinLeonid Brezhnev Soviet leader afterKhrushchevJohn F. Kennedy President of theUnited States from 1961 to 1963Lyndon Johnson President of theUnited States from 1963 to 1969détente Policy to decrease tensionsbetween the superpowersRichard M. Nixon President of theUnited States from 1969 to 1974SALT Talks to limit nuclear arms inthe United States and the SovietUnionRonald Reagan President of theUnited States from 1981 to 1989

1968 1979

1956 1972 1981

1953Krushchev becomes new Soviet leader

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188 CHAPTER 17 SECTION 5

fought along their border. The two nations nowhave a peaceful relationship.

1. In what two European countries did the Soviets putdown revolts against Soviet control?

From Brinkmanship to Détente;The Collapse of Détente (pages 556–557)

Did tensions between the UnitedStates and the Soviet Union change?Tensions between the Soviets and the UnitedStates had been very high during the presidency ofJohn F. Kennedy. They remained high during thepresidency of Lyndon Johnson. The war inVietnam helped keep relations tense.

In the early 1970s, the United States began tofollow a policy called détente under PresidentRichard M. Nixon. Détente was a policy of lower-ing tensions between the superpowers. Nixon made

visits to both Communist China and the SovietUnion. In 1972, he and Brezhnev held meetingscalled the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT).They signed a treaty to limit the number of nuclearmissiles each country could have.

The United States retreated from détente whenthe Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979. In1981, Ronald Reagan, a fierce anti-Communist,became president. He proposed a costly anti-mis-sile defense system to protect America againstSoviet missiles. It was never put into effect. But itremained a symbol of U.S. anti-Communist feelings.

The Soviets grew angry over American supportfor the rebels fighting against the Communists inNicaragua. Tensions between the United Statesand the Soviet Union increased until 1985 when anew leader came to power in the Soviet Union.

2. Name two actions or events that got in the way of détente.

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CHAPTER 18 THE COLONIES BECOME NEW NATIONS 191

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CHAPTER 18 Section 1 (pages 563–569)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last chapter, you read about the Cold War.

In this section, you will read about changes in India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on changes in India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

The IndianSubcontinent AchievesFreedom

A Movement TowardIndependence (page 563)

What led to the movement for independence?Many Asians served in the armies of the colonialpowers during World War II. The fight against theNazis deepened Asians’ desire for independence.Japanese victories over European powers early inthe war made Asians believe that the colonial rulerscould be defeated. In Europe, people began todoubt that it was right for nations to have colonies.

1. Name two things that increased Asian hopes for independence.

Freedom Brings Turmoil (pages 565–565)

What divisions existed betweenIndian political groups?In the 1920s, Mohandas Gandhi led a movementfor Indian independence. Two groups worked inthis effort. The Indian National Congress, also

1971 1983

1964 1972

1947India and Ceylon win independence

TERMS AND NAMESCongress Party Group consistingmostly of Hindus that led a campaignfor India’s independenceMuhammed Ali Jinnah Leader of theMuslim LeagueMuslim League Muslim group thatled a campaign for India’sindependencepartition Division of India into twonationsJawaharlal Nehru First primeminister of IndiaIndira Gandhi Daughter of Nehruwho followed him as prime ministerBenazir Bhutto Former primeminister of Pakistan

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192 CHAPTER 18 SECTION 1

called the Congress Party, said that it represent-ed all of India. Most of its members were Hindu.Muhammad Ali Jinnah formed the MuslimLeague in 1906. He said that the Congress Partydid not care for the rights of Indian Muslims. TheBritish encouraged the division of Hindus andMuslims into two opposing groups. This divisionhelped the British keep control of the country.

After World War II, Britain was ready for Indiato be independent. But the British did not knowwhich people in India would take power. Riotsbroke out between the Hindus and Muslimsthroughout India.

Gandhi tried to end the violence. A Hinduextremist assassinated him for protecting Muslims.Lord Louis Mountbatten, the last British viceroy ofIndia, also tried to stop the violence. He finallyaccepted the idea that partition, or the division ofIndia into two nations, was necessary.

The British Parliament passed a law grantingindependence in July 1947. It created the separateHindu and Muslim nations of India and Pakistan.The law gave people only one month to decidewhich country they wanted to live in and to movethere. As millions of people began to move, moreviolence broke out.

2. What happened when the separate nations of Indiaand Pakistan were created?

Modern India (pages 565–566)

What problems has modern India faced?Jawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minis-ter of India. He led the country for 17 years.

India and Pakistan went to war over the state ofKashmir. Kashmir bordered both countries. It hada Hindu ruler and a large Muslim population.Conflict over Kashmir continues today.

Nehru tried to reform Indian society. He hopedto improve the status of the lower castes and of

women. Shortly after he died in 1964, his daughter,Indira Gandhi, became prime minister. She tooksteps to increase food production. In 1984, sheordered an attack on Sikh rebels. A few monthslater, she was killed by Sikhs. She was followed byher son Rajiv Gandhi. He was later assassinated.Separatist movements continue to disrupt Indiansociety.

3. Why does conflict continue in Kashmir?

Pakistan Copes with Freedom;Bangladesh and Sri LankaStruggle (pages 567–569)

How have new political divisionsled to violence?Pakistan has faced a great deal of violence, too.When Pakistan was first formed, it had east andwest parts that were separated by India. In abloody fight in 1971, the eastern part won its inde-pendence. The new nation took the nameBangladesh. Power struggles have caused prob-lems in the western part since then. Its leadershave included Ali Bhutto and his daughter,Benazir Bhutto. She was elected prime ministertwice.

Ceylon, an island on the southeastern coast ofIndia, won its independence in 1947 as well. In1972 it was renamed Sri Lanka. Since 1983, aHindu minority on the island—the Tamils—haveled a bloody fight to form a separate nation.

4. Why has violence occurred in Pakistan?

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CHAPTER 18 THE COLONIES BECOME NEW NATIONS 193

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 18 Section 2 (pages 570–577)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about independence and conflict in India.

In this section, you will read about independence and the challenges of self-rule in Southeast Asia.

AS YOU READUse the web below to show key people and events in each struggle for independence.

