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SOC 101 Principle of Sociology

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COURSE MANUAL

Principle of Sociology SOC 101

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development

Version 1.0 ev1


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Copyright Copyright 2014 by Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre University of Ibadan,

Nigeria

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Tel: +234 (80775935727) E-mail: [email protected]

Website: www.dlc.ui.edu.ng


Vice-Chancellor’s MessageThe Distance Learning Centre is building on a solid tradition of over two decades of service in the

provision of External Studies Programme and now Distance Learning Education in Nigeria and

beyond. The Distance Learning mode to which we are committed is p

deserving Nigerians in having access to higher education especially those who by the nature of

their engagement do not have the luxury of full time education. Recently, it is contributing in no

small measure to providing places for

could not get admission into the conventional universities.

These course materials have been written by writers specially trained in ODL course delivery. The

writers have made great efforts to provide

different disciplines and ensure that the materials are user

In addition to provision of course materials in print and e

input has also gone into the de

from the DLC website and are available in audio format which you can also download into your

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Some of the study session materials have been scripted and are being broadcast on the

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review course materials for our courses.

However, for you to take advantage of these formats, you will need to improve on your I.T. skills

and develop requisite distance learning Culture. It is well known that, for efficient and effective

provision of Distance learning education, availability of appropriate and relevant course materials

is a sine qua non. So also, is the availability of multiple plat form

students. It is in fulfillment of this, that series of course materials are being written to enable our

students study at their own pace and convenience.

It is our hope that you will put these course materials to the best use.

Prof. Isaac Adewole

Vice-Chancellor

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Chancellor’s Message The Distance Learning Centre is building on a solid tradition of over two decades of service in the


beyond. The Distance Learning mode to which we are committed is providing access to many



small measure to providing places for teeming Nigerian youths who for one reason or the other

could not get admission into the conventional universities.


writers have made great efforts to provide up to date information, knowledge and skills in the

different disciplines and ensure that the materials are user-friendly.

In addition to provision of course materials in print and e-format, a lot of Information Technology

input has also gone into the deployment of course materials. Most of them can be downloaded



the study session materials have been scripted and are being broadcast on the

university’s Diamond Radio FM 101.1, while others have been delivered and captured in audio

visual format in a classroom environment for use by our students. Detailed information


review course materials for our courses.


equisite distance learning Culture. It is well known that, for efficient and effective


. So also, is the availability of multiple plat form for the convenience of our


students study at their own pace and convenience.

It is our hope that you will put these course materials to the best use.

4

The Distance Learning Centre is building on a solid tradition of over two decades of service in the


roviding access to many



teeming Nigerian youths who for one reason or the other


up to date information, knowledge and skills in the

format, a lot of Information Technology

ployment of course materials. Most of them can be downloaded



the study session materials have been scripted and are being broadcast on the

university’s Diamond Radio FM 101.1, while others have been delivered and captured in audio-

visual format in a classroom environment for use by our students. Detailed information on



equisite distance learning Culture. It is well known that, for efficient and effective


for the convenience of our



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Foreword As part of its vision of providing education for “Liberty and Development” for Nigerians and the

International Community, the University of Ibadan, Distance Learning Centre has recently

embarked on a vigorous repositioning agenda which aimed at embracing a holistic and all

encompassing approach to the delivery of its Open Distance Learning (ODL) programmes. Thus

we are committed to global best practices in distance learning provision. Apart from providing an

efficient administrative and academic support for our students, we are committed to providing

educational resource materials for the use of our students. We are convinced that, without an up-

to-date, learner-friendly and distance learning compliant course materials, there cannot be any

basis to lay claim to being a provider of distance learning education. Indeed, availability of

appropriate course materials in multiple formats is the hub of any distance learning provision

worldwide.

In view of the above, we are vigorously pursuing as a matter of priority, the provision of credible,

learner-friendly and interactive course materials for all our courses. We commissioned the

authoring of, and review of course materials to teams of experts and their outputs were subjected

to rigorous peer review to ensure standard. The approach not only emphasizes cognitive

knowledge, but also skills and humane values which are at the core of education, even in an ICT

age.

The development of the materials which is on-going also had input from experienced editors and

illustrators who have ensured that they are accurate, current and learner-friendly. They are

specially written with distance learners in mind. This is very important because, distance learning

involves non-residential students who can often feel isolated from the community of learners.

It is important to note that, for a distance learner to excel there is the need to source and read

relevant materials apart from this course material. Therefore, adequate supplementary reading

materials as well as other information sources are suggested in the course materials.

Apart from the responsibility for you to read this course material with others, you are also advised

to seek assistance from your course facilitators especially academic advisors during your study

even before the interactive session which is by design for revision. Your academic advisors will

assist you using convenient technology including Google Hang Out, You Tube, Talk Fusion, etc. but

you have to take advantage of these. It is also going to be of immense advantage if you complete

assignments as at when due so as to have necessary feedbacks as a guide.

The implication of the above is that, a distance learner has a responsibility to develop requisite

distance learning culture which includes diligent and disciplined self-study, seeking available

administrative and academic support and acquisition of basic information technology skills. This is

why you are encouraged to develop your computer skills by availing yourself the opportunity of

training that the Centre’s provide and put these into use.


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In conclusion, it is envisaged that the course materials would also be useful for the regular students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria who are faced with a dearth of high quality textbooks. We are therefore, delighted to present these titles to both our distance learning students and the university’s regular students. We are confident that the materials will be an invaluable resource to all.

We would like to thank all our authors, reviewers and production staff for the high quality of

work.

Best wishes.

Professor Bayo Okunade

Director


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Course Development Team Content Authoring Prof. A.O. Olutayo and Godwin Odok

Content Editor

Production Editor

Learning Design/Assessment Authoring

Managing Editor

General Editor

Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade

Dr. Gloria O. Adedoja

Oguntunde Abidemi

Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun

Prof. Bayo Okunade


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Table of Contents

Expected duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours ....................................................................................... 14

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 14

Learning Outcomes for Unit 1 ................................................................................................................. 14

1.4 Sociology and Critical Thinking ................................................................................................... 18

Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 20

In Unit 1, you have learned that: ............................................................................................................ 20

1. Sociology is defined as the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and

consequences of human behavior. ......................................................................................................... 20

2. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people

interact within these contexts. ............................................................................................................... 20

3. Sociologists employ key concepts in sociology such as social status, social role and institutions

explain complex ideas. ............................................................................................................................ 20

4. Institutions are created for the maintenance of order in society as well as for the achievement of

certain goals. ........................................................................................................................................... 20

5. There are benefits of studying sociology ........................................................................................ 20

6. Topics of interests to sociology include: culture, values, socialization, cooperation, conflict,

power, exchange, inequality, deviance, social control, violence, order and social change. .................. 20

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 1 ......................................................................................... 20

Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 1 ................................................................... 20


Summary of Unit 2 .................................................................................................................................. 27


1. The founding fathers of sociology include Auguste Comte (1798-1857); Herbert Spencer (1820-

1903); Emile Durkheim (1858-1917); Karl Marx (1818-1883); and Max Weber (1864-1920). ............... 27

2. They dedicated much of their research towards the individual within society. ............................ 27

3. Individuals had to learn to deal with the enormous changes occurring within society; the Great

Transformation. ...................................................................................................................................... 27

4. The four main aspects of modernity were industrialisation, urbanisation, rationalisation and

capitalism. ............................................................................................................................................... 27


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5. All these founding fathers (sociologists) believed that different aspects of each would present

problems for individuals and society as a whole, and alienation would prove to be the biggest

consequence of all. ................................................................................................................................. 28

6. Their works and ideas no doubt had greatly influenced our understanding of the meaning,

experiences and consequences of living in the modern world. ............................................................. 28



SAQ 2.2: The founding fathers of sociology include Auguste Comte (1798-1857); Herbert Spencer

(1820-1903); Emile Durkheim (1858-1917); Karl Marx (1818-1883); and Max Weber (1864-1920). .... 28


Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 29


Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 33




SAQ 3.1 : In simple terms, culture can be defined as a collective and integrated whole consisting of

learned ideas, behaviours, and products, all related to the needs of human groups. It is the learned

way or ways of human belief, and behaviour, and the products of these which are shared by members

of human groups. .................................................................................................................................... 34


Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 36


Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 37





Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 40


5.1 Three Major Perspectives in Sociology ............................................................................................. 41

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective ................................................................................................. 42

The Functionalist Perspective ................................................................................................................. 42


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The Conflict Perspective ......................................................................................................................... 44

Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 45




• The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective ......................................................................................... 45

• The functionalism perspective ........................................................................................................ 45

• The conflict perspective .................................................................................................................. 45

SAQ 5.2: The focus of micro level analysis is the use of symbols; face-to-face interactions and this is

falls under the Symbolic Interactionist Perspective, while the macro level analysis focus on

relationship between the parts of society; that is, how aspects of society are functional (adaptive)

and, the competition for scarce resources; how the elite control the poor and weak. ......................... 45

In contrast, Organic solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when the people in a society are

interdependent, but hold to varying values and beliefs and engage in varying types of work. Organic

solidarity most commonly occurs in industrialized, complex societies such as those in large cities. .... 46


Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 47


Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 49





Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 51


Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 55





Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 57



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Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 59





Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 61


Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 66



Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 10 ................................................................. 67


Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 69

Learning Outcomes for Unit 10 ............................................................................................................... 69

10.3 The Debunking Role of Sociology .............................................................................................. 70

Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 71

In Unit 10, you have learned that: .......................................................................................................... 71

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 10 ....................................................................................... 71

Explain the relevance of theory in research ........................................................................................... 71



Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 72


Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 74





Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 76


Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 78


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Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 80


Summary of Unit ..................................................................................................................................... 82





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General Introduction and Course Objectives

The discipline of sociology emerged through the works of various social thinkers. These

individuals were interested in solving the problems that confronted their societies. Early

sociologists realized that humans in society were not always orderly. The formation of groups

and associations do not always follow a patterned arrangement; thus, sociologists attempt to

understand the pattern or order of human associations or interaction. Sociology as a discipline is

not primarily concerned about the obvious, but it attempts to rigorously study how societies

operate. Hence, sociology makes it possible for us to understand society and human behaviour in

order to be able to control the forces in society. Such an ability to control societal forces no

doubt enhances the planning and formulation of policies for the good of society. Sociologists do

not have ready-made answers to societal problems, rather their ability to understand why and

how humans behave, when faced with similar or different scenarios, spring from continuous

research; it is believed that it is only when social reality is uncovered and understood, can human

beings be true masters of their destinies. This course is therefore designed to expose students to

the fundamental principles of sociological studies and research. Sociology as a discipline is not

interested in speculative thoughts, neither is it interested in abstract thinking, but concrete

situations. They study what ought to be, and not what ought to be; in addition to recommending

their logical viewpoints. Thus, sociologists collect data/information on human social problems

such as poverty, suicide, drug addiction, unemployment, divorce, among others. Sociology is not

only the study of the present, but also of the past. However, sociology is deeper than history as it

takes into account the social situation conditions of the events that informed the history and the

implications for the entire society. Sociologists study social facts. The course has been divided

into three modules (sociological perspectives, socialization and conducting sociological

research). We desire you take time to go through all the lectures in each of the module carefully.


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Unit 1: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Expected duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Introduction

Sociology in broad is terms defined as the “study of human society”. In order to understand

what sociology means, there are three main areas one needs to closely pay attention to. These

include social structures (example, the family, education, social stratification); social systems

(example, culture and identity, agents of social control); and social issues (example, the causes of

crime, the impact of unemployment). In this lecture, we would examine the meaning of

sociology and the key concepts in sociology; we would also look at why the study of sociology is

very important to society.

Learning Outcomes for Unit 1

When you have studied this study unit, you should be able to:

1.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 1.1, 1.3, 1.4)

1.2 Enumerate four (4) concepts that are important to sociology (SAQs 1.2, 1.3, 1.4)

1.3 Mention five (5) benefits of studying sociology (SAQs 1.1and 1.3)

1.4 Briefly explain what is meant by critical thinking in sociology (SAQs 1.1and 1.4).

1.1 Meaning of Sociology

Many sociologists have defined what sociology means in various ways. The American

Sociological Association (2006) for instance, describes “sociology as the study of social life,

social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior”. They contend that

sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people

interact within these contexts. Other sociologists have defined sociology as the scientific study of

society and human behaviour. The influence of society on human behaviour is therefore the

central question asked by sociologists when they attempt to explain why human beings behave

the way they do.


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Unarguably, people are social beings more than they are individuals. Our thinking and

motivation are largely shaped by our life experiences as we interact with one another. According

to Barkan (1997), society profoundly shapes human behaviour and attitudes. This means that

human beings exist within social structures, which refer to patterns of social interaction and

social relationships. Social structures, in turn, have great influence on who we are as individuals.

