R. Banerjee & B.K. Chakrabarti (Eds.)

Progress in Brain Research, Vol. 168

ISSN 0079-6123

Copyright r 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

CHAPTER 20

Buddha and the bridging relations

Rahul Banerjee�

Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Sector 1, Block AF, Bidhan Nagar, Calcutta 700064, India

Abstract: The chapter reviews a classical Indian model of consciousness found in the Abhidhamma, acollection of seven treatises in the Pali Canon Tipitaka. The model was based on observations made duringadvanced vipassana practice, a first-person method taught by the Buddha. The climax of the model consistsin the elucidation of 24 ‘Bridging Relations’ causally linking the stream of consciousness, its contents andassociated physical events. Review of such a model based on a specialized first-person technique couldprove to be a resource of useful ideas providing directions for further research.

Keywords: first-person methods; hard problem; bridging relations; Abhidhamma; vipassana

Introduction

The last decade has seen the reemergence ofconsciousness as a subject suitable for scientificstudy. The biological basis of consciousness andhow it arises from the matrix of molecular eventsin the brain has been identified as an importantunresolved scientific question (Miller, 2005).Although identifying the neural correlates ofconsciousness (NCC) forms an indispensable partof the experimental paradigm to solve thisproblem, there is also a growing consensus thatsimply to study the neural correlates of consciousexperiences in a variety of modes will not bewholly sufficient. Rather a complete theory ofconsciousness is necessary (Baars, 2003), whichwill demonstrate in trenchant terms the status ofconscious experience in the natural order (Crickand Koch, 1998).

�Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-33-2337-5345;

Fax: +91-33-2337-4637; E-mail: rahul.banerjee@saha.ac.in

DOI: 10.1016/S0079-6123(07)68020-0 255

Relating the inner qualitative subjective ‘feel’ ofconscious experience to either cognitive processingor molecular events probably forms the mostdifficult aspect of the problem. Designated as the‘Hard Problem’ (Chalmers, 1996), the question hasgenerated a great deal of intellectual activity in thephilosophic and scientific literature. One view, putforward by David J. Chalmers, argues in favor ofthe irreducibility of the phenomenal aspects ofconsciousness to any other physical principle. Itthus follows that consciousness is a fundamentalreality in its own right, and a further set of psycho-physical laws or ‘bridging relations’ will have to befound, in order to resolve the issue.

The present paper reviews a set of 24 conditional(bridging) relations found in a classical model ofconsciousness attributed to the Buddha (Narada,1997). The model in its most elaborate form canbe found in the Abhidhamma, a collection ofseven treatises contained in the Pali CanonTipitaka. The model is based on a series of insightsexperienced through the practice of vipassana, afirst-person method taught by the Buddha in orderto probe the dynamics of one’s own stream of

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consciousness, its contents and associated materialevents (Nanamoli, 1975). Buddha consistentlymaintained that the insights gained by him wereaccessible to all. Thus the Abhidhamma gives arational form to a series of cross-validated observa-tions based on a specialized first-person technique.

The picture of mind and matter which emergesin the Abhidhamma is wholly interactionist.Consciousness, its contents and associated mate-rial events are irreducible fundamental realities,yet causally conditioned by each other in acomplex and intricate interaction. The 24 condi-tional relations attempt to describe the modesby which this mutual conditioning and interactionoccurs. In a world which still searches for acomprehensive natural and scientific theory ofconsciousness, the relations might provide illumi-nating guidelines for further studies. A few ofthe principles central to the Abhidhamma arereviewed prior to the discussion of the relations.

The stream of consciousness and its contents

The central concept in the Abhidhamma (Narada,1979) is that of the chitta. Generally it can bedefined as a transient pulse of ‘experience’.The practice of vipassana meditation enablesthe meditator to resolve mental events which areclosely spaced in time. In advanced vipassanapractice it becomes evident that there is a certain‘graininess’ involved in our stream of conscious-ness, which is actually composed of a successionof rapid, discrete and transient pulses. Each suchindividual pulse is called a chitta. The temporalduration for which a chitta exists is indeedvery short and the classical texts remark that a‘million chittas rise and fall with the blinking of aneye’.