TERMS AND NAMESFerdinand Marcos Leader of thePhilippines who was elected butruled as a dictatorCorazón Aquino Woman whodefeated Marcos in the elections of1986Aung San Suu Kyi Daughter of AungSan; winner of Nobel Prize for herfight for democracy in BurmaSukarno Leader of Indonesianindependence movement; firstpresident of IndonesiaSuharto Leader who turnedIndonesia into a police state

Southeast AsianNations GainIndependence

The Philippines AchievesIndependence (pages 570–572)

What happened in the Philippinesafter it gained independence?In 1946, the United States gave the Philippinesindependence. The United States also promisedmoney to help the Filipinos rebuild their economy.To win the aid, however, the Filipinos had to agreeto a trade deal. For the next few decades, theUnited States kept naval and air bases on theislands. Many Filipinos wanted the bases closed. In

1991, the United States left the bases.From 1966 to 1986, Ferdinand Marcos led

the country. He was elected president but after afew years ruled as a dictator. He then harshly putdown dissent and stole millions of dollars from thecountry. When he lost an election to CorazónAquino in 1986, he refused to leave office. A largepublic outcry forced him to step down.

1. Who was Ferdinand Marcos?

PhilippinesU.S. presence

after independence

Burma

Challenges ofIndependence

Indonesia

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British Colonies GainIndependence (pages 572–573)

Which Southeast Asian Britishcolonies won independence?Burma was the first British colony in SoutheastAsia to become independent. Nationalist leaderAung San helped drive the British out of Burma.Burma changed its name to Myanmar in 1989.Since 1962, generals have ruled the country.Myanmar has been torn by conflict often. AungSan Suu Kyi won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991for her opposition to this military rule.

After World War II, the British moved back intothe Malay peninsula. They tried to form a countrythere. But ethnic conflict between Malays andChinese who lived in the area stopped them. In1957, independence was given to Malaya,Singapore, and parts of two distant islands.

Singapore later declared independence as acity-state. Singapore is one of the busiest ports inthe world. It is also a banking center. Its economycreates a high standard of living.

2. What happened in Burma after it gained independence?

Indonesia Gains Independencefrom the Dutch (pages 574–577)

What challenges did Indonesia face?Sukarno led an independence movement inIndonesia while Japan held that country. AfterWorld War II, he quickly declared an independentIndonesia. The Dutch at first tried to regain con-trol over their former colony. But in 1949 they rec-ognized Indonesia’s independence.

Indonesia is spread out. It has 13,600 islandsand includes people from 300 different groups thatspeak 250 different languages. It has been difficultfor leaders to unite the nation. In 1967, a generalnamed Suharto took control. He ruled until 1998.Many criticized him for taking over the island of

East Timor and for corruption in his government.In the late 1990s Indonesia faced severe economicproblems.

3. Why has governing Indonesia proven difficult?

SkillbuilderUse the graph to answer these questions.

1. How does the rate of growth in the Philippinescompare with that of Singapore?

2. Given the trend on this graph, what might youexpect to see in later years?

0

$5,000

$10,000

$15,000

$20,000

$25,000

199119851965■ Philippines■ Singapore■ United States

Comparing Economies

Gross Domestic Product is the dollarvalue of all goods and services producedwithin a country during one year. In thisgraph, the GDP is divided by the numberof productive workers in each country.This results in the GDP per capita, or per person.

Sources: World Statistics in Brief (1978) and World Statistics

Pocketbook (1995), published by the United Nations.

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CHAPTER 18 THE COLONIES BECOME NEW NATIONS 195

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CHAPTER 18 Section 3 (pages 578–582)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the struggle for self-rule in Southeast Asian colonies.

In this section, you will read about new nations in Africa.

AS YOU READUse the web below to take notes on challenges facing each nation after independence.

TERMS AND NAMESNegritude movement Africanmovement after World War II tocelebrate African culture, heritage,and valuesKwame Nkrumah Leader in the GoldCoast independence movementJomo Kenyatta Nationalist whohelped lead Kenya to independenceMobutu Sese Seko Ruler who tookcontrol of the Congo in 1965 andrenamed it ZaireAhmed Ben Bella Leader of the FLNwho became the first president andprime minister of Algeria

New Nations in Africa

Achieving Independence (pages 578–579)

Why did independence move-ments increase after World War II?During World War II, Africans fought as soldiersalong with Europeans. After the war, Africanswanted independence. Many Africans took part inthe Negritude movement. The purpose of thismovement was to celebrate African culture, her-itage, and values.

1. What was the Negritude movement?

Ghana Leads the Way; Fighting for Freedom (pages 579–581)

What challenges did newly independent nations face?The British gave Africans a greater part in the colo-nial government of its Gold Coast colony. KwameNkrumah led a movement to push Britain to actmore quickly. The effort succeeded. In 1957 theGold Coast colony became independent. The newnation took the name Ghana.

Nkrumah had big plans for building the econo-my of Ghana. But these plans were very expensive.Opposition grew. Finally, the army seized power in1966. Ghana has been ruled by a military dictatorsince 1981.

COUNTRY CHALLENGES

Ghana Military rule since 1981

Kenya

Congo

Algeria

Angola

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The strong leadership of nationalist JomoKenyatta helped Kenya achieve independence in1963. An uprising of Africans called Mau Mau alsohelped. Mau Mau aimed at frightening the Britishsettlers to leave. Kenyatta became president of thenew nation. He tried to unite the many differentpeople in his country. Kenya has faced violence anda weak economy in the 1990s.

A bloody conflict for independence took placein Algeria. About 1 million French settlers livedthere. They were unwilling to give up their proper-ty or their control of the colonial government.

Violence broke out in 1945 and continued formany years. In 1954, the Algerian NationalLiberation Front, or FLN, announced its intentionto fight for independence. In 1962, the Frenchfinally granted independence to Algeria.

Ahmed Ben Bella, a leader of the FLN, wasthe first prime minister and then the first presidentof Algeria. From 1965 until 1988, Algerians tried tomodernize their country. These efforts failed.

An Islamic party won elections in 1991. But thegovernment rejected the vote. Fighting betweenIslamic militants and the government continuedthrough the 1990s.

2. What problems did the new nations of Ghana andKenya face?

Civil War in Congo and Angola(pages 581–582)

What happened in the Congoafter independence?The Congo won its independence from Belgium in1960. But the new nation was not well-prepared forself-rule. The Congo quickly fell into civil war.

In 1965, Mobutu Sese Seko took control. Herenamed the country Zaire and ruled until 1997.Zaire had rich mineral resources. But Mobutu’sharsh and corrupt rule made the country poor. Hewas overthrown in a coup in 1997. The country’sname was changed back to the Congo.

The colonies of Portugal were the last to gaintheir independence. Portugal did nothing to pre-pare the people of Angola for self-rule. ThreeAngolan groups emerged in the 1960s that weredetermined to control the new government.

In the 1970s, the army of Portugal revoltedagainst its government over the war in Angola. Thetroops left Angola without putting any group incharge. Angolans fought a long civil war. The warended in 1989. But no strong government hasformed yet.

3. How did Mobutu rule the Congo?

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CHAPTER 18 Section 4 (pages 583–589)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about conflicts in the newnations of Africa.