They influence our behavior, our attitudes, and our life chances. Social structure is complex and

often contradictory. Within the vast field of sociology, the common denominator and object of

interest is people. Sociology therefore explores the forces that influence people and help shape

their lives. It is widely believed that society shapes what we do, how we do it, and how we

understand what others do. This also means that options in life are usually determined in the past

and are moulded by currently existing structures that provide well-established guidelines for how

individuals conduct their lives. This assertion is well captured in this quote given by Macionis

and Plummer, that ‘In the game of life, we may decide how to play our cards, but it is society

that deals us the hand” (Univ. of Limerick 2007).

The discipline of sociology therefore enables us to understand the structure and dynamics of

society, as well as the complex connections and patterns of individual life changes and human

behaviour. Sociologists examines the ways in which forms of social structure – such as groups,

organizations, communities, social categories (like class, sex, age, race), and various social

institutions (such as kinship, economic, political, or religious) affect human bahaviour, actions,

and opportunities. In the same way, the discipline of sociology also explores how both

individuals and collectivities construct, maintain, and alter social organization in various ways.

Sociology probes into the sources and consequences of change in social arrangements and

institutions, including the satisfactions and difficulties of planning, accomplishing, and adapting

to such change. Areas of interest to the sociologist include: culture, values, socialization,

cooperation, conflict, power, exchange, inequality, deviance, social control, violence, order and

social change.


1.2 Concepts in Sociology

Source: Google images

Sociologists have terms which help them to explain complex ideas. These are referred to as

concepts. Let us look at some of the

1.2.1 Social Status

Social status refers to the social position of a person in a given society. Everyone in society has a

collection of social positions that he or she occu

implies that everyone occupies more than on

mother, friend, community leader, and so on. Social status can be

status is ascribed when it is assigned to an individual without consider

differences or individual abilities. Sex, age, and ethnic nationality are good examples of ascribed

statuses. Achieved social status is indeed a contrast to ascribed status. This status is acquired

through personal efforts, or sometime

through specialized training; this explains why the son of a poor man in the village can become a

professor; while the daughter of a rich man in the town will become a prostitute. The basic

reason for this kind of situation is because we are now living in an industrial and modernized age

where there is social mobility

status to status, this can be either upward or downward.

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Let us look at some of the sociological concepts:


collection of social positions that he or she occupies, this is also known as a

implies that everyone occupies more than one status. For example, a typical lecturer is a father or

mother, friend, community leader, and so on. Social status can be ascribed or achieved

status is ascribed when it is assigned to an individual without considering



through personal efforts, or sometimes by chance. In modern society, many statuses are acquired



for this kind of situation is because we are now living in an industrial and modernized age

social mobility in society. Social mobility simply means freedom to move from

status to status, this can be either upward or downward.

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, this is also known as a status-set. This

e status. For example, a typical lecturer is a father or

ascribed or achieved. Social

ing the person’s innate



s by chance. In modern society, many statuses are acquired



for this kind of situation is because we are now living in an industrial and modernized age

in society. Social mobility simply means freedom to move from


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1.2.2 Social Roles

Status and roles are closely associated, but they are not the same thing. The roles assigned to

certain statuses can also be reassigned to others. In simple terms, roles are the socially defined

expectations that link each of us to other people. We all depend on social structures for clues

about what to expect of the people we meet and how to cope with them. This means that all

social life is based on patterned interactions – it is patterned because each person knows how to

behave and how others will behave toward him or her in a given situation.

Each person does not only have more than one status, but a complex status-set, and these statuses

have arrays of associated roles, which are collectively known as role-set. In real life situations,

some roles are inherently difficult to perform than others. Sometimes a person is unsuited for an

achieved role. Sometimes a person is forced to perform a new role without any preparation.

Difficulty in performing a social role is called role strain. The most widespread form of role

strain comes from role conflict. Role conflict is commonly defined as the incompatibility or

competition between different roles. Role conflict is usually managed through the following

mechanisms: role bargaining, delegation and role elimination.

1.2.3 Institutions

These refer to associations, customs, or relationships consciously approved by a society, and

organized and maintained through prescribed rules and agencies. An institution is also seen as a

sort of ‘super-custom’, a set of mores, folkways, and patterns of behaviour that deals with major

social interests: law, and family for example. Thus, a social institution consists of all the

structural components of a society through which the main concerns and activities are organized,

and social needs (such as those for order, belief, and reproduction) are met. Institutions are

created for the maintenance of order in society as well as for the achievement of certain goals.

1.3 Topics of Study in Sociology

The following are the main subject areas in sociology; these are as varied as society itself.


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• Sociologists study very small social relationships involving only a few people (such as

the family). They also explore relationships in much larger social collectivities such as

organizations and institutions.

• Sociologists are also concerned with issues revolving around social class, poverty,

gender, race and ethnicity, or religion as well as social mobility and education. Other

topics include culture, socialization, conflict, power, and deviance.

• Very large social relationships such as those between nation states, for example, the

economy and political system, are also the domain of sociology. In fact, the whole topic

of globalization is relevant to sociology.

1.4 Sociology and Critical Thinking

Sociology requires one to look at the world critically. C. Wright Mills (1959) argues that

students of sociology must acquire a healthy skepticism regarding overtly simplified (or

commonly accepted) conceptions of human affairs. Critical thinking in this context implies a

willingness to ask any question, no matter how difficult; to be open to any answer that is

supported by reason and evidence; and to confront one’s own biases and prejudices openly when

they get in the way (Henslin, 2004). Sequel to the fact that sociology usually explores problems

of pressing interest; it can therefore be inferred that its topics are often objects of major

controversy and conflict in society itself (Giddens, 1987). Largely, rarely do sociologists

advocate for ‘revolt’, but they do call attention to the fundamental social questions of our day.

Sociology helps bring contentious issues into sharper focus. In doing so, however, feelings may

get hurt and individuals may become insulted. However, the importance of sociology is to

provide the understanding that alternative points of view exist.

Stepping on toes, after all, is nothing new for sociology. Sometimes sociologists step on toes of

high ranking officials to the point where national governments advocate a policy of limiting the

number of sociologists (Andersen & Howard, 2001). It is emphasized here that we must always

recognize that there are a variety of points of view on any given subject. In sociology, these

points of view are referred to as perspectives. Perspectives are limited. Social facts, therefore, are

understood in the context of many perspectives which are often complex and contradictory.


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Sociology therefore exists as a method that organizes one’s thoughts about society and then

defines the person’s place in society.

1.5 Benefits of Studying Sociology

There are indeed numerous benefits for studying sociology. The following are some of the

practical skills and insights you would gain after studying sociology:

- Ability to recognize trends and patterns in society.

- The development of critical thinking skills.

- Acquisition of good research skills in data collection

- Capacity to create concise reports and essays.

- The development of planning and organizational skills.

- Improved oral presentation skills and interpersonal communications.

- Enhanced management skills and grant writing ability.

Sociology is also useful in social and marketing research, sport development, psychology, law,

human resources management, information science, journalism, and corporate communications,

geography and environmental management, and development studies (Barker, 2005). Although

most employment specifically in sociology occurs in the context of academics; most often,

governmental, non-governmental organizations, colleges and universities hire sociologists where

they teach or engage in social research. Outside academia, there is also applied sociology where

sociologists use sociology to solve specific social problems. Applied sociology does not fall in

the realm of social reform, that is, it, does not advocate rebuilding society. Rather, applied

sociologists are interested in tackling specific social problems. Applied sociologists may focus

on problems in the work place or virtually any aspect of social life such as crime and

delinquency, social welfare, education reform, security, youth unemployment, and so on

Box 1.1: The learning point and things to remember in this study unit includes:

• Critical thinking implies a willingness to ask any question, no matter how difficult; to be open to

any answer that is supported by reason and evidence; and to confront one’s own biases and

prejudices openly when they get in the way.

• The discipline of sociology therefore enables us to understand the structure and dynamics of society, as well as the complex connections and patterns of individual life changes and human behaviour.


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Summary of Unit In Unit 1, you have learned that:

1. Sociology is defined as the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior.

2. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people interact within these contexts.

3. Sociologists employ key concepts in sociology such as social status, social role and institutions explain complex ideas.

4. Institutions are created for the maintenance of order in society as well as for the achievement of certain goals.

5. There are benefits of studying sociology 6. Topics of interests to sociology include: culture, values, socialization, cooperation,

conflict, power, exchange, inequality, deviance, social control, violence, order and social change.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 1 Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module. SAQ 1.1 (tests learning outcome 1.1) How can we correctly define sociology? SAQ 1.2 (tests learning outcome 1.2)

Explain four (4) concepts that are important to sociology?

SAQ 1.3 (tests learning outcome 1.3) Mention five (5) benefits of studying sociology?

SAQ 1.4 (tests learning outcome 1.4) What is critical thinking in sociology?

Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 1 SAQ 1.1: The American Sociological Association (2006), describes “sociology as the study of


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social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior.” Other

sociologists have defined sociology as the scientific study of society and human behaviour.

SAQ 1.2: Social status refers to the social position of a person in a given society. Social status can be ascribed or achieved. Social status is ascribed when it is assigned to an individual without considering the person’s innate differences or individual abilities. Sex, age, and ethnic nationality are good examples of ascribed statuses. While social status is achieved when it is acquired through personal efforts, or sometimes by chance

Social roles are the socially defined expectations that link each of us to other people. We all depend on social structures for clues about what to expect of the people we meet and how to cope with them.

Institutions refer to associations, customs, or relationships consciously approved by a society, and organized and maintained through prescribed rules and agencies. An institution is also seen as a sort of ‘super-custom’, a set of mores, folkways, and patterns of behaviour that deals with major social interests: law, and family for example.

SAQ 1.3: Benefits of studying sociology includes:

- Ability to recognize trends and patterns in society.

- The development of critical thinking skills.

- Acquisition of good research skills in data collection

- Capacity to create concise reports and essays.

- The development of planning and organizational skills.

- Improved oral presentation skills and interpersonal communications.

SAQ 1.4 Critical thinking implies a willingness to ask any question, no matter how difficult; to be open to any answer that is supported by reason and evidence; and to confront one’s own biases and prejudices openly when they get in the way.


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Introduction

It is not always an easy task to associate the establishment of a discipline with certain

individuals. Such endeavours would no doubt be besieged with many errors. This is because

certain circumstances may bring recognition to some people and not to others; even though the

latter must have started the agitation or struggle before those recognized. In this lecture, we shall

consider some of the founding fathers of sociology. Nonetheless, before the emergence of

sociology as an established discipline, there had been earliest thoughts by people like Ibn

Khaldun, an Arabic scholar, who advocated for the need of a new science that would help in

understanding human society. He employed the term, Al-Umram, translated to mean, sociology,

to describe the new science that would help to provide understanding of human society.

However, Ibn Khaldun is not recognized as the founding father of sociology.


When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:

2.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 2.1, 2.2 2.3)

2.2 Identify and mention the founding fathers of sociology (SAQs 2.1)

2.3 Mention the three (3) stages of society’s development by Auguste Comte (SAQs 2.1)

2.4 Explain the starting point of Max Weber’s analysis of human behaviour (SAQs 2.1).

2.1 Some Founding Fathers of Sociology

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)


Auguste Comte is widely recognized as the founding father of sociology

person believed to have coined the word

new science operates. The Europe

the first founder of sociology could be explained on the basis that the greatest

the history of mankind occurred in Europe

lived during the years of industrial revolution. The industrial revolution so

social structure or fabric of the European society such that the pre

destabilized and altered.

Comte first described the epistemological perspective of the new science (positivism) in a series

of text he published between 1830 and 1842 which he titled ‘

These texts were followed by

English in 1865). The first three volumes of the

sciences already in existence

biology. The latter two volumes of the

science, particularly sociology. Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the

modern sense of the term; this is primarily due to the

distinguish natural philosophy from science explicitly. For him, the natural or physical sciences

had arrived first before humanity

of perfecting the inadequacies of the later.

empirical goals of sociological method.

Auguste Comte

23

is widely recognized as the founding father of sociology

person believed to have coined the word sociology, and also gave the principles upon which the

new science operates. The Europe-centred nature of knowledge and the recognition of Comte as

the first founder of sociology could be explained on the basis that the greatest

story of mankind occurred in Europe (Ake, 1973). Comte was a European (French) and he

lived during the years of industrial revolution. The industrial revolution so

social structure or fabric of the European society such that the pre-exist


of text he published between 1830 and 1842 which he titled ‘The Course in Positive Philosophy’

re followed by his 1848 work, ‘A General View of Positivism’ (published in

English in 1865). The first three volumes of the Course dealt mainly with the natural or physica

sciences already in existence, which include mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemi

biology. The latter two volumes of the course emphasized the inevitable coming of the social


modern sense of the term; this is primarily due to the fact that Comte was also the first to


before humanity; however, the latter have a more challenging and complex

uacies of the later. His View of Positivism had defined, in more detail, the

empirical goals of sociological method.