To resolve our stream of consciousness into asuccession of chittas is possible only in a highlyadvanced stage of vipassana. Yet the terms ‘mind’or ‘consciousness’ in the Abhidhamma actuallyrefers to this stream. So fundamental is the notionof chitta in the Abhidhamma, that the duration forwhich a chitta exists, called mind moment, servesas a natural temporal unit for mental events. Thusthree mind moments implies the passage of three

chittas. In an individual stream of consciousnessthere is no superposition of chittas and a uniquechitta is in existence at any given moment. Chittasare therefore inherently dynamic with each tran-sient pulse being replaced by its successor in acontinuous series.

The contents of (a unit pulse of) consciousnessor the contents of a chitta are termed ‘concomitantmental factors’ or cetasiks (Gorkom, 1997). Everychitta will invariably be accompanied by a set ofcetasiks, which also serve to identify the chitta.Both the chitta and its cetasiks are in absolutesynchrony, rising and falling simultaneously.There are seven cetasiks which are universallyassociated with every chitta: (1) contact (phassa);(2) feeling or sensation (vedana); (3) volition(cetana); (4) psychic life energy (jivitindriya); (5)perception (sanna); (6) attention (manasikara);and (7) one-pointedness (ekaggata).

‘Contact’ refers to the fact that an object hasimpinged or has come into contact with anyoneof the sense bases and is now being experiencedby the chitta. Perception in this context is acognitive function which has to do with taking‘note’ of the perceptual cues pertaining to theobject and also recognizing what has been pre-viously noted. The Atthasalini (Davids, 1999)defines it as ‘The noting of an object as blue-green,etc., is perception. It has the characteristic ofnoting and the function of recognizing what hasbeen previously noted. There is no such thing asperception in the four planes of existence withoutthe characteristic of noting.’ Every chitta willhave a corresponding object and attention, one-pointedness refer to the exclusive focus of thechitta on the object of its experience. Volitiondirects and coordinates the cognitive functions ofall other cetasiks with respect to the object.Although psychic energy provides the power tosustain the surge of the chitta and its cetasiks,it is volition which directs the energy in additionto coordinating the cognitive function of otherassociated cetasiks. In defining volition theAtthasalini (Davids, 1999) sums it up as ‘There isno such thing as volition in the four planes ofexistence without the characteristic of coordinat-ing, all volition has it yy It has directing asmanifestation. It arises directing associated states

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(read cetasiks) yy. as the general, fightinghimself, makes other soldiers take part in thebattle y.. even so, when volition starts work on itsobject, it sets associated states to do each its ownwork.’ Volition and psychic energy can perhaps befruitfully combined to give volitional energy, thecharacter of which is unique for every chitta.

Apart from the seven universal cetasiks, addi-tional cetasiks referred to as ‘sankharas’ distinguishone chitta from another. In fact apart fromperception and feeling all other concomitantmental factors are collectively grouped together assankhara. Sankharas are habitual mental forma-tions (activities), which give a specific character toall the universal cetasiks of the chitta. For example,hatred and goodwill are two sankharas which formthe contents of two distinct chittas respectively

1. chitta, unprompted, accompanied by displea-sure, and connected with ill will;

2. chitta, unprompted, accompanied by plea-sure, associated with knowledge.

Here ‘unprompted’ refers to the fact that the chittaarises spontaneously and is not instigated or‘prompted’ by some external agency. The set ofcetasiks which can be found in synchronousassociation with a particular chitta is fixed. As hasbeen stated previously, although volitional energyis universally present with all chittas, its specificcharacter is conditioned by the constellation ofsankharas in simultaneous existence with the chitta.Jealousy, hatred, sloth, goodwill and tranquility aresankharas associated with their characteristic voli-tional energies and thus specific type of chitta.Actually, the chitta and its cetasiks are mutuallysupportive and reciprocally condition each other.