In this section, you will learn about conflict in the Middle East.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on the conflicts and hopes for peace that followed the creation of the state of Israel.

Conflicts in the Middle East

Israel Becomes a State(pages 583–584)

How did Israel come into being?The movement to settle Jews in Palestine began inthe late 1800s and early 1900s. These Jewsbelieved that Palestine belonged to them becauseit was their home 3,000 years ago. But Muslims hadlived there for the last 1,300 years.

After World War I, Britain took control of thearea. The British found that Jews and Muslims didnot live together peacefully. In 1917, Britain said it

supported the establishment of a Jewish nationalhomeland in Palestine. This statement is known asthe Balfour Declaration.

After World War II, the British left the area.The United Nations divided the land into twoparts. One part was set aside for the Palestinians.The other part was set aside part for Jews.

Islamic countries voted against the plan. ThePalestinians opposed it. Many countries backed theidea of a separate Jewish state. They wanted tohelp make up for the suffering Jews had experi-enced in World War II. On May 14, 1948, the

1967 1981

1956 19951977

1948Jews declare the existence

of the nation of Israel

TERMS AND NAMESAnwar Sadat Egyptian leader whosigned a peace agreement with IsraelGolda Meir Israeli prime minister atthe time of the 1973 Arab–Israeli warCamp David Accords Agreement inwhich Egypt recognized Israel as anation and Israel gave the Sinaipeninsula back to EgyptOslo Peace Accords Agreementaimed at giving Palestinians self-rulePLO Palestinian LiberationOrganizationYasir Arafat Leader of the PLOintifada Sustained rebellion by thePalestinians

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198 CHAPTER 18 SECTION 4

Jewish people in Palestine declared the existenceof the Jewish state of Israel.

1. Why did the creation of Israel cause conflict?

Israel and the Arab States in Conflict (pages 584–585)

How did Arab states respond tothe creation of Israel?On May 15, 1948, six Islamic nations invadedIsrael. Israel won the war in a few months withstrong support from the United States. This warwas the first of many Arab–Israeli wars.

Another war was started by the Suez Crisis. Thecrisis began in 1956 when a group of Egyptianarmy officers seized control of the government ofEgypt from Britain. The British and French hadkept control of the Suez Canal. Gamal AbdelNasser, the new leader of Egypt, attacked thecanal. The Israeli army helped the British andFrench keep control. The peace settlement thatfollowed gave the canal to Egypt anyway.

The Six-Day War broke out in 1967 when Egyptand other nations threatened Israel. Israel defeat-ed Egypt, Iran, Jordan, and Syria in just a week.Israel’s success brought new areas under its con-trol.

The next war, in 1973, began when Egypt, ledby Anwar Sadat, and its allies launched a surpriseattack. At first, Arab forces won some of the terri-tory lost in 1967. Israel, led by its prime minister,Golda Meir, fought back and won control of muchof the territory it had lost.

2. What did the Suez Crisis and Six-Day War have in common?

Efforts at Peace (pages 586–587)

What happened at Camp David?In 1977, Egyptian leader Sadat signed a peaceagreement with Israeli prime minister MenachemBegin. In this agreement, Israel gave the SinaiPeninsula back to Egypt. In return, Egypt recog-nized Israel as a nation. Egypt was the first Islamiccountry to give this recognition. This agreementbecame known as the Camp David Accords. Itwas the first signed agreement between Israel andan Arab country. This angered many Arabs. Sadatwas assassinated in 1981.

3. What is significant about the Camp David Accords?

Peace Slips Away (pages 588–589)

How have the Palestiniansresponded to living in Israel?Despite many efforts, Israel and the Palestinianshave not made peace. Palestinians living in Israeldislike Israeli rule. They want a nation of their own.

The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO),led by Yasir Arafat, became a leading group in thestruggle for self-rule. During the 1970s and 1980s,the military arm of the PLO made many attacks onIsrael. Israel responded by invading Lebanon toattack bases of the PLO. In the late 1980s, manyPalestinians in Israel began a revolt called theintifada. The intifada continued into the 1990s.

In the early 1990s, the two sides took stepstoward peace. Israel agreed to give Palestinianscontrol of an area called the Gaza Strip and of thetown of Jericho. The agreement was known as theOslo Peace Accords. The Israeli leader whosigned this agreement, Yitzhak Rabin, was assassi-nated in 1995. He was killed by a Jewish extremistwho opposed giving in to the Palestinians. In 2003,the two sides began working on a new peace planpushed by U.S. leaders.

4. What is the state of Israeli–Arab relations today?

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CHAPTER 19 STRUGGLES FOR DEMOCRACY 203

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CHAPTER 19 Section 1 (pages 599–605)

DemocracyCase Study: Latin American Democracies

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about conflicts in the Middle East.

In this section, you will read about the struggles for democracy in Latin America.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the challenges to democracy in Latin America.

Democracy As a Goal (pages 599–600)

How does democracy work?For democracy to work, several conditions mustexist. There must be free and fair elections. Theremust also be more than one political party. Thepeople of the country should have a good educa-tion. Then they can make informed choices. Theyshould share a common culture. All must acceptthe idea that everyone has equal rights. Finally,there must be rule by law, not by power. Manynations in Latin America have had difficultyachieving democracy because all these factors arenot present.

1. Name at least four factors needed to make democracy work.

Dictators and Democracy (pages 600–602)

What challenges has Brazil faced?After independence in 1822, Brazil started out as amonarchy. After 1930, a dictator ruled. But in1956, Juscelino Kubitschek was elected president.He tried to improve the economy. He built a newcapital city, Brasília. He supported land reform.

TERMS AND NAMESBrasília Capital city of Brazilland reform Breaking up largeestates in order to give land to thelandlessstandard of living Quality of life asjudged by the amount of goodspeople haverecession Decrease in the size of theeconomyPRI Institutional Revolutionary Party,which has controlled Mexico for mostof the century

ArgentinaBrazilAttempts at land reform give

way to military rule.

Challengesto Democracy

Mexico

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204 CHAPTER 19 SECTION 1

Land reform aimed at breaking up large estatesand giving land to the peasants.

Landowners opposed land reform. They backeda group of army leaders who took power in 1964.The military ruled Brazil for 20 years. The coun-try’s economy grew. But the people had few rights.Eventually, their standard of living also fell. Thismeans the quality of life, judged by the amount ofgoods people have, went down. By the 1980s arecession—a decrease in the size of the econo-my—hurt Brazil.

2. What changes did land reform bring in Brazil?

One-Party Rule (pages 602–604)

What party has controlled Mexicofor most of the century?Mexico has had a stable government since the1920s. One political party—now called theInstitutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)—has beenin power during this period. This party has con-trolled the local, state, and national governments.