23

is widely recognized as the founding father of sociology, as he was the first

and also gave the principles upon which the

centred nature of knowledge and the recognition of Comte as

the first founder of sociology could be explained on the basis that the greatest revolution so far in

. Comte was a European (French) and he

lived during the years of industrial revolution. The industrial revolution so much affected the

existing social order was


The Course in Positive Philosophy’.

1848 work, ‘A General View of Positivism’ (published in

dealt mainly with the natural or physical

, which include mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and

ed the inevitable coming of the social


fact that Comte was also the first to


challenging and complex task

had defined, in more detail, the


24

Comte believed that change is inevitable in society. He suggested that humans can study the

society in its static form when they consider the existing social structure. He also showed that

they can also carry out their study of society when the society is changing (that is, in its dynamic

form). Studying society’s change according to Comte would surely help to explain the

development of society, which to him is predictable. He posited that society moves gradually

from the lowest to the highest levels in the order of: Theological, Metaphysical and Positive

stages.

The Theological stage was seen from the perspective of 19th century France as preceding the

Enlightenment period in which man's place in society and society's restrictions upon man were

referenced to God. Man blindly believed in whatever he was taught by his ancestors. He believed

in a supernatural power. Fetishism played a significant role during this time. By the

‘Metaphysical’ stage, Comte was not referring to the Metaphysics of Aristotle or other ancient

Greek philosophers. Rather, the idea was rooted in the problems of French society subsequent to

the revolution of 1789. This Metaphysical stage involved the justification of universal rights as

being on a higher plane than the authority of any human ruler to contradict. These rights were not

referenced to the sacred beyond mere metaphor. This stage is known as the stage of

investigation, because people started reasoning and questioning although no solid evidence was

laid. The stage of investigation was the beginning of a world that questioned authority and

religion. In the Scientific or Positive stage, which came into being after the failure of the

revolution, people could find solutions to social problems and bring them into force despite the

proclamations of human rights or prophecy of the will of God. At this stage, science now started

to answer questions in full stretch. Comte’s stages are regarded as the processes of evolution of

consciousness (Barker, 2005).

In spite of Comte’s acceptance of inevitability of change, one can see that he still felicitated with

the existence of a stable and perfect society. He believed that human beings always desire order.

The possibility of order in society according to Comte is through social institutions which have

control over individuals in society. It is the society that according to Comte can bring about

change and not any individual. Comte’s positive science (sociology) was therefore to investigate

how society can bring about moral regeneration based on the reconstruction of the disordered


25

society. The government, to Comte, being the highest ruling body, is recommended as the

instrument of change and order. One of the weaknesses of Comte’s work is that he did not

venture to examine the negative impact of society on the individual (Wernick, 2001).

2.2 Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Herbert Spencer was an English philosopher, biologist, sociologist, and prominent classical

liberal political theorist of the victoria era. Spencer was an enthusiastic exponent of evolution.

He developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the

physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. Spencer

is best known for coining the concept ‘survival of the fittest’ which he did in Principles of

Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin’s work ‘On the Origin of Species’.

To Spencer, whatever hardship society is going through is natural and that ultimately,

development shall result. In other words, there is no need to interfere in societal processes. This

implies that government or state interventions should be kept at the barest minimum in governing

the people. People are to endure as they strive to adjust to their environment. Spencerian analysis

postulates a natural order which societies would pass through; however, this analysis did not

explain what will bring about societal change.

2.3 Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Durkheim referred to sociology as the ‘science of society’; he also defined sociology as the

‘science of institutions’. He believed in the gathering of data and observation with which to test

theories and make predictions about human behaviour. Durkheim was interested in

understanding how society is held together and how common values and beliefs and patterns of

behaviour came into existence. Just like Comte and Spencer, Durkheim also held the view that

society is more important than the individual. Therefore, in order to explain human behaviour,

the societal norms, values and beliefs should be observed because human beings have accepted

the values of the group or society. To study the society is to study the large institutions

functioning to maintain the whole structure.


26

Just like Spencer, Durkheim, put forward that,society is like a living body with all its organs

performing different functions but are linked together and dependent on each other to maintain

the well-being of the whole. Societal institutions therefore provide common rules, laws, customs,

obligations, attitudes, and values to exercise control over individuals and groups so as to ensure

the stability of society. Durkheim did not however explain the changes in society except for the

organic analogy and what brings about change. He was preoccupied with gathering ‘social facts’

about institutions and how these facts maintain order. He employed this technique in the study of

suicide. Where he gathered data and then analyzed this data on the basis of age, sex, religion, and

so no. He found out that women who are married and have children (that is in a family) and are

Catholics (religion) are less likely to commit suicide than an unmarried, childless, protestant

male. He used this as a yardstick for a general description of human behaviour, in addition to

showing how institutions help to maintain or control ‘orderly’ behaviour.

2.4 Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Karl Marx cannot only be regarded as a sociologist, because his works and writings have

influenced economists, philosophers, political scientists, historians, among others. Marx was

concerned with explaining the processes of change in society, as well as taking part in the

changes. He opposed and was against the existing ‘order’ and believed that it should be changed.

Marx employed historical perspective in explaining change and what can bring about further

changes. He was never in favour of a value-free sociology. For Marx, human behaviour and

social change can be explained by the inevitability of peoples’ struggle for survival. Human

beings have to eat, build houses, and do other things that make life possible, and consequently in

the process of satisfying their needs, human beings are bound to enter into relationship with

others. This relationship in which an individual enters, either as an owner of the means of

production or as a non-owner of the means of production, according to Marx determines the

nature of behaviour which should be studied. The latter is the case of the oppressed who is

Activity 1. How did Emile Durkheim describe society?


27

always in conflict with the oppressor. It is this conflict position which Marx believes explains

change and order in societies.

Where the owner of means of production is able to maintain order, Marx believed that such a

person would create institutions that will ensure such a person’s permanent subordination of the

oppressed. On other hand, if the oppressed realize their existential situation, they will act to bring

about a change in the status quo.

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Weber has been described as arguing against the ‘ghost’ of Karl Marx.Weber contended that, the

economic considerations emphasized by Marx is said to be an over-exaggeration of what brought

about change in the European society for instance. Weber argued that laying emphasis only on

economic considerations without taking into account the influence of ideas and the impact of

significant individuals is not enough if human behaviour and the ensuing social changes are to be

understood. Hence, he championed a value-free sociology and the need to understand (empathy)

before one can explain human behaviour.

The starting point of Weber’s analysis of human behaviour is the individual. Unlike Comte,

Spencer and Durkheim, and even Marx, Weber, opined that society is a total sum of individuals

interacting together. It is in this process of interaction, that he believed individuals exercised

influence on each other’s behaviour, accordingly, this position forms the foundation of Weber’s

social action theory.

Summary of Unit 2 In Unit 2, you have learned that:

1. The founding fathers of sociology include Auguste Comte (1798-1857); Herbert Spencer (1820-1903); Emile Durkheim (1858-1917); Karl Marx (1818-1883); and Max Weber (1864-1920).

2. They dedicated much of their research towards the individual within society. 3. Individuals had to learn to deal with the enormous changes occurring within society; the

Great Transformation. 4. The four main aspects of modernity were industrialisation, urbanisation, rationalisation

and capitalism.


28

5. All these founding fathers (sociologists) believed that different aspects of each would present problems for individuals and society as a whole, and alienation would prove to be the biggest consequence of all.

6. Their works and ideas no doubt had greatly influenced our understanding of the meaning, experiences and consequences of living in the modern world.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 2 Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module. SAQ 2.1 (tests learning outcome 2.1) How did Durkheim define sociology? SAQ 2.2 (tests learning outcome 2.2) Identify and mention the founding fathers of sociology? SAQ 2.3 (tests learning outcome 2.3)

Mention the three (3) stages of society’s development by Auguste Comte? SAQ 2.4 (tests learning outcome 2.4) Explain the starting point of Max Weber’s analysis of human behaviour?

Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 2 SAQ 2.1: Emile Durkheim describes a society as a living body with all its organs performing different functions but, are linked together and dependent on each other to maintain the well-being of the whole. Societal institutions therefore provide common rules, laws, customs, obligations, attitudes, and values to exercise control over individuals and groups so as to ensure the stability of society.

SAQ 2.2: The founding fathers of sociology include Auguste Comte (1798-1857); Herbert Spencer (1820-1903); Emile Durkheim (1858-1917); Karl Marx (1818-1883); and Max Weber (1864-1920).

SAQ 2.3: Auguste Comte posited that society’s development moves gradually from the lowest to

the highest levels in the order of: Theological, Metaphysical and Positive stages.

SAQ 2.4: The starting point of Weber’s analysis of human behaviour is the individual. Unlike Comte, Spencer and Durkheim, and even Marx, Weber, opined that society is a total sum of individuals interacting together. It is in this process of interaction, that he believed individuals exercised influence on each other’s behaviour, accordingly, this position forms the foundation of Weber’s social action theory.




Introduction

Culture and Society

Culture is simply defined as the total way of life of people in society. It consists of both material

and non-material aspects. Material aspect of culture includes those things that can be visibly seen

such as houses, hoes, clothes, and so on. Immaterial aspect of culture consists of those things that

one cannot physically see or touch in a given society. These include belief systems, norms,

values, and so on; these can be felt

concepts of culture and society as these are two basic concepts in sociology.

Learning Outcomes for Unit 3 When you have studied this study unit

3.1 Define and use correctly all

3.2 Identify two basic aspects of culture

3.3 Differentiate the basic processes of non

3.4 Explain the concept society?

29

THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

1 week or 2 contact hours


material aspects. Material aspect of culture includes those things that can be visibly seen

, clothes, and so on. Immaterial aspect of culture consists of those things that


values, and so on; these can be felt but cannot be seen. In this lecture, we shall discuss the


Learning Outcomes for Unit 3 have studied this study unit, you should be able to:

Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

Identify two basic aspects of culture (SAQs 3.2)

Differentiate the basic processes of non-material culture (SAQs 3.3)

society? (SAQs 3.4).

29


material aspects. Material aspect of culture includes those things that can be visibly seen

, clothes, and so on. Immaterial aspect of culture consists of those things that


In this lecture, we shall discuss the


. (SAQs 3.1, 3.2, 3.3)


30

3.1 What is Culture?

Culture is generally considered as the basis for the vast majority of human thought and

behaviour, and it also describes all that is produced from human thought and behaviour. This

means that humans create, learn, and use culture to respond to their environment, control it, and

even change it. Culture in this sense represents that unique ability of human beings to gain

significant control over aspects of the natural environment and even their physiological make-up,

within which the cultural capacity is grounded. Culture is used in this sense by people to create

the sociocultural environment, to which they must also adjust or adapt.

In spite of the fact that culture is conceptualized differently by anthropologists and sociologists

alike, there are common grounds of agreement of what constitute culture. Most anthropologists

and sociologists agree that culture is a uniquely human characteristic that must be learned. This

means that each new generation of humans has to learn it all over again, although the capacity

for culture is not grounded in their biology and physical natures, it is not something inherited

through one's genes. Individuals are not born with culture; they have to learn it. Being born in a

Yoruba society for instance, gives one rights of citizenship, but such a person must learn the

beliefs and behaviours that make and identify him or her as a Yoruba person. An individual can

be born in Boki but can become Yoruba by learning those beliefs and behaviours of Yoruba

culture. The fact that culture must be learned also means that it must be taught, making it a group

and shared phenomenon. Terms such as education, socialization, or enculturation, or even a

generic term such as culturation, are used to describe the process of culture reproduction and

transmission. It is widely agreed by sociologists that cultures are always changing, because

environments are always changing. No culture today is the same as it has always been.


31

In simple terms, culture can therefore be defined as a collective and integrated whole consisting

of learned ideas, behaviours, and products, all related to the needs of human groups. It is the

learned way or ways of human belief, and behaviour, and the products of these which are shared

by members of human groups.

3.2 Aspects of Culture

There are two basic aspects of culture. These include material and non-material culture.

Material culture is a term, developed in the late 19th and early 20th century, which refers to the

relationship between artifacts and social relations. Material culture also describes the study of

ancient objects in order to understand how a particular culture was organized and functioned

over time. This is because people's relationship to and perception of objects are socially and

culturally dependent. The UNESCO (1976) has expressed the importance of material culture as a

sort of cultural property, and this according to UNESCO is a basic element of people’s identity.