According to one classification scheme thereare 89 distinct chittas. Although it is beyond thescope of this essay to describe the status of eachindividual chitta, they are divided into fourcategories of which two are skillful (kusala) andunskillful (akusala). The akusala chittas will beinvariably ‘rooted’ in the sankharas of delusion,aversion and greed, though aversion and greedare not simultaneously instantiated in the samechitta. In other words, distinctly different akusalachittas support aversion and greed as cetasiks.

Likewise kusala or moral chittas are rooted inknowledge, detachment and goodwill.

Here, ‘delusion’ refers to the inability to penetrateand determine the true nature of the object, which iseffectively done by ‘knowledge’ or ‘wisdom’ (panna).

The full set of sankharas for the skillful andunskillful classes can be expanded to: (1) sincerity;(2) mindfulness; (3) moral shame; (4) moral dread;(5) detachment; (6) goodwill; (7) equanimity; (8, 9)calmness; (10, 11) uprightness; (12, 13) proficiency;(14, 15) pliancy; (16, 17) wieldiness; (18, 19)lightness and (1) delusion; (2) moral shamelessness;(3) moral fearlessness; (4) restlessness; (5) greed;(6) self-conceit; (7) false view; (8) aversion/hatred; (9) jealousy; (10) avarice; (11) anxiety;(12) sloth; (13) torpor; (14) doubt, respectively.

Calmness along with a few other cetasiks(uprightness, proficiency etc.) are counted twice,as calmness pervades both the chitta and itsassociated cetasiks. In addition sympathetic joy,compassion and wisdom can also be found inassociation with kusala chittas. The first 19 kusalasankharas can be found in all the skillful chittas.There are a few other sankharas which can befound in one or both classes.

Resultants, life continuum and pathways

During the course of advanced vipassana practiceit was observed that some chittas appeared as aconsequence or causal effect of previously instan-tiated chittas. These were termed resultants(vipaka) and put in a separate category in additionto kusala and akusala chittas. Essentially skillfuland unskillful chittas stand in a cause–effectrelationship with respect to their resultants. Achitta and its resultant need not be temporallycontiguous and may appear after a considerablelapse of time when conditions are favorable fortheir instantiation. For some particular caseshowever (lokuttara chittas) the chitta and itsresultant follow each other immediately. Forexample for one chitta rooted in aversion

1. chitta, unprompted, accompanied by displea-sure, and connected with ill will, could haveas one of its resultants;

2. body consciousness associated with pain.

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The volitional energy of a resultant can beconsidered to be passive in contrast to the activevolition of its parent chitta.

One noteworthy feature of the Abhidhammamodel is the complete absence of unconsciousmental states. Under normal circumstances thestream of chittas cannot be arrested and there is nobreak in their rapid succession. Even in the case ofdeep dreamless sleep the flow continues. It thusbecomes imperative to characterize the stream inboth states to account for their cognitive andphenomenological differences. Actually, most oftenthe stream is constituted of vipaka chittas whichflow without any definite order or sequence. Thisrandom flow of vipaka chittas is termed bhavanga(life continuum), which gives continuity to ourpsychic existence. Upon contact of an object withany of the sense bases this irregular succession ofvipaka chittas gets checked and bhavanga getsarrested. A train of chittas is then instantiated inwhich specific chittas follow each other in a regularand definite temporal sequence. This succession ofspecific chittas constitutes a pathway. On thecompletion of a pathway the stream relapses backinto bhavanga. Thus the stream moves back andforth between bhavanga and different pathwayscontingent upon the objects to be experienced. Inour waking state two pathways are separated bybhavanga whereas the stream is dominated bybhavanga in sleep.

Most often, the pathway instantiated is inresponse to an object which impinges with sufficientstrength upon one of the sense bases. An example ofsuch a pathway in response to a visual objectmaking contact with a visual sense base is givenbelow (the terms being explained after the path-way).

Arrest of Bhavanga

k

Sense door adverting consciousness (1 mind moment)

(Pancadvaravajjana chitta)

k

Eye consciousness (1)

(Cakkhu vinnana chitta)

k

Receiving consciousness (1)

(Sampaticchana chitta)

k

Investigating consciousness

(1)

(Santirana chitta)

k

Determining consciousness (1)

(Votthapana chitta)

k

Javana (7)

k

.