At times, the PRI acted harshly to stop any dis-sent. For example, in 1968 the government killedmany people who took part in a demonstration foreconomic reform.

The PRI recently opened up the political systemto candidates from other parties. In 1997, two oppo-sition parties won many seats in the national legisla-ture. They ended PRI control of that congress.Then, in 2000, Mexican voters ended 71 years ofPRI rule by electing Vicente Fox as president.

3. How has the PRI controlled Mexico?

Political and Economic Disorder(pages 604–605)

How has democracy grown in Argentina?Argentina has also struggled toward democracy. Inthe 1940s and 1950s, Juan Perón was a popular dic-tator. He put in place many programs to benefit themasses. But in 1955, the army overthrew him. Thearmy controlled the government for many years.Army leaders ruled harshly. They killed many peo-ple who opposed them.

In 1982, the army suffered a stinging defeat ina war with Britain. The generals agreed to stepdown. Since 1983, Argentina has been led by freelyelected leaders. However, it has experienced agrowing economic crisis.

4. What happened after Perón was overthrown?

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CHAPTER 19 STRUGGLES FOR DEMOCRACY 205

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CHAPTER 19 Section 2 (pages 606–611)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about challenges to democracy in South America and Mexico.

In this section, you will read about struggles for democracy in Africa.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the struggles fordemocracy in Nigeria and South Africa. Record key eventsand changes in government.

TERMS AND NAMESfederal system System in whichpower is shared between stategovernments and a central authoritymartial law Military ruledissident Person againstgovernment policyapartheid Strict separation of blacksand whitesNelson Mandela Leader of theAfrican National Congress who wasimprisoned

The Challenge ofDemocracy in Africa

Colonial Rule Limits Democracy(page 606)

What problems did colonial rule create?African nations have had a hard time setting updemocratic governments because of the effects ofcolonial rule. European powers made borders inAfrica that paid no attention to ethnic groupings.

They put people who disliked each other in thesame area. This practice caused conflict.

Also, the European nations never built up theeconomies of their colonies. Most of the colonieslacked a middle class or skilled workers. Both areneeded for a strong democracy. When Britain andFrance gave their African colonies independence,they gave them democratic governments. Butproblems soon arose between rival groups.

Nigeria gains independence fromBritain.

Elected government overthrown.

Nigeria South Africa

Struggles forDemocracy

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206 CHAPTER 19 SECTION 2

1. Name three things that have slowed democracy in Africa.

Civil War in Nigeria; Nigeria’sNation-Building (pages 607–609)

What happened after Nigeriagained independence?In 1960, Nigeria became independent fromBritain. It adopted a federal system. In a federalsystem, power is shared between state govern-ments and a central authority. But conflict brokeout in just a few years. The people of one ethnicgroup—the Igbo—tried to break away fromNigeria in 1967. The Igbo lost in a three-year civilwar.

A period of martial law, or military rule, fol-lowed the war. In 1979 Nigeria got an elected gov-ernment. Some army officers said the governmentwas corrupt, The officers overthrew the govern-ment in 1983. Once in power, they treated the peo-ple from other ethnic groups harshly. They jaileddissidents, opponents of government policy. Themilitary rulers allowed elections in 1993. But theydid not accept the results of the elections and continued to rule the land.

2. What happened after Nigeria’s civil war?

South Africa Under Apartheid (page 609)

What was apartheid?In South Africa, the conflict was between races. Awhite minority ruled a black majority. In 1948, thewhites put in place a policy called apartheid—the

strict separation of blacks and whites. Black SouthAfricans were denied many basic rights. Somejoined together in a group called the AfricanNational Congress (ANC) to fight for their rights.The white government cracked down on the ANC.They put many ANC leaders in prison. NelsonMandela, the leader of the ANC, was one of thepeople imprisoned.

3. Why was the African National Congress formed?

Struggle for Democracy (pages 610–611)

How did apartheid end?By the late 1980s, several riots had taken place.Blacks angrily struck back against apartheid.People in other nations also opposed apartheid.They boycotted, or would not buy, goods producedin South Africa. They hoped the boycott wouldpersuade the South African government to endapartheid.

In 1990, President F. W. de Klerk took thatstep. He made the ANC legal and released ANCleader Nelson Mandela from prison. The SouthAfrican parliament passed a law ending apartheid.In April 1994, all South Africans—even blacks—were able to vote in an election for a new leader.The ANC and Mandela won easily. In 1996, thenew government approved a new constitution. Itgave equal rights to all South Africans.

4. Why did F. W. de Klerk end apartheid?

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CHAPTER 19 STRUGGLES FOR DEMOCRACY 207

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CHAPTER 19 Section 3 (pages 612–617)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about political conflicts inAfrica.

In this section, you will read about the fall of the SovietUnion and the rise of Russia.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on key events lead-ing up to and following the collapse of the Soviet Union.

The Collapse of theSoviet Union

Gorbachev Moves TowardDemocracy (page 612)

How did Gorbachev open upSoviet society?During the 1960s and 1970s, the leaders of theSoviet Union kept tight control on society. LeonidBrezhnev and the Politburo—the ruling commit-tee of the Communist Party—crushed all politicaldissent. In 1985, Communist Party leaders namedMikhail Gorbachev as the leader of the SovietUnion. He was the youngest Soviet leader sinceJoseph Stalin. He was expected to make minorreforms. But his reforms led to a revolution.

Gorbachev felt that Soviet society could notimprove without the free flow of ideas. He starteda policy called glasnost, or openness. He openedchurches. He let political prisoners out of prison.He allowed books to be published that in the pasthad been banned.

1. What was Gorbachev’s policy of glasnost?

TERMS AND NAMESPolitburo Ruling committee of theCommunist PartyMikhail Gorbachev Leader of theSoviet Union from 1985 to 1991glasnost Gorbachev’s policy ofopennessperestroika Gorbachev’s policyaimed at reforming the SovieteconomyBoris Yeltsin Political opponent ofGorbachev who became president ofRussiaCIS Commonwealth of IndependentStates, a loose federation of formerSoviet territories“shock therapy” Yeltsin’s plan forchanging the Soviet economy

1992 1995

1991 1993

1990Soviet Union collapses

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208 CHAPTER 19 SECTION 3

Reforming the Economy andPolitics (page 613)

What changes did Gorbachevmake in the Soviet economy andpolitics?Gorbachev began a policy called perestroika, oreconomic restructuring. It tried to improve theSoviet economy by lifting the tight control on allmanagers and workers.

In 1987, Gorbachev opened up the political sys-tem by allowing the Soviet people to elect repre-sentatives to a legislature.

Finally, Gorbachev changed Soviet foreign pol-icy. He moved to end the arms race against theUnited States.