Archaeologists usually study the material culture of past societies; they also study past societies

through their material culture remains. To the sociologist, material culture includes all past and

present human-made and human-altered forms. Although these forms may not be the only

significant aspects of culture, they are uniquely telling, and can indicate the beliefs of people and

societies that use them. The study of material forms and objects is important because they are

pervasive and they embody and perpetuate ideas about cultures, regions, religions, nations, and

individual and collective identities. All of these physical aspects of a culture no doubt help to

define its members’ behaviour and perceptions.

Non-material Culture

Non-material culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture,

including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For

instance, the non-material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about

God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture responds to its

religious topics, issues, and events. Sociologists submit that non-material culture refers to several

processes that a culture uses to shape its members' thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Four of


32

these most important processes include: symbols, language, values, and norms. Let us briefly

examine these four processes:

Symbols

These are objects that have been generally accepted in a given society as representing something

else. For example, a national flag represents the sovereignty of a nation; while a traditional

ruler’s attire represents royalty and tradition. Symbols are essential and effective means of

communication in Nigerian traditional societies for instance.

Language

Language is believed to have existed for about 6,000 years. It is the primary means of

communication across societies and cultures. Like culture, in which language is a part, language

is transmitted through learning, as part of enculturation. Language is based on arbitrary, learned

associations between words and the things they stand for. Unlike the communication system of

other lower species, language allows us to discuss the past and future, share our experiences with

others, and benefit from the experiences of others.

Values

Values are regarded as broad ideas relating to what is desirable, correct, and good that most

members of a society share. Values provide members of a society with criteria and conceptions

by which to evaluate themselves, objects and events as to their relative worth, merit, beauty, or

morality. People tend to appeal to values as the ultimate rationales for the choices they make in

life.

Norms

The term norm is usually used to describe the common standards or ideas which guide members’

responses in all established groups. They are rules that specify appropriate and inappropriate

behaviour. Norms tell what one should, ought and must do as well as what one should not, ought


33

not and must not do. Norms refer to the expectations shared by the members of the society at

large or by members of particular groups within the society. Norms can be categorized into

folkways, mores and laws. Folkways are norms that are looked upon by members of a society or

a group within the society as not being extremely important, they may be violated without severe

punishment. Mores refer to norms that are regarded by the members of a society or groups

within the society as being extremely important and the violation of which results in severe

punishment. Laws represent formalized norms that may be derived from folkways or mores or

may be enacted by special law-making bodies in response to new or newly recognized needs.

3.3 Meaning of the concept ‘Society’

A society is simply regarded as a collection of social relationships that have shared

understanding (Tony, 2008). Social relationships are any relations in which people’s actions have

consequences for others. People are bound together by these relationships. Society is made

possible through the social interaction that occurs among people in a society. By social

interaction, we mean the processes by which social actors – people trying to meet each other’s

expectation – relate to each other, especially in face-to-face encounters. The Nigerian society for

instance consists of families, clubs, groups, corporations, associations, in which the people that

live in the geographical location known as Nigeria interact with one another. A society is distinct

and different from another society due to the different and distinct symbols that exist in each

society.

Summary of Unit

In Unit 3, you have learned that: 1. This lecture had examined the concepts: culture and society.

2. Culture and society were shown as closely linked. Culture comprises the ideas that are

developed in the social relationships and are fostered, taught, and learned through social

interaction.

3. Culture also helps to determine how social relationships take place because these

relationships are guided by shared norms, values, and beliefs. Because people share

culture, social relationships and society are made possible.


34

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 3

Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its

Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on the

Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.

SAQ 3.1 (tests learning outcome 3.1)

How can we correctly define culture?


Identify two basic aspects of culture?


Differentiate the basic processes of non-material culture?


Explain the concept of society

Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 3

SAQ 3.1 : In simple terms, culture can be defined as a collective and integrated whole consisting of learned ideas, behaviours, and products, all related to the needs of human groups. It is the learned way or ways of human belief, and behaviour, and the products of these which are shared by members of human groups.

SAQ 3.2 : Two basic aspects of culture include material and non-material culture. Material culture is a term, developed in the late 19th and early 20th century, which refers to the relationship between artifacts and social relations. Material culture also describes the study of ancient objects in order to understand how a particular culture was organized and functioned over time.

Non-material culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For instance, the non-material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.

SAQ 3.3 : Symbols are objects that have been generally accepted in a given society as

representing something else. For example, a national flag represents the sovereignty of a nation;


35

while a traditional ruler’s attire represents royalty and tradition. Symbols are essential and

effective means of communication in Nigerian traditional societies for instance.

Language is the primary means of communication across societies and cultures. Language is a

part of culture, and it is transmitted through learning, as part of enculturation. Language allows

us to discuss the past and future, share our experiences with others, and benefit from the

experiences of others.

Values are regarded as broad ideas relating to what is desirable, correct, and good that most

members of a society share. People tend to appeal to values as the ultimate rationales for the

choices they make in life.

Norms is usually used to describe the common standards or ideas which guide members’

responses in all established groups. They are rules that specify appropriate and inappropriate

behaviour. Norms tell what one should, and must do as well as what one should not, ought not

and must not do.

SAQ 3.4 : A society is simply regarded as a collection of social relationships that have shared

understanding (Tony, 2008). Social relationships are any relations in which people’s actions have

consequences for others. People are bound together by these relationships. Society is made

possible through the social interaction that occurs among people in a society. A society is distinct

and different from another society due to the different and distinct symbols that exist in each

society.


36


The Sociological Imagination


Introduction

The sociological imagination refers to the ability to understand the relationship between our lives

as individuals and the large social forces that help shape our lives. This advocates that human

behaviour must be understood in a broader social context. Most societies for instance, have a

long cultural-heritage which encourages self-reliance and independence. Despite the ‘heritage of

self-reliance’, in these societies, such societies are also bound by social structure and history.

According to Marx (1978), he argued that men make their own history, but they do not make it

just as they please; they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under

circumstances directly found, given and transmitted from the past. In this lecture, we shall

consider what the sociological imagination is, and then examine its importance in understanding

human behaviour and society in general.




4.2 Briefly discuss Applications of the Sociological Imagination (SAQs 4.2,)

4.3 Enumerate and discuss the three Components of the Sociological Imagination (SAQs 4.3)

4.1 What is the Sociological Imagination?

According to C. Wright Mills (1959), people do not usually define their personal problems in

terms of historical change and institutional contradictions. Also, people do not usually think of

the connection between the patterns of their own lives and the course of world history. Mills

holds that people live out biographies in the context of world events that are in turn determined

by historically specified conditions. This also means that the lives of individuals and the course


37

of world history are understood simultaneously. Mills defines sociological imagination as ‘the

vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and the wider society’ (Mills, 1959).

4.2 Applications of the Sociological Imagination

There are various situations and instances where the sociological imagination can be applied. Its

usefulness in enhancing the comprehension of social reality is widely recognized. For instance,

those who teach courses in social problems report using the sociological imagination as

expressed through films to teach about war, to aid students in adopting a global perspective and

to confront issues of race relations (Charon, 2000).

4.3 Components of the Sociological Imagination

In brief, the sociological imagination describes the mindset for doing sociology; this stressed

being able to connect individual experiences with societal relationships. The three components

that form the sociological imagination are:

1. History: This emphasize how a society came to be and how it is changing, coupled with

how history is being made in it.

2. Biography: This unearth ‘human nature’ in a society; showing what kinds of people

inhabit a particular society.

3. Social Structure: This show how the various institutional orders in a society operate,

which ones are dominant, how they are held together, and how they might be changing.

Mills asserts that a critical task for sociologists is to ‘translate private troubles into public issues’,

which is something that it is very difficult for ordinary citizens to do. Sociologists, then, rightly

connect their autobiographical, personal challenges to social institutions. Social scientists should

then connect those institutions to social structure(s) and locate them within a historical narrative.

Summary of Unit

In Unit 4, you have learned that: 1. The concept of the sociological imagination was examined in this lecture.

2. This was described as a mindset for doing sociology.


38

3. It involves the translation of private troubles into public issues.

4. The three components (history, biography and social structure) of the sociological

imagination.



Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes

on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.


How can we correctly define sociological imagination?


Briefly discuss Applications of the Sociological Imagination


List and explain the three Components of the Sociological Imagination


SAQ 4.1: Wright Mills (1959), defines sociological imagination as ‘the vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and the wider society’. He asserts that people do not usually define their personal problems in terms of historical change and institutional contradictions. Also, people do not usually think of the connection between the patterns of their own lives and the course of world history

SAQ 4.2: There are various situations and instances where the sociological imagination can be

applied. Its usefulness in enhancing the comprehension of social reality is widely recognized. For

instance, those who teach courses in social problems report using the sociological imagination as

expressed through films to teach about war, to aid students in adopting a global perspective and

to confront issues of race relations.

SAQ 4.3: The three components that form the sociological imagination are:


39

1. History: This emphasize how a society came to be and how it is changing, coupled with

how history is being made in it.

2. Biography: This unearth ‘human nature’ in a society; showing what kinds of people

inhabit a particular society.

3. Social Structure: This show how the various institutional orders in a society operate,

which ones are dominant, how they are held together, and how they might be changing.


40

Unit 5 : THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Approaches to the study of Sociology


Introduction A major character of sociology is the fact that there has been no mutually agreed way of studying

the society. Just as an individual can view the same thing differently from another, sociologists

believe that it is better to have different views towards an issue as this would surely provide

fuller insights to social reality. As new developments occur in society virtually all the time,

sociologists therefore have to continually re-examine their approaches and assumption about

what they study and how they study what they study. It is not correct to hold that sociological

approaches or perspectives are contradictory. These approaches are based on different theories of

society and the different methods of investigation. More specifically, as social problems continue

to change, this also necessitates new methods of inquiry. Some of the approaches to the study of

sociology include the social action theory; symbolic interactionism; phenomenology; consensus

and conflict theories, among others. In this lecture, we shall look at three of the major

approaches or perspectives in sociology: the symbolic-interactionist approach; the functionalist

approach; and the conflict approach.



5.1 Identify different sociological perspectives. (SAQs 5.1)

5.2 Differentiate between micro and macro level analysis (SAQs 5.2, 5.3)

5.3 Explain what Emile Durkheim referred to as mechanical and organic solidarity (SAQs 5.3)

5.4 Differentiate between micro and macro level analysis (SAQs 5.4)


41

5.1 Three Major Perspectives in Sociology

It must be noted that sociologists usually analyze social phenomena at different levels and from

different perspectives. This ranges from concrete interpretations to sweeping generalizations of

society and social behaviour; sociologists also study everything from specific events (at the

micro level of analysis which involves small social patterns) to the ‘big picture’ (the macro level

of analysis of large social patterns).

The founding fathers of sociology have provided a broad conceptualization of the fundamentals

of society and its workings. Their views form the basis for current theoretical approaches, or

paradigms, which provide sociologists with an orienting framework - a philosophical position -

for asking certain kinds of questions about society and human behaviour.

Sociologists usually employ three primary theoretical perspectives in their study of society and

human behaviour. These include: the symbolic interactionist perspective, the functionalist

perspective, and the conflict perspective. These perspectives offer sociologists theoretical

paradigms for explaining how society influences people, and how people also influence society.

Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces, and human behaviour. See table

1 below for a summary explanation of the three sociological perspectives.

Table 1: Sociological Perspectives

Sociological Perspective Level of Analysis Focus

1.Symbolic Interactionism

Micro Use of symbols; face-to-face interactions

2. Functionalism Macro Relationship between the parts of society; how aspects of society are functional (adaptive)

3. Conflict Theory Macro Competition for scarce resources; how the elite control the poor and weak


42

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

The symbolic interactionist perspective, also known as symbolic interactionism, usually directs

sociologists to consider the symbols and details of everyday life - what these symbols mean, and

how people interact with each other. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max

Weber's assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their

world, the American philosopher George H. Mead (1863–1931) introduced this perspective to

American sociology in the 1920s.

According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, people attach meanings to symbols, and

then they act according to their subjective interpretation of these symbols. Verbal conversations,

in which spoken words serve as the predominant symbols, make this subjective interpretation

especially evident. Words have a certain meaning for the ‘sender’, and, during effective

communication, they hopefully have the same meaning for the ‘receiver’. In other words, words

are not static ‘things’, they require intention and interpretation. Conversation is an interaction of

symbols between individuals who constantly interpret the world around them. To interactionists,

anything can serve as a symbol as long as it refers to something beyond itself. Thus, symbolic

interactionists give serious thought to how people act, and then seek to determine what meanings

individuals assign to their own actions and symbols, as well as to those of others.