.

k

Javana

k

Registering consciousness (2)

(Tadarammana chitta)

k

Registering consciousness

k

Relapse into Bhavanga

For all the five sense bases the basic structure ofthe given pathway is conserved. As has beenpreviously stated every pathway involves a regularsuccession of specific chittas. The volitional energyof each chitta in the temporal order performs (anddirects associated cetasiks to perform) a definitecognitive function which enables the recognitionand representation of the object in experience.Occasionally the chitta is named after the functionperformed by its volitional energy. On the arrest ofbhavanga (see pathway given above) a momentarychitta (sense door adverting consciousness) orientsthe stream to the sense base which has come intocontact with the sense object. This is followed by achitta which is specific to the sense base, in thiscase eye consciousness. Subsequent to the passingaway of eye consciousness, arise two chittas insuccession whose volitional energies perform thefunctions of ‘receiving’ and ‘investigating’, followedby determining consciousness, by which time somedefinite features of the object have been determined.

The first part of the pathway from ‘sense dooradverting ‘ to ‘determining’ can be said to be passivewherein the nature of the object is sought to be‘investigated’ and ‘determined’. Eye consciousness,receiving and investigating consciousnesses are allvipaka chittas. ‘Receiving’ and ‘investigating’ arefunctions which can be performed by only two andthree specific chittas respectively. Apart fromkusala, akusala and vipaka chittas there is yet

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another class which are neither resultants nor dothey give rise to resultants as effects. Sense dooradverting and mind door adverting chitta (whichperforms the function of determining) conscious-nesses belong to this fourth category called kiriya.

Javana refers to the reactive stage of the pathwayin which either kusala or akusala chittas instantiateand repeat themselves seven times in succession.The skillful and unskillful chittas in javana areessentially the reaction of the stream in response tothe object. Vipaka chittas are excluded fromappearing in javana. The pathway finally termi-nates with two mind moments of ‘registering’ whichleaves a memory trace, 11 distinct vipaka chittasbeing capable of performing the said function.

Several different pathways exist which gettriggered in different cognitive situations. In orderto have a full-blown experience of an objectcomplete with all its perceptual details selectedpathways in correct sequence have to repeatseveral times. The process is cumulative. That isinitially the stream experiences partial representa-tions of the object which gradually mature tosynthesize the entire object due to the repeatediterations of specific pathways in the correctsequential order (Davids, 2003).

Conditional relations

The Abhidhamma considers phenomena which areconditioned and causally bound to be constitutedof chittas, cetasiks and matter or materialevents referred to as rupa. The 24 conditionalrelations describe the manner in which the threeelements causally condition each other. To startwith a clear distinction is made between materialmodifications which results from energy transac-tions exclusively within the material domain,independent of mind (i.e., to say chittas andcetasiks) and material phenomena conditioned bymind. Thus only a subset of material events arecausally closed with respect to mind and the sameprinciple does not apply to the totality ofphenomena involving chitta, cetasiks and rupa.Given the limited scope of this essay the 24conditional relations will not be dealt withexhaustively, but only some salient features of a

few relations will be discussed to give an overviewof the attempt to model the mind and causally linkthem to material events.

A conditional relation is a link between twostates, a conditioning state (paccaya dhamma) and aconditioned state (paccayuppanna dhamma). Achitta, its constellation of cetasiks or a flux ofmaterial events could qualify as a state. A statecould be determined by several conditioning stateswhich is to say several conditional relations could bein simultaneous operation as determinants of astate. The complete enumerations of the 24 relationsare: (1) root; (2) object; (3) dominance; (4) con-tiguity; (5) immediate contiguity; (6) conascence;(7) reciprocity; (8) prenascence; (9) postnascence;(10) repetition; (11) dependence; (12) strong depen-dence; (13) kamma; (14) vipaka; (15) nutriment;(16) faculty; (17) jhana; (18) path; (19) association;(20) dissociation; (21) presence; (22) absence; (23) dis-appearance; (24) non-disappearance. The samerelation can be used in different contexts to relatea wide range of conditioning and conditionedstates. In the following discussion the 24 relationswill be factored to relate: (1) chitta to chitta;(2) chitta to cetasiks; and (3) chitta, cetasiks torupa. ‘Chitta to chitta’ refers to the fact that in thiscase chittas are both conditioning and conditionedstates. For categories 2, 3 the reverse relation isalso implied, that is, cetasiks conditioning chittaand rupa conditioning both chitta, cetasiks.