2. What was Gorbachev’s policy of perestroika?

The Soviet Union Faces Turmoil(pages 614–616)

What problems did the SovietUnion face?People from many different ethnic groups in theSoviet Union began calling for the right to havetheir own nation. In 1990, Lithuania declared itselfindependent. Gorbachev sent troops. They fired ona crowd and killed 14 people. This action and theslow pace of reform cost Gorbachev supportamong the Soviet people.

Many people began to support Boris Yeltsin.Old-time Communists were becoming angry atGorbachev. They thought his changes made theSoviet Union weaker. In August 1991, they tried totake control of the government. When the armyrefused to back the coup leaders, they gave up.

To strike back, the parliament voted to ban theparty from any political activity. Meanwhile, morerepublics in the Soviet Union declared their inde-pendence. Russia and the 14 other republics eachbecame independent states. Most of the republicsthen agreed to form the Commonwealth ofIndependent States, or CIS, a loose federation offormer Soviet territories. By the end of 1991, theSoviet Union had ceased to exist.

3. Name three events that led up to the collapse of theSoviet Union.

Russia Under Boris Yeltsin (page 616)

What happened when Gorbachevlost power?After the coup failed, Gorbachev lost all power.Yeltsin became the most powerful Russian leader.As president of Russia, he faced many problems.He tried to change the economy. His economicplan was known as “shock therapy.” This movetoward capitalism caused suffering.

In addition, rebels in the small republic ofChechnya declared their independence fromRussia. Yeltsin refused to allow it. He sent thou-sands of troops to put down the Chechen rebels. Asa bloody war raged, Yeltsin resigned and namedVladimir Putin as president.

4. What decisions did Yeltsin make about the economy?

Russia Under Vladimir Putin (page 617)

How did Putin handle the situationin Chechnya?Putin dealt harshly with the rebellion in Chechnyabut the rebellion dragged on for years. Chechenrebels seized a theater in Moscow and more than100 people died.

Economic troubles continued as Russia dealtwith social upheaval caused by years of change andreform. Social problems included homeless chil-dren, domestic violence, and unemployment, aswell as declines in population, standard of living,and life expectancy.

5. What were some of the signs of social distress inRussia?

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CHAPTER 19 STRUGGLES FOR DEMOCRACY 209

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CHAPTER 19 Section 4 (pages 618–624)TERMS AND NAMESSolidarity Polish workers’ movementLech Walesa Leader of Solidarityreunification Uniting of East andWest Germany into one nationethnic cleansing Policy of murderand brutality aimed at ridding acountry of a particular ethnic group

Changes in Central and Eastern EuropeBEFORE YOU READ

In the last section, you read about the collapse of theSoviet Union.

In this section, you will read about the fall of communismand other changes in Central and Eastern Europe.

AS YOU READUse the web below to take notes on changes thatoccurred in Communist countries.

Poland and Hungary Reform(pages 618–619)

How did Poland and Hungarychange?Gorbachev urged Communist leaders in EasternEurope to change their policies but many of themresisted. Despite resistance from the oldCommunist leaders, the people of Eastern Europewanted reform. Protest movements began to build.

In Poland, years of economic problems trou-bled the people. Polish workers organized a union

called Solidarity. Solidarity went on strike to getthe government to recognize the union.

The government gave in to Solidarity’sdemands. But later, the government banned theunion and threw Lech Walesa, the union’s leader,in jail. This caused unrest. Finally, the governmentwas forced to allow elections. The Polish peoplevoted overwhelmingly against the Communists andfor Solidarity. However, the Polish people becamefrustrated with how slow and painful the road toeconomic recovery and capitalism was. In 1995,they voted Walesa out of office and replaced himwith Aleksander Kwasniewski as president.

Changes inCommunistCountries

Soviet Union—Gorbachev makes reforms

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210 CHAPTER 19 SECTION 4

Inspired by the Poles, leaders in Hungary start-ed a reform movement. The reformers took overthe Communist party. Then the party voted itselfout of existence. In 1999, Hungary joined NATO asa full member.

1. What caused frustration and change in Poland?

Germany Reunifies (pages 619–620)

What changes occurred inGermany?Change soon came to East Germany as well. Itsleaders resisted at first. Then thousands of peopleacross the country demanded free elections. Soon,the Berlin Wall, which divided East and WestBerlin, was torn down. By the end of 1989, theCommunist party was out of power.

The next year reunification occurred. The twoparts of Germany, East and West, were one nationagain. But the new nation had many problems. Thebiggest problem was the weak economy in the east.And, as the largest nation in Central Europe,Germany needed to face its new role in world affairs.

2. What happened after the Berlin Wall fell?

Democracy Spreads inCzechoslovakia (page 621)

What happened in Czechoslovakia?In Czechoslovakia, calls for reform took place.When the government cracked down on protest-ers, thousands of Czechs poured into the streets.One day hundreds of thousands of people gatheredto protest in the nation’s capital. The Communistsagreed to give up power.

Reformers launched an economic reform pro-gram that caused a sharp rise in unemployment thatespecially hurt Slovakia, the republic occupying theeastern third of the country. In 1993, the countrysplit into two separate nations: the Czech Republicand Slovakia. The economies of both slowlyimproved.

3. How did the government of Czechoslovakia change?

Overthrow in Romania (pages 1055–1056)

What happened in Romania?In Romania, Nicolae Ceausescu, the Communistdictator, ordered the army to shoot at protesters.This caused larger protests. The army then joinedthe people and fought against the secret policeloyal to Ceausescu. He was captured and executedin 1989. General elections quickly followed and thenew government reformed the economy.

Romania struggled with corruption and crime asit tried to improve the economy. The governmentmade economic reforms to introduce capitalism.

4. How did the government of Romania change?

The Breakup of Yugoslavia (pages 622–624)

What happened in Yugoslavia?Yugoslavia was made up of many different ethnicgroups. In the early 1990s, they began fighting.When Serbia tried to control the government, twoother republics—Slovenia and Croatia—declaredindependence. Slovenia beat back a Serbian inva-sion. But Serbia and Croatia fought a bloody war.

In 1992, Bosnia-Herzegovina also declaredindependence. Serbs who lived in that regionopposed the move. Using aid from Serbia, theyfought a brutal civil war against the BosnianMuslims, the largest group in Bosnia. The Serbsused murder and other forms of brutality againstthe Muslims. This ethnic cleansing was intendedto rid Bosnia of its Muslims. The United Nationshelped create a peace agreement.

In 1998, the Balkan region experienced violenceagain in Kosovo, a province in southern Serbia, whichSerbian forces invaded in order to suppress an inde-pendence movement. A NATO bombing campaignforced Serbian leaders to withdraw their forces.