However, symbolic interactionism had been criticized for neglecting the macro level of social

interpretation – that is the ‘big picture’ perspective. This means that, symbolic interactionists

may miss the larger issues of society by focusing too closely on the ‘trees’ rather than the

‘ forest’. This perspective has also being criticized for undermining the influence of social forces

and institutions on individual interactions.

The Functionalist Perspective

According to the functionalist perspective, also known as functionalism, each aspect of society is

interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a whole. The government, or state,

provides education for the children of the family, while the family in turn pays taxes on which

the state depends to keep itself running. That is, the family is dependent upon the school to help


43

children grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families. In the

process, the children become law-abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state. If all

goes well, the parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. If all does not go well,

the parts of society then must adapt to recapture a new order, stability, and productivity.

Functionalists believe that society is held together by social consensus, or cohesion, in which

members of the society agree upon, and work together to achieve. Emile Durkheim suggested

that social consensus usually occur in two forms:

• Mechanical solidarity: This is a form of social cohesion that arises when people in a

society maintain similar values and beliefs and engage in similar types of work.

Mechanical solidarity most commonly occurs in traditional, simple societies such as

those in which everyone farms or rear cattle.

• Organic solidarity: In contrast, this is a form of social cohesion that arises when the

people in a society are interdependent, but hold to varying values and beliefs and engage

in varying types of work. Organic solidarity most commonly occurs in industrialized,

complex societies such as those in large cities.

The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among sociologists, especially in

America, in the 1940s and 1950s. While European functionalists originally focused on

explaining the inner workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering

the functions of human behaviour. Among these American functionalist sociologists is Robert

Merton (1910), who divides human functions into two types: manifest functions - these are

intentional and obvious behaviour, while latent functions - are unintentional and not obvious

behaviour. For instance, the manifest function of attending a church or mosque is to worship as

part of a religious community, but its latent function may be to help members learn to discern

personal from institutional values. With common sense, manifest functions become easily

apparent. Yet this is not necessarily the case for latent functions, which often demand a

sociological approach to be revealed. A sociological approach in functionalism is the

consideration of the relationship between the functions of smaller parts and the functions of the

whole.


44

Functionalism has been criticized for neglecting the negative functions of most events, for

example, divorce. Critics also claim that the perspective justifies the status quo and complacency

on the part of society's members. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role

in changing their social environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead,

functionalism sees active social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will

compensate naturally for any problems that may arise.

The Conflict Perspective

The conflict perspective is believed to have originated from Karl Marx's writings on class

struggles. Marx’s writings have indeed presented society in a different light than do the

functionalist and symbolic interactionist perspectives. While these latter perspectives focus on

the positive aspects of society that contribute to its stability, the conflict perspective focuses on

the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend

the status quo, avoid social change, and believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict

theorists challenge the status quo, encourage social change (even when this means social

revolution), and believed that rich and powerful people force social order on the poor and the

weak.

Whereas most sociologists, especially in America ignored the conflict perspective in favour of

functionalism in the 1940s and 1950s; nonetheless, the tumultuous years of the 1960s saw

American sociologists gain considerable interest in conflict theory. They also expanded Marx's

idea that the key conflict in society was strictly economic. Nowadays, conflict theorists find

social conflict between any groups in which the potential for inequality exists; for instance:

racial, gender, religious, political, economic inequality, and so on. Conflict theorists note that

unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against

one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing

nature of society.

Critics of the conflict perspective point to its outright negative view of society. The theory

ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive


45

aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherently understand

interests that preserve society and maintain social order.

Summary of Unit

In Unit 5, you have learned that: 1. As social problems continue to change, this also necessitates new methods of inquiry.

2. The various approaches to the study of sociology had emerged to provide sociologists with an

orienting framework - a philosophical position - for asking certain kinds of questions about

society and human behaviour.

3. These approaches include symbolic interactionism; functionalism and the conflict perspective,

among others.



Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes

on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.

SAQ 5.1 (tests learning outcome 5.1) Identify different sociological perspectives.

SAQ 5.2 (tests learning outcome 5.2) Differentiate between micro and macro level analysis

SAQ 5.3 (tests learning outcome 5.3) Explain what Emile Durkheim referred to as mechanical and organic solidarity


SAQ 5.1: The different sociological perspectives are. • The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective • The functionalism perspective • The conflict perspective

SAQ 5.2: The focus of micro level analysis is the use of symbols; face-to-face interactions and this is falls under the Symbolic Interactionist Perspective, while the macro level analysis focus on relationship between the parts of society; that is, how aspects of society are functional (adaptive) and, the competition for scarce resources; how the elite control the poor and weak.


46

SAQ 5.3: Mechanical solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when people in a society

maintain similar values and beliefs and engage in similar types of work. Mechanical solidarity

most commonly occurs in traditional, simple societies such as those in which everyone farms or

rear cattle.

In contrast, Organic solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when the people in a society are interdependent, but hold to varying values and beliefs and engage in varying types of work. Organic solidarity most commonly occurs in industrialized, complex societies such as those in large cities.


47

Unit 6: ISSUES IN SOCIOLOGY

Socialization


Introduction Socialization is a process of social interaction by which people acquire the knowledge, attitudes, values,

and behaviours which are essential for effective participation in society. Socialization is in short, the

process of becoming a social being, it continues throughout one’s life. It is a lifelong process of

inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies, providing members of society with the

skills and habits necessary for participating within their society. Socialization is thus ‘the means by which

social and cultural continuity are attained’. The relevance of socialization lies on the fact that, in

comparison with other species, we enter the world as amazingly ‘unfinished’ creatures. This means that

we are not born as social beings, able to participate in society, but become so only in the course of

socialization. In this lecture we will examine the process of socialization. We will look at its foundations

and its relationship to the development of the individual in society.



6.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 6.1, 6.2) 6.2 Differentiate between the nurture and nature aspects of socialization (SAQs 6.2) 6.3 Identify agents of socialization (SAQs 6.3)

6.4 Describe the micro-level theories of socialization? (SAQs 6.4)

6.1 Socialization

Socialization is a process of social interaction by which people acquire the knowledge, attitudes, values,

and behaviours which are essential for effective participation in society. Socialization is in short, the

process of becoming a social being, it continues throughout one’s life. It is a lifelong process of

inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies, providing members of society with the

skills and habits necessary for participating within their society. Socialization is thus ‘the means by which

social and cultural continuity are attained’. The relevance of socialization lies on the fact that, in

comparison with other species, we enter the world as amazingly ‘unfinished’ creatures. This means that

we are not born as social beings, able to participate in society, but become so only in the course of

socialization.


6.2 Nature and Nurture

A primary interest to sociologists is the question on how nature and nurture interact to produce

human behaviour. Sociologists recognize that the environment plays a vital role in shaping

human behavior. Nature here refers to hereditary factors that shape

refers to the environmental or social factors that shape human behaviours.

6.3Agents of Socialization

The following are the basic agents of socialization: the family, peer groups, schools/education,

mass media, and religious bodi

6.4 Theories of Socialization

Theories of socialization usually place emphasis on social structure, learning and social

interaction. Socialization theories are broadly divided into macro

Macro-level theories of socialization

These include functionalism and conflict theory. These view socialization as a process that has

important consequences for society as a whole. For functionalists, society would not be possible

if people do not internalize the values, norms,

occupy the positions and play the roles that make up social structure. On the other hand, conflict

theorists recognized that socialization prepares people to play various roles in society, but they

view socialization critically, emphasizing the ways socialization controls people and ensures that

social inequalities are reproduced from one generation to the other.

Micro-level theories of socialization

48



human behavior. Nature here refers to hereditary factors that shape behaviour; while nurture

refers to the environmental or social factors that shape human behaviours.


mass media, and religious bodies.

Theories of Socialization


interaction. Socialization theories are broadly divided into macro-level and micro

socialization



if people do not internalize the values, norms, and beliefs that ensure that they can and will



ization critically, emphasizing the ways socialization controls people and ensures that

social inequalities are reproduced from one generation to the other.

level theories of socialization

48



behaviour; while nurture



level and micro-level theories.



and beliefs that ensure that they can and will



ization critically, emphasizing the ways socialization controls people and ensures that


49

These include social learning theory, cognitive development theory, and symbolic

interactionism. The social learning theory holds that socialization occurs through positive and

negative reinforcement by parents, friends, and society. People then imitate social behaviours

around them. The cognitive developmental theory holds that a child’s socialization depends on

the child’s ability to understand and interpret the world, and this progress through several stages.

To the Interactionists, actions through which people observe, interpret, evaluate, communicate

with, and attempt to control the world are important in socialization.

Summary of Unit In Unit 6, you have learned that:

1. Socialization was defined as a process of social interaction by which people acquire the

knowledge, attitudes, values, and behaviours which are essential for effective

participation in society.

2. Primary interest to sociologists is the question on how nature and nurture interact to

produce human behaviour.

3. The theories of socialization are broadly divided into macro-level and micro-level

theories.






How can we correctly define Sociology?


Differentiate between the nurture and nature aspects of socialization


Identify agents of socialization SAQ 6.4 (tests learning outcome 6.4)

Describe the micro-level theories of socialization?


50


SAQ 6.1: Socialization is a process of social interaction by which people acquire the knowledge, attitudes, values, and behaviours which are essential for effective participation in society. Socialization is in short, the process of becoming a social being, it continues throughout one’s life. It is a lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies, providing members of society with the skills and habits necessary for participating within their society. Socialization is thus ‘the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained’

SAQ 6.2: Nature refers to hereditary factors that shape behaviour; while nurture refers to the

environmental or social factors that shape human behaviours.

SAQ 6.3: The following are the basic agents of socialization: the family, peer groups,

schools/education, mass media, and religious bodies.

SAQ 6.4: Micro-level theories of socialization include social learning theory, cognitive

development theory, and symbolic interactionism. The social learning theory holds that

socialization occurs through positive and negative reinforcement by parents, friends, and society.

People then imitate social behaviours around them. The cognitive developmental theory holds

that a child’s socialization depends on the child’s ability to understand and interpret the world,

and this progress through several stages. The Interactionists assert that actions through which

people observe, interpret, evaluate, communicate with, and attempt to control the world are

important in socialization.


51


Social Stratification


Introduction The concept of social stratification is very important to sociology. Social stratification has in

many ways been blamed as the cause of most of the social problems that confront societies.

When one looks at events in our present world, one can observe that issues like homicide, infant

mortality, teenage pregnancies, AIDS/HIV and prison population all correlate with higher social

inequality. This lecture examines the concept of social stratification in an attempt to provide

further clarity on the manner of social inequality that exists in our society.



7.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 7.1, 7.2) 7.2 Identify the various types of social stratification (SAQs 7.2) 7.3 Describe the difference between horizontal and vertical mobility? (SAQs 7.3)

7.4 Distinguish symbols of social stratification in the Nigerian society (SAQs 7.4)

3. How best can we describe the layers of social stratification in Nigeria?

7.1 What is Social Stratification?

Social stratification is a concept of class which generally involves the classification of persons

into groups, based on shared socio-economic conditions. This depicts a relational set of

inequalities with economic, social, political and ideological dimensions. In contemporary social

thinking, stratification is broadly organized into three main layers: upper class, middle class, and

lower class. Each class may be further subdivided into smaller classes, based for instance, on

occupation. These categories are peculiar to state-based societies, unlike feudal societies which

were composed of nobility-to-peasant relations. In traditional Nigerian societies, stratification

was defined almost purely on the bases of kinship ties.


52

According to Max Weber, social stratification in society is broadly based on material wealth

from which the social class emerges; and this is different from the status class which is based on

variables as honour, prestige and religious affiliation. Talcott Parsons on his part argued that the

forces of societal differentiation and the following pattern of institutionalized individualization

would strongly diminish the role of class as a major stratification factor as we progress in

society. Historically, it is still a debatable issue whether the earliest hunter-gatherer societies

were indeed 'stratified' societies; or if stratification in society started when agriculture emerged

which brought about broad acts of exchange between groups.

The concept of social stratification is interpreted differently by the various theoretical

perspectives. Proponents of action theory argued that since social stratification is commonly

found in developed societies, hierarchy may be necessary in order to stabilize the social

structure. In the same vein, conflict theories, such as Marxism, point to the inaccessibility of

resources and lack of social mobility found in stratified societies. This means the wealthy tend to

hold political power which they use to exploit the proletariat inter-generationally.