Chitta to chitta

In bhavanga there is no short- or long-rangecorrelation between chittas as it is a random flowof resultants. A pathway on the other hand has awell-defined temporal sequence. Within the con-text of a pathway the preceding chitta exercisescontrol or conditions the subsequent chitta whichis temporally contiguous to it (contiguity, immedi-

ate contiguity). Since the flow is linear there can beonly one chitta at a time. The chitta which has justcollapsed strongly conditions the character of itsimmediate successor (absence, disappearance).Thus the principles of contiguity and absence

(refers to the chitta which has just collapsed andtherefore absent) determines the ordered sequence

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(adverting, eye consciousness, receiving, investigat-ing, etc.) of a pathway.

Repetition refers to the propensity of a kusala orakusala chitta to repeat itself seven times insuccession during javana. It is not mandatory fora chitta to go through the full seven cycles. If theimpact of the sense object to the sense base is notsufficiently strong both the javana and conse-quently the pathway can terminate with a numberof repetitions less than seven.

Chitta to cetasiks

A chitta is invariably accompanied by its constella-tion of cetasiks (association), with which it rises andfalls in absolute synchrony (conascence). Noelement constituting the chitta–cetasik complex canstand in isolation and each element mutuallysupports and conditions each other (reciprocity,dependence). The analogy given is that of a bunchof sticks propping each other up in order to stayerect. Although there is reciprocal dependence, yetone sankhara can play a key role in terms ofconditioning the rest (root). Thus akusala andkusala chittas are said to be rooted in delusion,greed, aversion or wisdom, detachment and good-will respectively. In addition there could also arise asituation where a sankhara exercises a dominantcausal influence over its associated conascentpartners (dominance). Dominance, probably lies atthe basis of meditative (Jhana) and vipassana (Path)practice whereby a selected set of sankharas aretrained to exert a preponderant causal influence.

Kusala and akusala chittas will infallibly giverise to resultants (vipaka). The Abhidhamma holdsvolition to be the connecting link between a chittaand its resultant (kamma). One meaning of theword kamma denotes volition. Kamma is a multi-significant term yet the most profound meaningattached to it is the arising of vipaka chittas as aconsequence of the volitions of previously instan-tiated kusala or akusala chittas.

Chitta, cetasik to rupa

Before describing the modes by which matter(rupa) and mind (chitta and cetasiks) condition

each other, it would be proper to briefly review theAbhidhamma analysis of matter. Intense applica-tion of vipassana reduces the stream of conscious-ness into discrete chittas. Likewise the body of themeditator is resolved into rapid, transient andephemeral events called kalapas. Thus by virtue ofthe first-person technique the body is seen as anaggregate of kalapas. The temporal duration forwhich a kalapa exists is postulated to be longerthan that of a chitta, though within comparableorders of magnitude. With prolonged vipassanapractice four types of kalapas arise in theimmediate awareness of the meditator: (1) thoseresponsible for inertia, heaviness and extension;(2) temperature fluctuations of heat and cold;(3) oscillation; and (4) cohesion. In any materialevent within the framework of the body all fourtypes of kalapas will be simultaneously present,even though one may dominate, with the expres-sion of the other three held in abeyance. Thecondition of conascent reciprocity used to relate thechitta to its cetasiks, also applies to the mutualconditioning of the four kalapas amongst them-selves. All other higher forms of material organi-zation termed ‘derived matter’ are thus due tokalapic aggregations. Of all the forms of derivedmatter two deserve special mention: (1) the fivesense bases (pasada rupas), most probably refer-ring to the sensitive surface of the physical organwhich finally receives the impact of the sense objectand a vital life energy referred to as rupajivitindriya possibly the physical equivalent of thecetasik psychic life energy which is a concomitantmental factor.