5. Who fought in the civil war in Yugoslavia?

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CHAPTER 19 STRUGGLES FOR DEMOCRACY 211

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CHAPTER 19 Section 5 (pages 625–629)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the collapse of communism and other changes in Central and EasternEurope.

In this section, you will learn about the recent history of China.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes on the key events in recent Chinese history.

China: Reform and Reaction

The Legacy of Mao(pages 625–626)

How did Mao change China?Mao Zedong had tried to build a China on theideas of equality, revolutionary spirit, and hardwork. But his policies failed to create a strongeconomy. He reduced incentives for higher pro-duction. The Great Leap Forward helped cause aneconomic disaster.

During Mao’s rule, China had little role inworld affairs. Zhou Enlai, another Chinese leader,worried about this. He worked with U.S. PresidentRichard Nixon to improve U.S.–Chinese relations.

1. How successful were Mao’s economic programs?

China and the West (page 626)

How did Deng Xiaoping change China?After Mao and Zhou died in 1976, moderates tookcontrol of the government. The most powerfulleader was Deng Xiaoping. He tried to modern-ize the economy. Deng had goals known as the Four Modernizations. These called for progress

1989

1977 1997

1966Cultural Revolution begins

TERMS AND NAMESZhou Enlai Chinese leader whoworked with President Nixon toimprove U.S.–Chinese relationsDeng Xiaoping Chinese leader afterZhou EnlaiFour Modernizations Goals of DengXiaoping that called for progress inagriculture, industry, defense, andscience and technologyTiananmen Square Square in thecapital of Beijing; scene of a studentdemonstration and massacreHong Kong Island that became partof China again in 1997

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212 CHAPTER 19 SECTION 5

in agriculture, industry, defense, and science andtechnology. He ended farming communes andallowed farmers more to sell part of their producefor a profit. Farm production increased greatly.

Deng made similar changes to industry.People’s incomes began to rise. They began to pur-chase appliances and other goods that were oncescarce.

2. What were the results of Deng Xiaoping’s changes?

Massacre in Tiananmen Square(pages 627–628)

What caused the protest atTiananmen Square?Deng’s new plan caused problems. The gapbetween rich and poor grew wider, which causedunrest. Western political ideas spread throughoutthe country. In 1989, thousands of Chinese stu-dents gathered in Tiananmen Square in the cap-ital of Beijing. They called for democracy and free-dom. Deng responded by sending army troops andtanks to put down the rally. Thousands were killedor wounded. China has continued to stamp outprotests since then.

3. What happened to the protesters at Tiananmen Square?

China Enters the NewMillennium (pages 628–629)

What happened to Hong Kong?Another major issue for China was the status ofHong Kong. The island became part of Chinaagain in 1997 when the British gave it back after155 years of colonial rule. China promised torespect Hong Kong’s freedom for 50 years. Butmany worried that China would take away HongKong’s freedoms.

4. Why do people worry about Hong Kong’s new rule?

China Beyond 2000 (page 629)

What is the connection betweenpolitical and economic reform inChina?Liberal economic reforms in China did not imme-diately lead to political reforms. China has beensuccessful in reducing poverty, in part because ithas been cautious in privatizing the economy.China managed to maintain economic growth inthe early 21st century.

As economic and social conditions in Chinaimprove, the political situation may improve aswell. An important sign of China’s engagementwith the world is its successful campaign to be cho-sen as the site for the 2008 Summer Olympics.

5. Which came first in China—political or economicreform?

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CHAPTER 20 GLOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE 215

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CHAPTER 20 Section 1 (pages 637–640)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about struggles for democracyin China.

In this section, you will learn about recent changes in science and technology.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on recent developments and discoveries and their effects.

TERMS AND NAMESInternational Space Station Project,involving 16 nations, to build a hugelaboratory in spaceInternet Worldwide computernetworkgenetic engineering Use of genes todevelop new products and curescloning Process of creating identicalcopies of DNA for research and otherpurposesgreen revolution Attempt to increasefood resources worldwide in the 20thcentury

The Impact of Science and Technology

Exploring the Solar System and Beyond (pages 637–638)

How did competition give way tocooperation in space?From the 1950s to the 1970s, the United Statesand Soviet Union took their Cold War rivalry tospace. Each nation tried to be the first to reach themoon and beyond.

In the 1970s, the two nations began to cooper-ate in space exploration. In 1975, United Statesand Soviet spacecraft docked, or joined together, inspace. Later, American and Soviet space missionsincluded scientists from other countries. In thelate 1990s, the United States, Russia, and 14 othernations began working together to build theInternational Space Station.

Some space missions did not include humancrew members. Unmanned flights sent back pic-tures and information about other planets.

DEVELOPMENT /D ISCOVERY EFFECT

Satellites Improved television broadcasts.

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In 1990, the United States and European coun-tries sent the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit around the earth. This satellite sent backunprecedented images of objects in space.

1. Give three examples of international cooperation in space.

Expanding GlobalCommunications (pages 638–639)

How has technology changed communications?Every day satellites are used to track the weatheraround the world. They are also used to search forminerals on the planet. Satellites allow televisionbroadcasts to carry events live around the world.

Another advance in technology has been thecomputer. Computers have become more powerfulsince they were first invented. At the same time,they have gotten smaller in size. Consumer goodssuch as microwave ovens, telephones, and carsoften include computer chips to keep them run-ning.

Millions of people around the world use per-sonal computers at work or at home. Many of thesepeople are connected through the Internet, aworldwide computer network. The Internet allowspeople to get a great deal of information morequickly and easily than ever before. The Internet alsoallows people to communicate with one another.

2. How have computers changed everyday living?

Transforming Human Life (pages 639–640)

How has new technology changed medicine?New technology has changed medicine. Lasersallow doctors to perform surgery to fix problems indelicate areas, such as in the eye or the brain. Newmethods for making images of the body help doc-tors locate problems.

Research into genes has helped unlock thesecrets of some diseases. Genetic engineeringenables scientists to use genes in new ways. Forexample, scientists can develop plants with specialtraits. Cloning is part of genetic engineering. It isthe creation of identical copies of DNA. Cloningcan be used to produce plants and animals that areidentical to the existing plants and animals. Theapplication of this new understanding of genes hasled to many developments in agriculture.

Scientists have made other advances in farming.In the green revolution, scientists have devel-oped new strains of food crops to help farmers growmore food.

3. Why is genetic engineering an important development?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 20 Section 2 (pages 641–647)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about changes in science and technology.

In this section, you will read about the new global economy.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to show the causes and effects of global economic development.