Another theorist, Max Weber, who was strongly influenced by Marx's ideas, developed the

three-component theory of stratification and the concept of life chances as an attempt to counter

the possibility of effective communism as postulated by Marx. Weber argued that it would

require an even greater level of detrimental social control and bureaucratization for communism

to bring equality in society than capitalism. Weber argued that there are more class divisions than

Marx suggested. He emphasized the difference between class, status, and power, and treated

these as separate but related sources of power, each with different effects on social action. Weber

claimed that there are in fact four main classes in society. These include: the upper class, the

white collar workers, the petite bourgeoisie, and the manual working class.

Weber derived most of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the social structure

of Germany. He noted that contrary to Marx's theories, stratification was based on more than

simply ownership of capital. Weber examined how many members of the aristocracy lacked

economic wealth yet had strong political power. Many wealthy families lacked prestige and

power, for example, because they were Jewish. Weber introduced three independent factors that

form his theory of stratification hierarchy: class, status, and power:


53

• Class: This is a person's economic position in a society. Weber differed from Marx in

that he did not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. Weber noted how managers

of corporations or industries control firms they do not own. Marx would have placed such

a person in the proletariat status.

• Status: This is a person's prestige, social honour, or popularity in society. Weber noted

that political power was not rooted in solely capital value, but also in an individual status.

Poets or saints, for example, can possess immense influence on society with often little

economic worth.

• Power: This is a person's ability to have his or her way despite the resistance of others.

For example, a police officer, as a law enforcement agent may hold little property or

status but he or she holds immense power to cause an arrest.

7.2 Types of Social Stratification

In attempting to implement their programmes across different societies, adult educators have had

to deal with hundreds of specific inequality systems. To simplify our understanding of social

stratification, sociologists have employed the concept of ideal types to observe inequality in

society. Ideal types refer to logically extreme forms of social inequalities. There are two ideal-

type formulations of stratification systems; they are: open-class society and closed-caste

structure.

The open-class system

This type of stratification system allows for the possibility of individuals’ social mobility –

movement from one level or rank to a different level or rank within the social hierarchy – in this

case, from a lower level to a higher one.

The closed-caste system

Under this system, social positions in society are assigned to individuals on the basis of

ascription – that is, based on personal characteristics like sex, age - which one had no control


54

over. Caste structures usually capture individuals and froze them in a particular social space. In

short, one’s life is spent within the physical and social confines of a particular inherited position

which is most often carried as a burden or privilege throughout life and bequeathed to one’s

children.

Social Mobility

Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals and groups through the social space within

stratification systems. There is horizontal mobility – this is the movement of people within a

given level of the hierarchy. There is also vertical mobility – which is the movements of people

from one level of the social hierarchy to a different level. Such movements may either be

upward or downward.

7.3 Social Stratification in Nigeria

The Nigerian society can be broadly divided into two tiers. The upper tier is made up of wealthy

politicians, businessmen, and the educated elite. While the lower tier consist of very poor

Nigerians. The upper tier makes up only a tiny portion of the Nigerian population. Many

Nigerians today are in the lower tier and they suffer under great poverty. The lower tier tends to

have little chance of breaking from the vicious cycle of poverty. Factors like poor education, ill

health, corrupt politicians, and lack of even small amount of money and wealth to start a business

work to keep people in the lower tier position perpetually.

Among some Nigerian ethnic-groups there is also a form of a closed-caste system that treats

certain members of society as commoners. The criteria for determining who belongs to this

lowest caste vary from society to society but generally include being a member of a minority

group, an inhabitant of a particular village, or a member of a particular family or clan. In the

Igbo society for instance, this lower-caste group is called osu. Members of the community will

often discourage personal, romantic, and business contact with any member of the osu group,

regardless of an individual's personal merits or characteristics. Because the osu are designated as

untouchable, they often lack political representation, access to basic educational or business

opportunities, and general social interaction. This kind of caste system is also found among other


55

ethnic groups like the Yorubas and the Ibibios.

7.4 Symbols of Social Stratification in the Nigerian Society

Wealth is the main symbol of social stratification in modern Nigeria, especially in urban areas.

While in traditional Nigerian societies, many ethnic groups held hereditary titles and traditional

lineage as symbols of stratification. At present in Nigeria, money has become the new marker of

power and social status. Members of the wealthy elite are easily identifiable by their fancy

clothing and hairstyles, and by their expensive cars and western-style homes. Those in the elite

class also tend to have a much better command of the English language, a reflection of the higher

quality of education they have received.

Wealth as a symbol of stratification is also becoming important in marking social boundaries in

rural communities in Nigeria. Among most ethnic groups, those who have accumulated enough

wealth can buy themselves local titles. For example, among the Igbos, a man or a woman who

has enough money may claim the title of Ozo. For women, one of the requirements to become an

Ozo is to have enough ivory, coral, and other jewelry for the ceremony. The weight of the

jewelry can often exceed fifty pounds. Both men and women who want to claim the title must

also finance a feast for the entire community.

Summary of Unit

In Unit 7, you have learned that:

1. Social stratification has in many ways been blamed as the cause of most of the social

problems that confront societies across the world.

2. Wealth as a symbol of stratification was discussed as an emerging important symbol of

stratification in marking social boundaries in the Nigerian society






56

SAQ 7.1 (tests learning outcome 7.1) What is social stratification? SAQ 7.2 (tests learning outcome 7.2) Identify the various types of social stratification SAQ 7.3 (tests learning outcome 7.3) Describe the difference between horizontal and vertical mobility

SAQ 7.4 (tests learning outcome 7.4) Distinguish symbols of social stratification in the Nigerian society


SAQ 7.1: Social stratification is a concept of class which generally involves the classification of persons into groups, based on shared socio-economic conditions. This depicts a relational set of inequalities with economic, social, political and ideological dimensions.

SAQ 7.2: The various types of social stratification are: • The open-class system

• The closed-caste system

• Social Mobility

SAQ 7.3: Horizontal mobility is the movement of people within a given level of the hierarchy.

While vertical mobility is the movements of people from one level of the social hierarchy to a

different level. Such movements may either be upward or downward.

SAQ 7.4: Distinguish symbols of social stratification in the Nigerian society

Wealth is the main symbol of social stratification in modern Nigeria, especially in urban areas.

While in traditional Nigerian societies, many ethnic groups held hereditary titles and traditional

lineage as symbols of stratification. Members of the wealthy elite are easily identifiable by their

fancy clothing and hairstyles, and by their expensive cars and western-style homes. Those in the

elite class also tend to have a much better command of the English language, a reflection of the

higher quality of education they have received. Among most ethnic groups, those who have

accumulated enough wealth can buy themselves local titles. For example, among the Igbos, a

man or a woman who has enough money may claim the title of Ozo. For women, one of the

requirements to become an Ozo is to have enough ivory, coral, and other jewelry for the

ceremony.


57


The Self and Socialization


Introduction The self, that is our conception of who we are is not biologically given, this emerges in the

course of interaction with others. This conception of who we are is very important in the

socialization process. The self refers to the ideas we have about ourselves in respect to our

attitudes, capacities and general behaviour. We are always referring to ourselves in our everyday

speech using phrases like ‘I’m proud of myself’; ‘talking to myself’; ‘ashamed of myself’;

‘hating myself’; ‘loving myself’; and so on. These conceptions of who we are represent the heart

of our humanness; these define our uniqueness as individuals who are different from others. In

this lecture, we will consider the self and the socialization process.



8.1 Explain how the self develops (SAQs 8.1)

8.2 discuss the contributions of two sociologists to the concept of self (SAQs 8.2)

8.3 Briefly describe the concept of impression management (SAQs 8.3)

8.1 Development of Self

The development of self is believed to begin at birth, alongside the process of socialization.

Interestingly, humans always place themselves at the centre of events, this tendency is known in

sociology as the tendency of egocentric bias. This means that we often over-perceived ourselves

as the victim or target of an action or event that in reality is not directed at us. This egocentric

bias results in one human experiencing life through a self-centred filter. This clouded view of

reality no doubt shapes our perception of events and this affects the socialization process. To

ensure order and continuity of society, understanding the concept of self helps to devise human

actions in order to fit these actions with on-going actions of others – a process that is central to


58

socialization. This is because we can mentally be objects of our own actions. Let us now

examine some of the contributions of sociologists to the concept of self.

8.2 Contributions of sociologists to the concept of self.

a. The Looking Glass Self: Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)

Charles Cooley challenged the notion that human nature is biologically determined. He

maintained that people transform themselves and their world as they engage in social interaction.

He used the concept of the looking-glass self to explain how human nature is determined by

social interaction. This means that the looking-glass-self functions as a ‘magnifying glass’ during

self-perception, so that what people see in themselves while others are present has an extra-

powerful impact on their behaviour and self-image. The concept of the looking-glass self can be

summed up in this statement: "I am not what I think I am and I am not what you think I am; I am

what I think that you think I am”. This described self as "taking the role of the other", the

premise for which the self is actualized. This therefore establishes that through interaction with

others, we begin to develop an identity about who we are, as well as empathy for others.

b. The Generalized Other: George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

Mead expanded Cooley’s concept of the looking-glass self. He argued that we usually gain a

sense of selfhood by acting toward ourselves in much the same way that we act toward other. In

doing so, we then take the role of the other toward ourselves, that is we mentally assume a dual

perspective. We are both the subject doing the viewing and the object being viewed. In our

imagination, we take the position of another person and look back at ourselves from this

standpoint. According to Mead, the social unit that gives individuals their unity of self is called

the generalized others. This implies that the attitude of the generalized other is the attitude of the

larger community. To think about our behaviour, is to interact mentally with ourselves from the

perspective of an abstract community of people. According to Mead, the generalized other is the

vehicle by which we linked to society. By means of the generalized other, we incorporate, or

internalize, the organized attitudes of our community within our own personalities so that social

control becomes self-control.


59

c. Impression Management: Erving Goffman (1922-1982)

Cooley and Mead had examined how our self-conceptions arise in the course of social interaction

and how we develop our actions based on the feedback we derive about ourselves and our

behaviour from other people. Goffman directed our attention to another matter, that only by

influencing other people’s idea of us can we hope to predict or control who we become. Hence,

we have a duty to present ourselves to others in ways that will lead them to view us in a

favourable light – a process Goffman called impression management.

Summary of Unit


1. The self, that is our conception of who we are was said not to be biologically given;

instead, this emerges in the course of interaction with others.

2. the conception of who we are is very important in the socialization process.

3. the self refers to the ideas we have about ourselves in respect to our attitudes, capacities

and general behaviour.

4. the contributions of various sociologists to the concept of the self .






Explain how the self develops?


Discuss the contributions of two sociologists to the concept of self


How did Erving Goffman describe impression management?



60

SAQ 8.1: The development of self is believed to begin at birth, alongside the process of socialization. Interestingly, humans always place themselves at the centre of events, this tendency is known in sociology as the tendency of egocentric bias. This means that we often over-perceived ourselves as the victim or target of an action or event that in reality is not directed at us.

SAQ 8.2: Charles Cooley challenged the notion that human nature is biologically determined. He maintained that people transform themselves and their world as they engage in social interaction. He used the concept of the looking-glass self to explain how human nature is determined by social interaction. This means that the looking-glass-self functions as a ‘magnifying glass’ during self-perception, so that what people see in themselves while others are present has an extra-powerful impact on their behaviour and self-image.

Mead expanded Cooley’s concept of the looking-glass self. He argued that we usually gain a sense of selfhood by acting toward ourselves in much the same way that we act toward other. In doing so, we then take the role of the other toward ourselves, that is we mentally assume a dual perspective. We are both the subject doing the viewing and the object being viewed. In our imagination, we take the position of another person and look back at ourselves from this standpoint. According to Mead, the social unit that gives individuals their unity of self is called the generalized others.

SAQ 8.3: Goffman asserts, that only by influencing other people’s idea of us can we hope to

predict or control who we become. Hence, we have a duty to present ourselves to others in ways

that will lead them to view us in a favourable light. This process is what Goffman called

impression management.


61

Unit 9: ISSUES IN SOCIOLOGY- Social Change


Introduction Social change refers to any significant alteration over time in behavioural patterns and cultural

values and norms. By ‘significant’ alteration, sociologists mean changes yielding profound social

consequences. Some of the significant social changes that have had long-term effects in society

include the industrial revolution, the abolition of slavery, and the feminist movement.

Sociologists readily acknowledge the vital role that social movements play in inspiring

discontented members of a society to bring about social change. Efforts to understand the nature

of long-term social change, including looking for patterns and causes, has led sociologists to

propose theories of social change. All theories of social change admit the likelihood of resistance

to change, especially when people with vested interests feel unsettled and threatened by potential

changes. In this lecture, we shall consider the concept of social change, examining patterns,

theories and causes of social change.