According to the Abhidhamma mind and mattercausally condition each other in three principalmodes. Every chitta will invariably be focused onsome object (object). The sense base which receivesthe impact of the sense object exists prior to(prenascence) and conditions the subsequent path-way selected by the stream of chittas (dependence,presence, non-disappearance). Trivially, the physicalobject must also exist prior to its contact with thesense base (object prenascence). The principle ofdominance also finds use in this context to describethe dominant causal influence exerted by a physicalobject on mental events. The difference between therelations of contiguity and dependence is that in the

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former, the causal control is exercised only over thesucceeding chitta whereas in the latter the con-ditioning extends over the whole pathway. Thusthe contact of an object with the correspondingsense base leads to the arrest of bhavanga,reorientation of the stream and instantiation of achitta (eye consciousness, ear consciousness, bodyconsciousness y.. etc. as the case may be) whichhas the same sense base as its place of origin. Otherchittas of the pathway will then follow initiallyconditioned by this primary physical event.

In the previous case, material events conditionthe flow of mind, whereas in the followinginstances mind causally conditions matter. It is anobservation that the pulse of a chitta (conascence,dependence) or a surge in its volition (kamma) canlead to an emanation of kalapas. The relationshipbetween the chitta and the kalapa is conascent butnot reciprocal as the existence of the chitta is notdependent on the emanating kalapas. When voli-tion is responsible for the projected kalapas,physical life energy or rupa jivitindriya will alsobe contained in the kalapic aggregates. Volition isthus related to two categories of vital energies onepsychic and the other physical, though the con-ditioning relations with respect to both aredifferent. The conditional relations of root, jhanaand path not only relate the chitta to its con-comitant mental factors but also to the flux ofkalapas which the flow of chittas or the fluctuationof its volitions generate. There can even be asituation where the chitta–cetana (volition) stabi-lizes a material aggregate in prior existence( postnascence).

Conclusion

The Abhidhamma attempts to integrate thephenomenal and causal aspects of consciousnessin addition to linking them to the flux of associatedmaterial events. The phenomenal aspect of con-sciousness is contained in the concept of chittawhereas its causal role (in terms of cognitivefunctions) is played out by its configuration ofcetasiks, primarily volitional energy. The fact thatthe phenomenal and causal aspects of conscious-ness cannot be separated remains one of its central

insights. The model takes an unabashed interac-tionist stand denying the causal closure of matteras a uniform and general principle. This stand istaken on the basis of a series of observations basedon a specialized first-person technique. Thus itadmits two modes of material changes, one with-out the intervention of mind and second, chitta orvolition-related material mutations. The fact that asurge in volitional energy can lead to an emanationof kalapas stands perhaps as its second mostimportant insight. The whole issue probably boilsdown to the question as to what a kalapa really is,or in other words, in rigorous scientific terms whatis it that is experienced as a kalapa. Until thisquestion is fully sorted out the scientific applica-tions of the model will remain hampered. It is alsoimportant to note that the meaning of the terms‘volition’ or ‘perception’ differs substantially fromits current usage in the western psychology. Forexample in western terms ‘volition’ presupposes aconscious mental state, subsequent to precon-scious involuntary processes. In contrast, everymental state is a conscious state in the Abhidhammasystem, with its associated volitional energy. Thusfor any trans-cultural studies on consciousnesswith its differences in approach, terminology andmethods, a committed effort will possibly haveto be made to bridge the cultural gaps. Eventhough the Abhidhamma model probably does notresolve the question concerning the genesis ofqualia, the logical structure of the 24 conditionalrelations could provide directions for furtherstudies.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank Dr. Dhananjay Chavan,Prof. Max Velmans, Prof. Thomas Metzinger forconstructive suggestions to improve the qualityand contents of the manuscript.

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