TERMS AND NAMESdeveloped nation Industrializednationemerging nation Nation that is stilldeveloping industryglobal economy Economy linking theeconomies of many nationsfree trade Absence of barriers thatcan block trade between countriesozone layer Layer of atmosphere thatblocks dangerous rays from the sunsustainable growth Economicgrowth that meets current needs butconserves resources for the future

Global EconomicDevelopment

Technology Revolutionizes theWorld’s Economy (pages 641–642)

How have the economies of thedeveloped nations changed?Technology has changed the world’s economies. Inthe 1950s, scientists found new ways to make plas-tics, which came to be widely used. In recent years,industries have begun using robots to make prod-ucts. These changes have required workers to havemore and different skills than before.

In industrialized nations, or developednations, there are more jobs in service and infor-mation industries. Manufacturing jobs began togrow more quickly in the emerging nationswhere wages are lower.

1. What types of jobs are on the increase in developed nations?

GlobalEconomic

Development

New technology

Causes Effects

CHAPTER 20 GLOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE 217

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Economic Globalization (pages 642–643)

Why is free trade important in aglobal economy?A global economy continued to develop in the1980s. Telephone and computer links connectbanks and other financial companies around theworld. Multinational corporations operate in manycountries.

After World War II, many leaders believed thatworld economies would grow best if there werefree trade. This means there would be no barriersto block goods from one country from enteringanother country. Many steps have been taken toput free trade in practice. In 1951, some nations inEurope joined together to create free trade. Thatgroup, now called the European Union (EU), hasgrown to become a powerful trading bloc.

The United States, Canada, and Mexico agreedto the North American Free Trade Agreement(NAFTA) in 1994. Another free trade zone was setup in Latin America. Similar groups are being puttogether in Africa and Asia.

In recent years, there has been considerabledisagreement on the impact of the globalization ofthe economy. Supporters suggest that open, com-petitive markets and the free flow of goods, serv-ices, technology, and investments benefit allnations. Opponents charge that globalization hasbeen a disaster for the poorest countries. Many,they suggest, are worse off today than they were inthe past.

2. Name three steps that have been taken in the direction of free trade.

Impact of Global Development(pages 645–647)

How has the development of theglobal economy affected the useof energy and other resources?Economic growth needs many resources.Manufacturing and trade both use huge amountsof energy. Oil has been a major source of this ener-gy. Whenever the flow of oil has been threatened,the world’s economies have suffered shocks.

In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. This threatenedthe flow of Kuwaiti oil. Soon, the countries of theUnited Nations went to war against Iraq. This wasknown as the Gulf War.

Economic growth has also caused environmen-tal problems. Burning coal and oil has polluted theair. It has also caused acid rain and contributed toglobal warming. The release of some chemicalsinto the air has weakened Earth’s ozone layer.This layer of atmosphere blocks dangerous raysfrom the sun.

One new idea about growth involves sustainabledevelopment. Sustainable growth requires meet-ing current needs while conserving future resources.

3. What environmental problems have resulted from economic growth?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 20 Section 3 (pages 648–652)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the growth of the global economy.

In this section, you will read about challenges to global security.

AS YOU READUse the web below to take notes on threats to global security.

TERMS AND NAMESproliferation spreadUniversal Declaration of HumanRights 1948 United Nationsstatement of specific rights that allpeople should havepolitical dissent Difference ofopinion over political issuesgender inequality Differencebetween men and women in terms ofwealth and statusAIDS Acquired immune deficiencysyndrome, a disease that attacks theimmune system, leaving sufferersopen to deadly infectionsrefugees People who leave theircountry to move to another to findsafety

Global Security Issues

Issues of War and Peace (pages 648–649)

How have nations worked together for global security?After World War II, nations joined together to pur-sue global security. The United Nations (UN) wasformed at the end of World War II to promoteworld peace. It now has more than 180 membernations. The UN provides a place for countries—orgroups within countries—to share their views.

The UN can also send troops as a peacekeepingforce. These soldiers—who come from member

nations—try to stop violence from breaking out.UN peacekeepers have served in regions such asAsia and Africa.

Another approach to world peace has been tolimit weapons of mass destruction. These includenuclear weapons, chemical weapons, and biologicalweapons. In 1968, many nations signed a NuclearNon-Proliferation Treaty. The nations that signedthe treaty agreed to prevent the proliferation, orspread, of nuclear weapons. In the 1990s, theUnited States and Russia agreed to destroy manyof their nuclear weapons. In another treaty, manynations promised not to develop chemical or bio-logical weapons.

Threats toGlobal

Security

Human Rights Issues

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Ethnic and religious differences are the sourcesof many world conflicts. Some of these conflictshave roots that reach back decades or, in a fewcases, centuries. Governments and many interna-tional organizations, including the UN, are tryingto find peaceful solutions to these conflicts.

1. Name two specific approaches toward collective security.

Human Rights Issues (page 650)

What efforts have been made toensure human rights?In 1948, the UN approved the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights. This declarationgives a list of rights that all people should have. In1975, many nations signed the Helsinki Accordsthat also support human rights. Many groupsaround the world watch to see how well nations doin protecting these rights for their people.

Despite the efforts of human rights organiza-tions, violations of fundamental rights continue tooccur around the world. One type of violationoccurs when governments try to stamp out politi-cal dissent. In many countries, individuals andgroups have been persecuted for holding politicalviews that differ from those of the government.

In the past, women suffered considerable dis-crimination. However, a heightened awareness ofhuman rights encouraged women to work toimprove their lives. They pushed for new laws thatgave them greater equality. Since the 1970s,women have made notable gains, especially in theareas of education and work. Even so, genderinequality still is an issue.

2. Name two events that have been important in theworldwide struggle for human rights.

Health Issues (page 651)

What is the greatest challenge toglobal health?Recently, the enjoyment of a decent standard ofhealth has become recognized as a basic humanright. However, for many people across the world,poor health is still the norm. Perhaps the greatestglobal challenge to the attainment of good health isAIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome.AIDS is a worldwide problem. However, Sub-Saharan Africa has suffered most from the epi-demic. The disease has had devastating impact onthe populations and economies of many countriesin this region.

3. Which area of the world has been hardest hit by theAIDS epidemic?

Population Movement (page 652)

What are some of the causes ofthe global movement of people?In recent years, millions of people have movedfrom one country to another. Some people arerefugees, who leave to escape natural disasters orharsh treatment at home. Others leave for morepositive reasons—the chance of a better life forthemselves and their children, for example.

While people have a right to leave, every coun-try does not have to accept them. Sometimes thesepeople have to live in crowded refugee camps.They suffer hunger and disease. They can alsocause political problems for the country where theyare held. However, immigrants also can bring manybenefits to their new home.