9.1 Explain what social change implies (SAQs 9.1)

9.2 Describe patterns of social change (SAQs 9.2)

9.3 List and two theories of social change (SAQs 9.3)

9.4 Identify causes of social change in a given society (SAQs 9.4)

9.1 Social Change

Social change refers to any significant alteration over time in behavioural patterns and cultural

values and norms. By ‘significant’ alteration, sociologists mean changes yielding profound social

consequences. Some of the significant social changes that have had long-term effects in society

include the industrial revolution, the abolition of slavery, and the feminist movement.

Sociologists readily acknowledge the vital role that social movements play in inspiring


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discontented members of a society to bring about social change.

9.2 Patterns of Social Change

As stated earlier, social change involves any significant alteration over time in behavioural

patterns and cultural values and norms. This change is believed to take the following patterns,

these include:

Linear models: These also refer to evolutionary theories or models of social change. Change in

this sense is cumulative, non-repetitive, developmental, and usually permanent. Ferdinard

Tonnies’ theory of change, which explains social change as from gemeinschaft to gesellschaft,

view broad historical pattern of change in human societies as involving transition from small,

undifferentiated societies with homogeneous culture to large societies with high degree of

structural differentiation and heterogeneous culture.

Cyclical models: These models reiterate change as being cyclical and repetitive. Expressions as

‘history repeats itself’ re-emphasized cyclical change.

Dialectical models: These contain elements of both cyclical and linear change. Change here is

spiral in nature; significant change takes place as an attempt to resolve the accumulation of

intolerable contradictions, the unraveling of stresses that are inherent in social life; short term

repetitive change but with long term cumulative directional change; processes of change persist

but the contents of the processes are changing.

It is important to note that the differences between the three models lie in the units of analysis

and levels of abstraction. However, there is still the lack of a unified, integrated theory which

provides a complete understanding of social life where the relationship between equilibrium

processes, cyclical processes and cumulative processes are explained.

9.3 Social Change Theories

Functionalists Theories of Social change: These largely relate to Linear development models

of social change, and theory of order and stability or Equilibrium theory. The concept of stability

is indeed a defining characteristic of a structure, as this defines activities that are necessary for


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the survival of the system, that is, society has functional requisites or imperatives where different

functional requisites produce differentiated structures that specialize in accomplishing the

requisites.

Conflict Theories of Social Change: These relate to Dialectical models of social change. These

theorists believe that strains are inherent in social structures. And the main source of

strains/contradictions is the inherent scarcity of certain goods and values. Thus, inequality is a

source of conflict.

Interpretative Theories of Social Change: One of the main theorists of the interpretative

perspective of social change is Max Weber whose focus was not solely on overt behaviour and

events but also on how these are interpreted, defined and shaped by cultural meanings that

people give to them, that is, interpretive understanding of social action - verstehen. All types of

interpretive theories focus on how actors define their social situations and the effect of these

definitions on ensuing action and interaction. Interpretive theories of social change view human

society as an ongoing process rather than an entity or structure; thus, as humans interact they

negotiate order, structure and cultural meanings. This therefore means that reality is an ongoing

social symbolic construction put together by human interaction. To functionalists and conflict

theorists, the starting point of sociological analysis of change is structure. But to interpretivists,

change itself (interaction, process, negotiation) is the starting point, and structure is a by-product

and temporary. Social change is the constant creation, negotiation and re-creation of social

order. Social change can be understood by looking at change in meanings and definitions.

Groups, societies, organizations become real only insofar that the actors believe they are to be

real, thus a negotiated consensus about what is real emerges; that is, society is literally a social

construction, an outcome of historical process of symbolic interaction and negotiation. In

complex societies, there is only a partial consensus on what constitutes objective social reality;

instead there is a virtual tapestry of contending realities. When external factors change, this does

not automatically produce social change. Rather, when people redefine situations regarding

those factors and thus act upon revised meanings, that is, alter social behaviour, then, there is

social change.

Multiple Perspectives and Change: These class of theorists attempt to reconcile agency and

structure. They hold that structures have potential to operate; while agents (individuals) have


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potential to act. Thus, a combination of agents working within, creating and being limited by

structures is referred to as human agency. Praxis is the interface between operating structures

and purposely acting agents, that is, the combination of actions of people and operation of

structures in the actual outcomes of social interaction. The following are associated with the

multiple perspectives of social change:

Buckley’s morphogenesis – This talks about the unique capacity of social systems to elaborate or

change their form, structure or state, as well as emphasize the active, constructive side of social

functioning.

Archers’ double morphogenesis – This enunciates that both structure and agency are conjoint

products of interaction, agency is shaped by and reshapes structure where structure is reshaped in

the process.

Etzioni’s active society – This holds that society is a macroscopic and permanent social

movement engaged in intensive and perpetual self-transformation.

Gidden’s Structuration theory - This replaces static concept of structure with dynamic notion of

structuration.

9.4 Causes of Social Change

The causes of social change are explicated within the materialistic and idealistic perspectives.

Materialistic Perspectives: According to this perspective, materialistic factors, such as

economic production and technology, are usually the cause of social change in society. The

Marxist perspective for instance, holds that economic production and economic classes form the

basic anatomy of society, and everything else arises in relationship to them. Other materialistic

perspectives such the cultural lag theory posits that technology is one of the major causes of

social change. These set of theorists believe that material culture, such as technology, changes

more quickly than nonmaterial culture, which includes values, ideas, norms, ideologies. The

reason for this delay in change of nonmaterial culture is due to the fact that there is always a

period of maladjustment (a lag time) during which nonmaterial culture is required to adapt to

new material conditions.


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source: Google images

Technology which is manifestly a material culture is believed to cause social change in three

ways: increases alternatives available to society, thereby creating new opportunities; technology

alters interaction patterns among people, changes structures of human groups; and lastly,

technology creates new problems.

Idealistic Perspectives: Idealistic factors that are believed to also cause social change in society

include values, beliefs and ideologies. Weber views, values and beliefs, both religious and

secular, as having decisive impact on shaping social change. To buttress Weber’s stance, Marx’s

work has shown that Protestanism for instance, especially Calvinism, produced a cultural ethic

which sanctified work and worldly achievement, encouraged frugality and discouraged

consumption. Unintended consequences of this religious worldview, this worldly asceticism,

encouraged development of large pools of capital through encouraging work, savings and non-

frivolous consumption, including encouraging rational reinvestment and economic growth.

Work was seen as a religiously sanctioned calling; and each person was viewed as a moral free

agent, accountable only to God. Manifestly, adherents of these ethics were suspicious of

material consumption beyond bare necessities believing that this kind of consumption will lead

to moral corruption. Some of the cultural ideas, values, and ideologies that have broadly shaped

directions of social change in modern world include: freedom and self-determination; material

growth and security; nationalism; capitalism and Marxism.


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Ideas and values can cause change or be barriers to change at one time or promote change at

another time. Ideational culture can cause change by: legitimizing a desired direction of change,

example, promoting further equality and democracy; providing a basis for social solidarity

necessary to promote change, that is, integrative mechanisms, neutralizing the conflicting strains

found in society, example, mobilizing help during disaster; and highlighting contradictions and

problems, for instance, the cultural value of equality of opportunity have highlighted racism and

sexism in many societies.

Summary of Unit


1. Social change was defined as any significant alteration over time in behavioural patterns and

cultural values and norms.

2.‘Significant’ alteration, in this context implies changes that yield profound social

consequences.

3. Patterns of social change include linear, cyclical and dialectical models.

4. The lecture ended by discussing both the theories and causes of social change.


Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.


Explain what social change implies


Describe patterns of social change


List and explain two theories of social change


Identify causes of social change in a given society


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SAQ 9.1: Social change refers to any significant alteration over time in behavioural patterns and cultural values and norms. By ‘significant’ alteration, sociologists mean changes yielding profound social consequences. Some of the significant social changes that have had long-term effects in society include the industrial revolution, the abolition of slavery, and the feminist movement.

SAQ 9.2: Pattern of social change includes Linear models, Cyclical models and Dialectical

models

Linear models: These also refer to evolutionary theories or models of social change. Change in

this sense is cumulative, non-repetitive, developmental, and usually permanent. Ferdinard

Tonnies’ theory of change, which explains social change as from gemeinschaft to gesellschaft,

view broad historical pattern of change in human societies as involving transition from small,

undifferentiated societies with homogeneous culture to large societies with high degree of

structural differentiation and heterogeneous culture.

Cyclical models: These models reiterate change as being cyclical and repetitive. Expressions as

‘history repeats itself’ re-emphasized cyclical change.

Dialectical models: These contain elements of both cyclical and linear change. Change here is spiral in nature; significant change takes place as an attempt to resolve the accumulation of intolerable contradictions, the unraveling of stresses that are inherent in social life; short term repetitive change but with long term cumulative directional change.

SAQ 9.3: Functionalists Theories of Social change and Conflict Theories of Social Change

Functionalists Theories of Social change: These largely relate to Linear development models

of social change, and theory of order and stability or Equilibrium theory. The concept of stability

is indeed a defining characteristic of a structure, as this defines activities that are necessary for

the survival of the system.

Conflict Theories of Social Change: These relate to Dialectical models of social change. These

theorists believe that strains are inherent in social structures. And the main source of


68

strains/contradictions is the inherent scarcity of certain goods and values. Thus, inequality is a

source of conflict

SAQ 9.4: Causes of social change in a given society are explicated within the materialistic and idealistic perspectives.

• According to this materialistic perspective, factors, such as economic production and

technology, are usually the cause of social change in society. The Marxist perspective for

instance, holds that economic production and economic classes form the basic anatomy

of society, and everything else arises in relationship to them.

• Idealistic factors that are believed to also cause social change in society include values,

beliefs and ideologies. Weber views, values and beliefs, both religious and secular, as

having decisive impact on shaping social change.


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Unit 10: CONDUCTING SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH : The Logic of Science


Introduction Sociology provides us with theories about the nature and workings of social life. Many of the

basic problems of society are products of social relations and human behaviour. Sociological

research therefore provides governments and public officials with basic knowledge to formulate

solutions to social problems. In this lecture, we shall consider one of the essential elements of

sociological research, the logic of science.


When you have studied this study session, you should be able to:

10.1 Explain the relevance of theory in research (SAQs 10.1)

10.2 Explain the logic of science (SAQs 10.2)

10.3 demonstrate understand the debunking role of the sociologist (SAQs 10.3).

source: Google images

10.1 Theory

A theory is a general framework or perspective that provides an explanation for a specific social

phenomenon. However, theories that have not been confirmed by facts have little value or

validity. Hence, in order to adequately understand the nature and workings of social life, we need


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both theory and facts. Theory here inspires research and research seeks to confirm or disprove

theory. Research also provides information for the formulation of public policy.

10.2 The Logic of Science

In our everyday lives, we believe that events regularly follow one another. Night follow day;

weeping is caused by pain or sorrow of heart; and so on. Science also has similar assumption –

that every event or action comes from an antecedent cause. Hence, the primary objective of

science is to determine what causes what. Sociologists therefore assume that events in society

such as crimes, do not just happen, but that something cause them. Sociologists also assume that

under identical conditions, the same cause will always produce the same effect. Scientist

including sociologists then assumes that cause-and-effect relationships prevail in the universe

and that truth is not a matter of belief but of reality that can be empirically tested.

10.3 The Debunking Role of Sociology

According to Berger, it is the job of sociology to debunk commonly accepted notions about

society. Debunking is a process of questioning actions and ideas that are usually taken for

granted. It refers to looking behind the surface of everyday life. It refers to looking at the

behind-the-scenes patterns and processes that shape the behaviour observed in the social world

(Andersen & Taylor, 2001).

Barkan (1997) contends that sociology, given the emphasis on the structural basis for individual

behaviour, often challenges conventional wisdom. He cites Max Weber by arguing that one of

sociology's most important goals is to uncover what Weber called ‘inconvenient facts’. This

means that sociologists must refuse to accept official interpretations of society; because most

often, official interpretations of society are filled with propaganda. According to Berger, it is the

job of sociology to debunk this motif. With this in mind, students of sociology should acquire a

healthy skepticism regarding overly simplified or commonly accepted conceptions of human

affairs. Because it is always tempting to look for simple answers or what Ross Perot (1992) calls

‘sound bites’ to explain complex social phenomena.


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Summary of Unit


1. the underlying assumption of science holds that – that every event or action comes from

an antecedent cause.

2. the primary objective of any scientific endeavour is to determine what causes what.

3. Sociology was shown as also operating under this logic, assuming that under identical

conditions, the same cause will always produce the same effect.

4. the debunking role of sociology implies a process of questioning actions and ideas that

are usually taken for granted. It refers to looking behind the surface of everyday life. It

refers to looking at the behind-the-scenes patterns and processes that shape the behaviour

observed in the social world.




Explain the relevance of theory in research


Explain the logic of science


What is the debunking role of the Sociologist


SAQ 10.1: A theory is a general framework or perspective that provides an explanation for a

specific social phenomenon. Theory here inspires research and research seeks to confirm or

disprove theory. Research also provides information for the formulation of public policy.


72

SAQ 10.2: Scientists believe that every event or action comes from an antecedent cause. Hence,

the primary objective of science is to determine what causes what. Scientist including

sociologists then assumes that cause-and-effect relationships prevail in the universe and that truth

is not a matter of belief but of reality that can be empirically tested.

SAQ 10.3: the debunking role of sociology implies a process of questioning actions and ideas

that are usually taken for granted. It refers to looking behind the surface of everyday life. It

refers to looking at the behind-the-scenes patterns and processes that shape the behaviour

observed in the social world.

Unit 11: CONDUCTING SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

How Sociologists Collect Data


Introduction Data collection is necessary because this helps sociologists to gather the facts needed to support

or dispute theories and to answer questions about social life. Sociologists usually use four major

techniques for data collection. In this lecture, we shall consider the four basic techniques

employed by sociologists for data collection.

Learning Outcomes for Unit 11 When you have studied this study session, you should be able to:


11.2 Identify the primary data collection techniques in sociology (SAQs 11.2, 11.3,)

11.3 Enumerate what forms the basis for data collection in sociology (SAQs 11.3)

11.1 Basis for Data Collection

Data collection in sociology usually begins when the sociologist first of all conceptualizes the

aspect of society he or she is studying. This means that ideas are devised as 'concepts' to describe


73

and explain the workings of society. In this way, the forms of social organization and the

resulting social institutions which people create and reproduce in the course of everyday life

become defined in sociological terms. The second activity is the collection of ‘empirical

evidence’ to test these concepts in order to know whether these sociological concepts actually

correspond to the way that social life is conducted by real life people.

These twin aspects, the conceptual and the empirical, and the fact that they must be constantly

related, make data collection in sociology not only a respected academic endeavour but also a

valuable contribution to other human activities.

11.2 Techniques through which Sociologists Collect Data:

The following are the techniques through which sociologists collect data:

Experiments This is one of the four basic techniques for data collection in sociology. In an experiment,

researchers work with two groups that are made to be identical in all relevant respects through a

process of random assignment. Then a change agent is introduced into one group – the

experimental group – but not in the other group – the control group. The two groups are identical

except for the variable that the researcher introduces in the experimental group. This technique

of data collection allows sociologists to test the effects of an independent variable on a

dependent variable.

Surveys Issues like values, beliefs, attitudes, perceptions, motivations, and feelings are not directly

accessible to observation. Surveys are usually employed to collect data as regard these issues.

Survey data is often collected through questionnaire and interviews, known also as self-reports.

Observation

Observation simply means ‘to watch’. This is a basic research tool in sociology. Observation

becomes a scientific technique when the following conditions are present:

i) It serves a clear research objective ii) It is undertaken in a systematic rather than haphazard manner iii) It is related to a broader body of sociological knowledge and theory, and


74

iv) It is subjected to the same checks and controls applied to all types of scientific evidence.

Comparative and Historical Technique This technique of data collection in sociology involves archival research, where there is the use

of existing records that have been produced or maintained by persons or organizations other than

the researcher.

Summary of Unit


1. Data collection in sociology usually begins when the sociologist first of all

conceptualized the aspect of society he or she is studying.

2. Ideas are devised as 'concepts' to describe and explain the workings of society.

3. The forms of social organization and the resulting social institutions which people create

and reproduce in the course of everyday life become defined in sociological terms.

4. The second activity is the collection of ‘empirical evidence’ to test these concepts in

order to know whether these sociological concepts actually correspond to the way that

social life is conducted by real life people.

5. There are various Techniques for data collection in sociology.


Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module. SAQ 11.1 (tests learning outcome 11.1) What is data collection in sociology? SAQ 11.2 (tests learning outcome 11.2) Identify the primary data collection techniques in sociology


75

SAQ 11.3 (tests learning outcome 11.3) Enumerate what forms the basis for data collection in sociology


SAQ 11.1: Data collection in sociology usually begins when the sociologist first of all conceptualizes the aspect of society he or she is studying. This means that ideas are devised as 'concepts' to describe and explain the workings of society. In this way, the forms of social organization and the resulting social institutions which people create and reproduce in the course of everyday life become defined in sociological terms.

SAQ 11.2: The following are the techniques through which sociologists collect data:

Experiments Surveys Observation Comparative and Historical Technique

SAQ 11.3: The forms of social organization and the resulting social institutions which people

create and reproduce in the course of everyday life become defined in sociological terms.

The second activity is the collection of ‘empirical evidence’ to test these concepts in order to

know whether these sociological concepts actually correspond to the way that social life is

conducted by real life people.


76

Unit 12: Conducting Sociological Research: Steps in the Scientific Method


Introduction The scientific method is a method of investigating a problem in ways that allow the researcher to gather evidence in a systematic manner. In this lecture, we shall discuss the various steps of the scientific method that help the researcher to gather information that is relevant and unbiased.

Learning Outcomes for Unit 12 When you have studied this study unit, you should be able to:

12.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 12.1)

12.2 Enumerate the various steps of the scientific method? (SAQs 12.2)

12.3 Explain what is required in the literature review stage of research?(SAQs 12.3)

12.1 The Scientific Method

A scientific method or process is considered fundamental to the scientific investigation and

acquisition of new knowledge based upon verifiable evidence. In addition to employing the

scientific method in their research, sociologists explore the social world with several different

purposes in mind. Like the physical sciences (example chemistry, physics, and so on),

sociologists can be and often are interested in predicting outcomes given knowledge of the

variables and relationships involved. This approach to doing science is often termed positivism

or more accurately, empiricism. The positivist approach to social science seeks to explain and

predict social phenomena, often employing a quantitative approach. But unlike the natural or

physical sciences, sociology often seeks simply to understand social phenomena. Max Weber

had called this approach Verstehen, a German phrase which means understanding. In this

approach the goal is to understand a culture or phenomenon on its own terms rather than trying

to develop a theory that allow for prediction. Both approaches employ a scientific method as they

make observations and gather data, propose hypotheses, and test their hypotheses through the

lens of theories.


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12.2 Steps in the Scientific Method

Sociologists use observations, hypotheses and deductions to propose explanations for social

phenomena in the form of theories. Predictions from these theories are tested. If a prediction

turns out to be correct, the theory survives. If not, the theory is modified or discarded. The

method is commonly taken as the underlying logic of scientific practice. Science therefore is

essentially an extremely cautious means of building a supportable, evidenced understanding of

the world. The scientific method depends on the rigorous and disciplined collection of facts and

on the logical explanation of these facts. The following are the step-by-step procedure of the

scientific method:

Selecting a Researchable Problem

Sociological research must be focused on research problems that are worth studying and that can

be investigated by the methods of science.

Reviewing the Literature

This involves checking out to see what other researchers have done and studied in the past.

Finding out the gap in knowledge and then attempting to contribute to the filling of this

knowledge gap.

Formulation of Hypotheses

This is showing the relationships between variables. A hypothesis can take the form of a

predictive statement or a research question.

Selection of a research Design

This involves the selection of the appropriate methods of data collection and analysis. This must

be based on the research hypotheses. The research design may include data collection techniques

like experiment, conduct of interviews, observations, use of historical evidence, or a combination

of two or more of these data collection technique.

Data Collection


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This is the actual collection of data from the field.

Data Analysis

Analysis of collected data refers to the search for meaningful links among the facts that had been

collected in the course of the research.

Stating Conclusions

This is either accepting or rejecting the research hypotheses. This is using the research findings

or results to link with other knowledge and theory.

Summary of Unit


1. The scientific method as a method of investigating a problem in ways that allow the

researcher to gather evidence in a systematic manner.

2. There are various steps of the scientific method




How can we correctly define the scientific method?


Enumerate correctly the various steps of the scientific method?


Explain what is required in the literature review stage of research?(SAQs 12.3)


79


SAQ 12.1: A scientific method or process is considered fundamental to the scientific investigation and

acquisition of new knowledge based upon verifiable evidence. This approach to doing science

is often termed positivism or more accurately, empiricism.

SAQ 12.2: The following are the step-by-step procedure of the scientific method:

• Selecting a Researchable Problem

• Reviewing the Literature

• Formulation of Hypotheses

• Selection of a research Design

• Data Collection

• Data Analysis

• Stating Conclusions

SAQ 12.3: The Literature Reviewing involves checking out to see what other researchers have

done and studied in the past. Finding out the gap in knowledge and then attempting to contribute

to the filling of this knowledge gap.


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Unit 13: CONDUCTING SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Research Ethics


Introduction The scientific research enterprise is indeed built on foundations of trust. This is because scientists always believe that the results reported by others are valid. In the same vein, society also trusts that the results of research reflect an honest attempt by scientists to describe the world accurately and without bias. However, this trust will endure only if the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying and transmitting the values associated with ethical scientific conduct. For sociology, its adherence to ethical values is of utmost necessity as sociological research deal with humans; in this lecture, we will consider the fundamental principles that must be observed while carrying out research in sociology.


When you have studied this study session, you should be able to:

13.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 13.1, 13.2)

13.2 Enumerate the fundamental principles that must guide sociological research?(SAQs 13.2,)

13.3 State and explain the benefits of research ethics? (SAQs 1.1and 13.3)

13.1 Meaning of Research Ethics

Ethics are general regarded as moral principles that guide a person’s behaviour or conduct.

Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics

involving scientific research. Ethics generally involves rules that distinguish between right and

wrong. These include rules such as the Golden Rule (‘Do unto others as you would have them do

unto you’), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath (‘First of all, do no harm’),

a religious creed like the Ten Commandments (‘Thou Shalt not kill...’), or a wise aphorisms like

the sayings of Confucius. Research ethics therefore are norms for conduct that distinguish

between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour in any research endeavour. When conducting

research on human subjects, there are certain behaviours and conduct that are not allowed. In

summary, some of the ethical issues in human subject research include: minimizing harms and


81

risks and maximizing benefits; respecting human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; taking special

precautions with vulnerable populations; and striving to distribute the benefits and burdens of

research fairly.

Also, the following are the principles that must be observed while carrying out sociological

research:

i) Sociologists must not falsify information

ii) The consent of participants must be given before a sociological research is carried out.

iii) Sociologists must not deceive or force participants to take part in the research

iv) In a research project, no sociologist should discriminate based on age, ethnicity,

religion or in hiring personnel for the research.

13.2 Importance of Ethical Norms in Research

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. These

include:

(i) Ethical norms promote the aims and objectives of research. For instance, prohibitions against

fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error.

(ii) Since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many

different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values

that are essential to collaborative work. These values include trust, accountability, mutual

respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for

authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules

in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging

collaboration.

(iii) Ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public.

(iv) Ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People are more

likely to fund research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research.


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(v) Ethical norms of research also promote a variety of other important moral and social values,

such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and

health and safety. It must be noted that ethical lapses in research can significantly harm

human and animal subjects, students, and the public.

Summary of Unit


1 This lecture considered the relevance of research ethics. 2 Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving scientific research. 3 The concept of ethic was defined as generally involving rules that distinguish between right and wrong. 4It is important to adhere to ethical norms and benefits of research ethics.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Unit 13 Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module. SAQ 13.1 (tests learning outcome 13.1) How can we correctly define research ethics? SAQ 13.2 (tests learning outcome 13.2)

Enumerate the fundamental principles that must guide sociological research?

SAQ 13.3 (tests learning outcome 13.3) State and explain the benefits of research ethics?


SAQ 13.1:. Ethics are general regarded as moral principles that guide a person’s behaviour or conduct. Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving scientific research. Research ethics therefore are norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour in any research endeavour.


83

SAQ 13.2: The fundamental principles that must guide sociological research includes the following:

i) Sociologists must not falsify information

ii) The consent of participants must be given before a sociological research is carried out.

iii) Sociologists must not deceive or force participants to take part in the research

iv) In a research project, no sociologist should discriminate based on age, ethnicity, religion or in hiring personnel for the research.

SAQ 13.3: The benefits of research ethics are:

• Ethical norms of research also promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and safety.

• Ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public.

• Ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People are more likely to fund research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research

• Ethical norms promote the aims and objectives of research. For instance, prohibitions

against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and

avoid error.

principle of sociology - university of ibadannewportal.dlc.ui.edu.ng/images/coursematerial/soc...

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