4. What problems can result from the global movement of people?

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CHAPTER 20 Section 4 (pages 653–658)TERMS AND NAMESterrorism Use of violence againstpeople or property to force changesin societies or governmentscyberterrorism Attacks oninformation systems for politicalreasonsDepartment of Homeland SecurityDepartment of the U.S. governmentthat organizes the fight againstterrorism in the United States.USA Patriot Act Antiterrorism lawthat allowed the government certainrights to help chase and captureterrorists

TerrorismCase Study: September 11, 2001

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about global security issues.

In this section, you will learn about terrorism and its effecton today’s world.

AS YOU READUse a chart like the one below to take notes on the effectsof terrorism.

What Is Terrorism? (pages 653–654)

What motivates terrorists andwhat methods do they use?Terrorism is the use of violence against people orproperty to force changes in societies or govern-ments. The reasons for modern terrorism aremany. Reasons include gaining independence, get-ting rid of foreigners, and changing society. In thelate 20th century, another type of terroristappeared. These terrorists wanted to destroy whatthey believed were the forces of evil.

Terrorists use violence to try to achieve their goals.Terrorists often use bombs and bullets. The targets ofterrorist attacks usually are crowded places. Some ter-rorist groups have used biological and chemical

weapons. Attacks on information systems such ascomputer networks are called cyberterrorism.These attacks are done for political reasons.

1. What types of weapons do terrorists use?

Terrorism Around the World (pages 654–655)

How has terrorism affected theworld?In the Middle East, Palestinians and Israelis haveargued for decades about land ownership. This argu-

Effects ofTerrorism

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ment has resulted in many terrorist acts. Often aPalestinian group does an act of terrorism. Inresponse, the Israelis strike back. In NorthernIreland, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) has car-ried out terrorist acts for many years. The IRA wantthe British to give up control over Northern Ireland.

Many terrorist groups are found in East Asia. Forexample, a religious cult named Aum Shinrikyo wantsto control Japan. In Africa, civil unrest and regionalwars cause most terrorist acts. Narcoterrorism oftenhappens in Latin America. Narcoterrorism is terror-ism connected with the trade of illegal drugs.

2. What has caused most of the terrorist activity inAfrica?

Attack on the United States (pages 656–657)

How has terrorism affected theUnited States?On the morning of September 11, 2001, 19 Arabterrorists hijacked four airliners. The hijackerscrashed two of the jets into the twin towers of theWorld Trade Center in New York City. The thirdjet destroyed part of the Pentagon in Washington,D.C. The fourth plane crashed in an empty field inPennsylvania.

As a result of the attacks, the twin towers fell tothe ground within two hours. About 3,000 peopledied in all the attacks. The dead included morethan 340 New York City firefighters and 60 policeofficers. They had rushed to the World TradeCenter to help people in the buildings.

Before September 11, many Americans thoughtthat terrorism was something that happened in othercountries. After September 11, many Americansbecame afraid that terrorist attacks could happen tothem.

A few days after September 11, letters contain-ing the disease anthrax were mailed. The letterswere sent to people in the news media and tomembers of Congress. Five people died frominhaling the anthrax in these letters. Officials did

not find a link between the anthrax letters and theSeptember 11 attacks.

3. How did the September 11 attacks affect the wayAmericans looked at life?

The United States Responds (pages 657–658)

How has the United States foughtback against terrorism?After September 11, the United States asked for aninternational effort to fight terrorism. U.S. officialssuspected that Osama bin Laden directed theSeptember 11 attacks. Bin Laden was the leader ofa terrorist group called al-Qaeda.

The U.S. government created the Departmentof Homeland Security in 2002. Its job was toorganize the fight against terrorism in the UnitedStates.

U.S. officials began to search for al-Qaeda ter-rorists in the United States. In addition, U.S. offi-cials arrested and questioned many Arabs andother Muslims. Critics said that arresting peoplebecause of nationality or religion was unfair. Theysaid that some of the arrested people probably didnot commit a crime.

The USA Patriot Act became law. This lawallowed the government several powers to helpchase and capture terrorists.

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)ordered airlines to put bars on cockpit doors.These bars would help stop hijackers from gettingcontrol of planes. National Guard troops began toguard airports. Trained security officers called skymarshals were put on planes. The Aviation andTransportation Security Act was passed. It put thefederal government in charge of airport security.

4. How was aviation security increased?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 20 Section 5 (pages 659–663)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about terrorism.

In this section, you will learn about the global blending of cultures.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the blending of cultures around the world.

TERMS AND NAMESpopular culture Cultural elements—such as sports, music, movies, andclothing—that reflect a group’scommon backgroundmaterialism Placing high value onowning things

Cultures Blend in aGlobal Age

Cultural Exchange Accelerates(pages 659–660)

What has speeded up the sharing of cultures?Changes in technology have made it possible forpeople to share their cultures with one another.Television is one of the main forces in this trend. Itallows people to see things that happen around theworld. Movies and radio also have had an impact inbringing the world’s people together.

As a result of these mass media, the world’s pop-ular culture now includes elements from many dif-ferent cultures. Popular culture includes music,sports, clothing styles, food, and hobbies. Americantelevision shows have become popular around the

world. Broadcasts of some sporting events canreach millions of people in all corners of the globe.Music has also become international.

1. Name three aspects of culture that have become international.

World Culture Blends ManyInfluences (pages 660–662)

What countries have most influ-enced cultural blending?Cultural blending occurs when parts of differentcultures are combined. In recent times, the United

MAIN IDEA SUPPOR T

Sharing of cultures has speeded up Television and other mass media have spedup cultural sharing

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States and Europe have been a major force in thisblending. One reason is that Western nations dom-inate the mass media.

The political power of the West has also spreadWestern culture to other regions. For example,English is now a major world language. About 500million people speak English as their first or sec-ond language. More people speak MandarinChinese. But English speakers are more widelyspread throughout the world. Western clothes canbe seen throughout the world.

Western ideas have also influenced worldthought. The Western idea of materialism—plac-ing high value on owning things—has also spread.Some ideas have also traveled from East to West.The worlds of art and literature have become moreinternational in recent years.

2. What Western aspects of culture have spreadthroughout the world?

Future Challenges and Hopes (pages 662–663)

How has the world responded to cultural blending?Some people think the spread of international cul-ture is a problem. They worry that their own culturewill be swallowed up by other cultures. Some coun-tries have adopted policies that reserve televisionbroadcast time for national programming. In othercountries, television programmers take Westernprograms and rework them according to their ownculture. In some areas, people have returned to oldtraditions in order to keep them alive.

The people of the world are becoming moreand more dependent on each another. All throughhuman history, people have faced challenges totheir survival. In the 21st century, those challengeswill be faced by people who are in increasing con-tact with one another. They have a great stake inliving together in harmony.

3. What problems or challenges can cultural blending bring?

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